Patent Grant
12331320
The present invention relates to the field of cancer vaccines and immunotherapy, and more particularly to cellular vaccines.
Each reference cited herein is expressly incorporated herein by reference for all purposes.
Harnessing the body's immune system and “teaching” it to fight against cancerous outgrowth has been one of the most rewarding endeavors in cancer therapy (Vinay et al. 2015; Kruger et al. 2007). Cancer cells possess a plethora of immune evasion mechanisms in reaction to specific immune responses. They efficiently modulate expression of cell surface and secretory proteins in response to chemical stress, cytokines, or initial attacks by the immune system (Vinay et al. 2015; Zhang et al. 2016). Tumors evolve based on immune responses, and the specific interactions between them orchestrates the outcome of tumor escape or rejection (Dunn et al. 2004).
One of the most studied immune checkpoint mechanisms in cancer is the CD47-SIRP-α interaction (Zhang et al. 2016; Chao et al. 2012; Sick et al., 2012). CD47, a ubiquitous cell-surface antigen, is reported to act as a marker of self and by corollary, a “don't eat me” signal. It binds to the signal recognition protein alpha (SIRP-α), presents primarily on macrophages that form the first line of defense in the innate immune system, and renders the cell unrecognizable (Chao et al. 2012). This interaction curbs macrophage-mediated phagocytosis and hampers the downstream antigen presentation and tumor cell lysis mechanisms. Tumor cells have been shown to overexpress CD47 on their cell surface as a defense mechanism to blindside the host's immune defense systems (Yinuo et al. 2017; Zhao et al. 2016).
CD47 has been primarily targeted for developing immune checkpoint blockade therapies. For instance, the blocking of CD47-SIRP-α interaction using anti-CD47 antibodies, anti-SIRP-α antibodies Alvey et al. 2017; Weiskopf et al. 2013), or nanobodies (Zhang et al. 2016; Gul et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2015), has shown delayed tumor progression by engaging the myeloid arm of the immune system. These studies have been precedents for combination therapy with CD47 using monoclonal antibodies, engineered SIRP-α variants, and other fusion proteins (Weiskopf et al. 2013; Gul et al. 2014; Sockolosky et al. 2016; Tseng et al. 2013; Weiskopf et al. 2016). A multitude of monoclonal antibodies against CD47 have been developed as anti-tumor agents (Weiskopf et al. 2013; Gul et al. 2014; Sockolosky et al. 2016; Weiskopf et al. 2016). Depletion of CD47 expression on cancer cells using either siRNA (Yinuo et al. 2017; Zhao et al. 2016) or genetic editing (Sockolosky et al. 2016) has also been explored. The genetic ablation of CD47 from cancer cells has proven effective in slowing down tumor growth and enhancing phagocytosis by macrophages (Alvey et al. 2017; Weiskopf et al 2016). Other immune checkpoint molecules have also been studied. (Marcucci et al. 2017; en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Immune_checkpoint, expressly incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, including cited references).
Vaccination is a powerful tool for generating a tumor-specific response to by exposing tumors to the immune system (Ngo et al. 2016). Vaccine formulations can range from mRNA mutanomes (He et al. 2011, tumor-associated neoantigen peptide cocktails (Dranoff et al. 1993), yeast-based tumor-associated antigen production (Stanton et al. 2015), or tumor cell lysates containing immune system stimulants (Sahin et al. 2017; Ott et al. 2017). Whole-cell vaccines have been as widely researched as the monoclonal antibodies but have not been explored in such depth for specific immune target proteins (Sofia et al. 2011; Maeng et al. 2018); Kumai et al. 2017). Providing the immune system with non-replicating tumor cells circumvents the need to perform tumor-associated antigen profiling, protein purification, viral packaging, and a multitude of other preparation regimes (Maeng et al. 2018; de Gruijl et al. 2008). With respect to whole-cell vaccines, one of the most important things to consider is a method that will allow for efficient uptake of whole cells by the first responders—the infiltrating neutrophils and monocytes.
Vaccination with an appropriate immune-system stimulation regime, would be an alternative or additional method, in addition to surgery, chemotherapy, radio therapy, thermotherapy, etc., to treat cancer, because it takes advantage of the immune system to seek and destroy cancer cells. Whole tumor cells are an ideal source of tumor-associated antigens (TAAs) for vaccination development, because the whole cancer cells have a diverse panel of TAAs (either known or unknown) which elicits CD8+ and CD4+ T-cell responses (Chiang et al. 2010; de Gruijl et al. 2008). Vaccination with irradiated tumor cells has been studied in various animal models as early as the 1970s, and whole-tumor cell vaccines have shown great potentials in inducing immune responses and in improving patient survival (de Gruijl et al. 2008).
Immune cells are supposed to recognize TAAs and destroy cancer cells, because they constantly search and destroy foreign invaders. Cells that lack CD47 are frequently cleared out efficiently by the macrophages in the body. However, cancer cells frequently escape immune attack because they express CD47 on their surface (LaCasse et al. 2008). CD47 is present on the surface of both normal cells and all tested cancer cells; particularly, it is overexpressed on the cancer cells. Increased CD47 expression on cancer cells imply worse prognosis. In cancer cells, CD47 functions by initially binding to its receptor, SIRP-α (also known as CD172a and SHPS-1), which is expressed on the surface of macrophages. The binding of CD47 to SIRP-α inhibits phagocytosis of cancer cells by the macrophages. Therefore, CD47 acts as a “don't-eat-me” signal to enable cancer cells to escape immune-surveillance (See
Previous research has shown that both anti-CD47 antibody and anti-CD47 siRNA enable phagocytosis by macrophages and subsequently inhibit tumor growth (Wilson et al. 2009; Wang et al. 2008; Penazola et al. 2006). Although both methods show efficacy, both methods have their weaknesses. Because of ubiquitous expression of CD47, particularly on hematopoietic cells, anti-CD47 antibody and anti-CD47 siRNA could raise safety concerns. Although anti-CD47 antibodies show relative selectivity on cancer cells because of calreticulin (a pro-phagocytic signal that is highly expressed on the surface of several human cancers, but is minimally expressed on most normal cells) (Elmore et al. 2007), anti-CD47 antibodies can still cause adverse side effects and their large size can hinder their tumor penetration. According Krysko et al. 2008, CD47-deficient erythrocytes infused into wild-type mice were found to be cleared within 24 hours. In contrast, normal red blood cells survive for 60-80 days in mice.
Radiation induces DNA damage, which can lead to cellular reproductive incompetence, senescence, and especially at higher doses, cell death. While death by an apoptosis pathway may occur in portions of a highly irradiated cell population, it is not the exclusive mode of cell death, and portions of the cell population may undergo death mediated by a necrosis pathway. Sublethal irradiation at sufficient dose can result in permanent cell cycle arrest in the G2 phase and by stress-induced premature senescence. (Marcucci et al. 2017; Zanke et al. 1996; Merritt et al. 1997; Zampetti-Bosseler et al. 1981; Herzog et al. 1998; Suzuki et al. 2001; Wyllie et al. 1987; Thyss et al. 2005; Danial et al. 2004; Waldman et al. 1997; Schanne, et al. 1979; Reed et6 al. 1994; Galluzzi et al. 1997; Strozyk et al. 2013; Voisine et al. 1991; Wlaschek et al. 2003; Jones et al. 2005; Muthna et al. 2010).
Apoptosis (Type I programmed cell death) is a form of programmed cell death that occurs in multicellular organisms. Biochemical events lead to characteristic cell changes (morphology) and death. These changes include blebbing, cell shrinkage, nuclear fragmentation, chromatin condensation, chromosomal DNA fragmentation, and global mRNA decay. (en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Apoptosis; Elmore 2007) Apoptotic cell death is a genetically programmed mechanism(s) that allows the cell to commit suicide. The extrinsic and intrinsic pathways represent the two major well-studied apoptotic processes. The extrinsic pathway is mediated by a sub-group of Tumor Necrosis Factor receptors (TNFR) superfamily that includes TNFR, Fas and TRAIL. Activation of these so-called death receptors leads to the recruitment and activation of initiator caspases such as caspases 8 and 10. The process involves the formation and activation of complexes such as the death inducing signaling complex (DISC). This leads to the activation of an effector caspase, typically caspase 3. The active caspase 3 is responsible for the cleavage of a number of so-called death substrates that lead to the well-known characteristic hallmarks of an apoptotic cell including DNA fragmentation, nuclear fragmentation, membrane blebbing and other morphological and biochemical changes. More recent evidence suggests even greater complexity and diversity in the extrinsic pathways that also involves the cross-activation of other apoptotic pathways such as the intrinsic apoptotic as well as necrotic sub-pathways. (Pertt et al. 2011; Duprez et al. 2009)
Other pathways to cell death include necrotic cell death, autophagic cell death, and pyroptosis.
Necrotic cell death. For a long time, necrosis has been considered an accidental and uncontrolled form of cell death lacking underlying signaling events. This might be true for cell death resulting from severe physical damage, such as hyperthermia or detergent-induced cytolysis. However, accumulating evidence supports the existence of caspase-independent cell death pathways that can function even in a strictly regulated developmental context, such as interdigital cell death (Chautan et al. 1999). Necrotic cell death is characterized by cytoplasmic and organelle swelling, followed by the loss of cell membrane integrity and release of the cellular contents into the surrounding extracellular space.
TNFR1 stimulation leads to the activation of RIP1, which induces a pro-survival pathway by activating transcription factors, e.g., NF-kB and AP-1. RIP1 interacts with RIP3, and both are crucial initiators of death receptor-induced necrotic signaling. A wide range of necrotic mediators are activated RIP1 kinase activity, such as ROS, calcium, calpains, cathepsins, phospholipases, NO and ceramide. The same mediators can be activated by DNA damage or by triggering of TLR-3, TLR-4 and Nalp-3.
In most cell lines, death receptor ligands activate apoptosis rather than necrosis as the default cell death pathway. However, if caspase activation in this pathway is hampered, necrotic cell death might ensue instead, acting as a kind of back-up cell death pathway. zVAD-fmk is frequently used as a potent inhibitor of caspases, but off-target effects can also contribute to caspase-independent cell death. For example, zVAD-fmk binds and blocks the adenine nucleotide translocator (ANT), inhibits other proteases such as cathepsins, and generates the highly toxic fluoroacetate, due to metabolic conversion of the fluoromethylketone group (Vandenabeele et al. 2006; Van Noorden 2001). FADD remains a crucial adaptor protein in Fas and TRAIL-R-induced necrosis, but the importance of FADD in TNF-induced necrosis is controversial (Lin et al. 2004; Holler et al. 2000). It was demonstrated in the TRADD knockout mouse, that TRADD is essential for TNF-induced necrosis in MEF cells (Pobezinskaya et al. 2008). RIP1 is a crucial initiator of death receptor-mediated necrosis (Festjens et al. 2007) and the term necroptosis was introduced to designate programmed necrosis that depends on RIP1 (Degterev et al. 2005). The kinase activity of RIP1 is dispensable for the activation of NF-kB and MAPKs, but is required for necroptosis (Holler et al. 2000; Degterev et al. 2005; Chan et al. 2003). Necrostatin-1 (Nec-1) was identified as a small molecule inhibitor of necroptosis (Degterev et al. 2005), and more recently, the RIP1 kinase activity was found to be the target of Nec-1 (Degterev et al. 2008). Furthermore, recent studies identified RIP3 as a crucial upstream activating kinase that regulates RIP1-dependent necroptosis (Zhang et al. 2009; Cho et al. 2009; He et al. 2009). TNF treatment induced the formation of a RIP1-RIP3 pro-necrotic complex and the kinase activity of both RIP1 and RIP3 was crucial for stable complex formation and subsequent induction of necrosis. During death receptor-induced apoptosis, RIP1 and RIP3 are cleaved by caspase-8, which suppresses their anti-apoptotic and/or pro-necrotic properties (Lin et al. 1999; Feng et al. 2007).
Besides death receptor-mediated necrosis, triggering of pathogen recognition receptors (PRRs) can also lead to necrotic cell death. Receptors of this family include the transmembrane toll-like receptors (TLRs), the cytosolic NOD-like receptors (NLRs) and the RIG-I-like receptors (RLRs). They all recognize pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs) found in bacteria or viruses, such as LPS, flagellin and double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), and stimulation of these receptors leads to the activation of innate immunity and/or cell death. In Jurkat cells and L929 cells, the recognition of synthetic dsRNA by TLR3 induces necrotic cell death, which was suggested to be RIP1-dependent (Kalai et al. 2002). TLR4 is expressed on macrophages and monocytes and is critical for the recognition of LPS from Gram-negative bacteria. Impeding caspase-8 activation switches TLR4-induced cell death from apoptosis to RIP1-dependent necrosis (Ma et al. 2005). Pathogen-induced activation of NLRs results most commonly in caspase-1-dependent cell death or pyroptosis (see below). However, a recent report showed that the NLR member Nalp-3 mediates necrotic cell death of macrophages infected with Shigella flexneri at high multiplicity of infection (Willingham et al. 2007). RLR-induced activation of NF-kB and production of type I interferons are both dependent on FADD, RIP1 and TRADD (Balachandran to al. 2004; Michallet et al. 2008). Whether these proteins are also involved in RLR-induced cell death is unknown.
Extensive DNA damage causes hyperactivation of poly-(ADP-ribose) polymerase-1 (PARP-1) and leads to necrotic cell death (Jagtap et al. 2005). When DNA damage is moderate, PARP-1 participates in DNA repair processes. However, excessive PARP-1 activation causes depletion of NAD+ by catalyzing the hydrolysis of NAD+ into nicotinamide and poly(ADP-ribose) (PAR), leading to ATP depletion, irreversible cellular energy failure, and necrotic cell death. PARP-1-mediated cell death requires the activation of RIP1 and TRAF2 (Xu et al. 2006). Many mediators are involved in the execution phase of necrotic cell death, including reactive oxygen species (ROS), calcium (Ca2+), calpains, cathepsins, phospholipases, and ceramide (Vanlangenakker et AL. 2008). Oxidative stress leads to damage of cellular macromolecules, including DNA, proteins, and lipids. As discussed earlier, excessive DNA damage results in hyperactivation of PARP-1 and necrotic cell death. Modification of proteins by ROS leads to loss of the normal functions of proteins and enhances their susceptibility to proteolytic degradation. Other targets of ROS are the polyunsaturated fatty acid residues in the membrane phospholipids, which are extremely sensitive to oxidation. In mitochondria, lipid peroxidation affects vital mitochondrial functions. In addition, it destabilizes the plasma membrane and intracellular membranes of endoplasmic reticulum and lysosomes, leading to intracellular leakage of Ca2+ and lysosomal proteases, respectively. Among the different ROS, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) plays a particularly important role because it diffuses freely across cellular membranes and can interact with iron in the Fenton reaction (Vanlangenakker et al. 2008). This reaction is favored in the lysosomes, because they are rich in free iron and do not contain H2O2-detoxifying enzymes. The resulting highly reactive hydroxyl radicals are among the most potent inducers of lipid peroxidation.
Ca2+ overload of mitochondria causes mitochondrial permeability transition (MPT) by the opening of large nonselective pores (the so called mitochondrial permeability transition pores, MPTPs) connecting the cytosol with the mitochondrial matrix (Kroemer et al. 2007). MPT is accompanied by mitochondrial inner membrane depolarization, uncoupling of oxidative phosphorylation, matrix swelling, and outer mitochondrial membrane rupture (Kroemer et al. 2007). If most mitochondria of the cell are disrupted, and glycolytic sources of ATP are inadequate, the cell becomes profoundly ATP-depleted. Cyclophilin D (CypD) might have an important role in MPT, as inhibition of CypD renders cells resistant to MPT, and CypD-deficient mice are more resistant to ischemic injury than wild type mice (Halestrap et al. 1997; Nakagawa et al. 2005). Besides affecting mitochondrial respiration, Ca2+ overload can activate phospholipases, proteases and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), all of which contribute to the execution phase of necrotic cell death. For example, calpains are activated by elevated Ca2+ levels, which then cleave the Na+/Ca2+ antiporter in the plasma membrane, resulting in a sustained Ca2+ overload. Strong activation of calpains may also contribute to the release of cathepsins in the cytosol by causing lysosomal membrane permeabilization, as proposed in the “calpaine-cathepsin” hypothesis by Yamashima and colleagues (Yamashima et al. 1998).
Necrotic cell death participates in activation-induced cell death (AICD) of T lymphocytes, which is an important mechanism for reducing T cell numbers after an immune response (Holler et al. 2000). Necrotic cell death is always observed together with apoptosis or in the presence of caspase inhibitors, suggesting that it functions as a back-up mechanism and is never the sole cell death pathway. Necrotic cell death is often associated with pathological conditions. Necrosis has been observed during ischemia/reperfusion (I/R), which can lead to injury of organs, including heart, brain, liver, kidney, and intestine (Neumar 2000). Necrotic cell death also contributes to excitotoxicity, which may be involved in stroke, traumatic brain injury, and neurodegenerative disorders (Ankarcrona et al. 1995). More specifically, using Nec-1, it was shown that RIP1-dependent necrotic cell death or necroptosis contributes to a wide range of pathological cell death events, such as ischemic brain injury (Degterev et al. 2005) and myocardial infarction (Lim et al. 2007). Furthermore, RIP3−/− mice failed to initiate vaccinia virus-induced tissue necrosis and inflammation, resulting in much more viral replication and mortality (Cho et al. 2009). Several other reports also illustrate the occurrence of necrotic cell death during infection by other pathogens, such as Shigella, HIV-1, West Nile virus, and Coxsackievirus B (Vanlangenakker et al. 2008). In addition, patients carrying a disease-associated mutation in Nalp-3 show excessive necrotic-like cell death with features similar to the Shigella flexneri-induced Nalp-3-dependent necrosis (Willingham et al. 2007).
In contrast to apoptosis, the recognition and uptake of necrotic cells by macropinocytosis is slower, less efficient and occurs only after the loss of plasma membrane integrity (Krysko et al. 2003). As a result, necrotic cells initiate a proinflammatory response by the passive release of DAMPs (danger/damage-associated molecular patterns) (Fadok et al. 2001). In addition, necrotic cells actively secrete inflammatory cytokines due to the activation of NF-kB and MAPKs (Vanden Berghe et al. 2006).
Autophagy is an evolutionarily conserved catabolic pathway that allows eukaryotes to degrade and recycle cellular components. Proteins and organelles are sequestered in specialized double-membrane vesicles, designated autophagosomes, which are typical of autophagic cells. Basal levels of autophagy ensure the maintenance of intracellular homeostasis, but in addition, many studies have revealed its diverse functions in important cellular processes, such as cellular stress, differentiation, development, longevity and immune defense. Although a pro-survival role for autophagy is well-established, frequently debated is whether or not autophagy has a causative role in cell death. The presence of autophagic vacuoles in dying cells has led to the introduction of autophagic cell death, although autophagy often accompanies rather than causes cell death. It is plausible though that massive autophagic activity could result in cellular demise. In addition, several interconnections exist between autophagy and apoptotic or necrotic cell death (Maiuri et al. 2007).
Pyroptosis is form of regulated cell death with morphological and biochemical properties distinct from necrosis and apoptosis (Labbe et al. 2008). Pyroptosis has been described in monocytes, macrophages and dendritic cells infected with a range of microbial pathogens, such as Salmonella, Francisella and Legionella, and is uniquely dependent on caspase-1 (Bergsbaken et al. 2009). In addition, non-infectious stimuli, such as DAMPs, can induce pyroptosis in non-macrophage cells.
Caspase-1, previously known as Interleukin-1 (IL-1b) Converting Enzyme (ICE), was the first mammalian caspase to be identified. As a member of the inflammatory caspases, it is not involved in apoptotic cell death (Li et al. 1995), and the apoptotic caspases usually do not contribute to pyroptosis (Lamkanfi et al. 2008). Caspase-1 is present in the cytosol as an inactive zymogen. In analogy to activation of caspase-9 in the apoptosome, caspase-1 is activated in a complex called the inflammasome. This molecular platform includes NLR family members that recruit caspase-1 through adaptor molecules, such as ASC/Pycard and is formed through homotypic interactions between these inflammasome components. Four inflammasomes have been characterized and named after their NLR (Nalp-1, Nalp-3 and Ipaf) or HIN-200 protein (AIM2) (Bergsbaken et al. 2009; Schroder et al. 2009). Assembly of the inflammasome occurs when NLRs are triggered by intracellular bacterial, viral or host danger signals. For example, Nalp-1 recognizes cytosolic delivery of Bacillus anthracis lethal toxin, Ipaf recognizes cytosolic flagellin, and Nalp-3 responds to multiple DAMPs and PAMPs (Bergsbaken et al. 2009) (
Active caspase-1 is the central executor of pyroptotic cell death and acts mainly by inducing the formation of discretely sized ion-permeable pores in the plasma membrane (Fink et al. 20096). The resulting osmotic pressure leads to water influx, cell swelling and ultimately cell lysis. Furthermore, caspase-1 activation initiates an inflammatory response by the cleavage of the proinflammatory cytokines pro-IL-1b and pro-IL-18, which are released by the cell upon their activation (Eder 2009). However, this inflammatory response is not required for the execution of cell death (Sarkar et al. 2006). Although caspase-1 activation is inherently associated with an inflammatory response, it is still unclear whether it is inevitably linked to pyroptotic cell death. Cells dying by pyroptosis have biochemical and morphological features of both apoptotic and necrotic cells (Bergsbaken et al, 2009). Pyroptotic cells lose their mitochondrial membrane potential and plasma membrane integrity and release their cytoplasmic contents into the extracellular milieu. As in apoptosis, pyroptotic cells undergo DNA fragmentation and nuclear condensation. However, this caspase-1-dependent nuclease-mediated cleavage of DNA does not exhibit the oligonucleosomal fragmentation pattern characteristic of apoptosis (Bennan et al. 2000). In addition, the DNA damage and concomitant PARP-1 activation associated with pyroptotic cell death are not required for cell lysis to occur (Fink et al. 2006). Because of its dependence on caspase-1 activity, pyroptosis is associated with the initiation of a proinflammatory response, which is further amplified by the release of the cytoplasmic content upon cell lysis. Since NLR-mediated activation of caspase-1 affects several cellular pathways, it is difficult to distinguish the precise role of caspase-1 in the cell death process itself.
There are a number of genome editing systems available. These include ZFNs (Zinc Finger Nucleases); TALENs (Transcription Activator Like Effector Nucleases); and CRISPR (Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats). In addition, recombinant Adeno-Associated Virus (MV) and transposons can also be employed. Further, RNAi may also be employed to reduce gene function. These techniques are known in the art.
See, en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Genome_editing, Tebas et al. 2014; Lombardo et al. 2007; Li et al. 2012; Liang et al. 2015; Gaj et al. 2013; Ain et al. 2015; Song et al. 2016; Wei et al. 2013; Shen et al. 2013).
Acronyms:
The present technology provides a system and method for the treatment of tumors with replicatively inactivated tumor cells as vaccines by silencing their immune checkpoint proteins such as CD47, PD-L1, etc. through genetic modification such as CRISP/cas 9 genome editing. The modified tumor cells become immune checkpoint deficient; thereby eliciting a strong immunogenicity after being introduced into the body. CD47-depleted tumor cells inactivated appropriately would be processed effectively by immune cells such as circulating macrophages and cause the body to trigger an anti-tumor immune response. Related work is discussed in: Gao et al. 2016; Koh et al. 2017; Jayaraman, 2017.
Types of tumors that might be addressed by the present technology include: solid immunogenic (or “hot”) tumors including melanoma, bladder cancer, head and neck cancers, kidney cancer, liver cancer, and non-small cell lung cancer; and non-immunogenic tumors (or “cold”) including ovarian, prostate, pancreatic cancer, etc.
Among other differences from prior work, it was not previously appreciated that in order to provoke a suitable immune response for an efficacious vaccine, the cells should not be treated in such a manner that causes apoptosis, e.g., Mitomycin C. See
One feature of the present technology is that it does not rely on identification and selective processing of cancer-associated antigens, and rather employs a patient's own neoplasia (or in some cases, a prototype neoplasia) to define the antigenic determinants. Likewise, it does not require qualification of proposed vaccine antigens with respect to cross reactivity, and rather relies on the normal immune mechanisms of the host organism to avoid unchecked autoimmune responses. Thus, present cancer vaccine technology does not rely on the prerequisite of comprehensive knowledge of all cancer associated neo-antigens. It utilizes information from syngeneic tumor cells themselves, making the system precise and personalized.
While melanoma was used as a model system to prove the concept, the technology can be used, in principle, to treat any cancer, in particular metastatic cancers.
Another feature is that, while the cells are being processed, additional genetic engineering may be performed, for example causing the cells to express cytokines that boost immune responses, to display additional antigens that enhance the immune response, and/or to suppress multiple immune checkpoint blockades such as CD47 and PD-L1 simultaneously to facilitate the processing of vaccines by multiple types of immune cells, leading to the enhancement of immune response.
The immunogenicity of the developed cancer vaccines can be further enhanced by co-expressing cytokines, such as GM-CSF, that stimulate maturation and activation of immune cells including macrophages, T cells, natural killer cells, dendritic cells, etc. The genes encoding cytokines such as GM-CSF are integrated into the genome of tumor cells through genomic knocking in. The immune checkpoint deficient tumor cells such as CD47−/− tumor cells are maintained in an in vitro culture, and then used as a prophylactic measure to prevent relapse and metastasis of the original cancer, or as a treatment for an active localized tumor.
The current embodiment has been tested on the syngeneic mouse melanoma model. In this embodiment, irradiated and non-replicating (but non-apoptotic) melanoma cells lacking surface expression of CD47 have been formulated as vaccines to prevent subcutaneous melanoma growth upon a tumor challenge.
Traditional vaccines which employ normal tumor cells could escape the antigen-presenting cells, such as macrophages, because of their normally present surface CD47, and thus the TAAs could not be efficiently presented to immune cells. Removal of CD47 could create an opportunity for immune cells such as the macrophages to recognize and present the TAAs from the cancer cell vaccine and create strong immune responses to kill the cancer cells.
Because introduction of live cancer cells into the human body could cause safety concerns, the modified cancer cells are preferably inactivated and rendered non-replicating, for example, exposed to gamma irradiation in a sufficient amount to ensure that the cells are replication-incompetent. Additionally, because the absence of CD47 on the vaccine cell surface, the cancer cells could be rapidly engulfed by macrophages, eliciting an immune response in the body. Other treatments may be available to modify the cells without causing apoptosis or immediate cell death.
It has been found that apoptosis, or treatments of the cells which lead to apoptosis, are suboptimal, and that metabolic processes within the cancer cells, and/or an intact cellular membrane appears to be important for the correct immune response.
CD47 is a potent target for creating genome edited whole-cell cancer vaccines. Mice vaccinated with irradiated CD47−/− 3BD9 cells were successfully immunized against a tumor challenge. 40% of mice are tumor free for 70-days post tumor challenge, and 33% of mice are tumor free for 90-days post tumor challenge.
Immunity is due to significant increase in mature antigen presenting cells (macrophages and dendritic cells), and activated effector cells (CD8+ and CD4+ T cells). Vaccination with CD47−/− 3BD9 cells regulates and maintains homogenous levels of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes throughout the tumor growth phase.
Therapies to increase macrophage specific cytokines (GM-CSF), reduce regulatory T cells, and avoid T cell exhaustion (PD-L1, PD1, CTLA-4, LAG-3) can be effective combination therapies with the CD47−/− whole-cell vaccine regime.
Therefore, the present technology provides a composition and a method for preparation thereof comprising inactivated cultured tumor cells which present antigens characteristic of a specific tumor type, such as melanoma, is deficient in CD47 expression. The composition is prepared by gene editing cells of a live cell culture, expanding the cell culture, and then inactivating them, such as with gamma irradiation, or another method of deactivating the cells without causing apoptosis. The inactivated tumor cells are then administered to the patient, optionally with an adjuvant, in a known manner.
The vaccination strategy is therefore to deplete the CD47 protein from cancer cell surface by editing the cd47 gene using the CRISPR-Cas9 technology to switch off the “don't-eat-me” signal from cancer cells, hence permitting the macrophages to engulf the vaccine cells, i.e. the CD47−/− melanoma cells, and present TAAs to CD8+ and CD4+ T-cells to generate an immune response to inhibit tumor growth or to eliminate tumors.
The present technology fully harnesses the immune systems to recognize the TAAs and subsequently to eliminate cancer cells. Cancer cells could easily escape from the immune systems because of their surface protein CD47, and after CD47 is deleted from the vaccine cancer cells, the roadblock for immune recognition and antigen presenting could be removed.
The present invention therefore provides whole-cell tumor vaccines, preferably of an autologous nature, that have been genetically modified to knockout the expression of cell surface CD47, a molecule tumor cells overexpress to evade attack by macrophages in the immune system. When rendered non-replicating, these cells act as an effective immunizing agent and elicit a strong anti-tumor immune response to a current tumor, or the future relapse or metastasis of the same type of tumor.
CD47 was identified as a target for the genetically modified whole-cell vaccines, based on its status as one of the foremost immune evasion markers overexpressed by the tumor cells. As macrophages form the first line of defense by the myeloid arm of the immune system, it is imperative for the tumor cells to be susceptible to attack and engulfment (phagocytosis) by the macrophages in order to elicit an amplified tumor-specific immune response comprising of effector cytotoxic cells. (
For the proof of concept study of the vaccines, the syngeneic mouse melanoma (B16F10) model was used. They were tested in female C57BL/6 mice for efficacy and tumor growth studies. The biology of CD47 in C57BL/6 mice is believed to be reasonably predictive of human response, and that of many other species.
The CRISPR/Cas9 system was utilized to deplete CD47 expression. Briefly, single guide-RNAs, 20 bp long, were designed in silico with 100% sequence complementarity to a target region of the cd47 gene. The guides were introduced into melanoma B16F10 cells along with the Cas9 endonuclease as a ribonucleoprotein (RNP) complex. Coding exons were edited to create a frameshift mutation in the cd47 gene, leading to the knockout of the CD47 expression on the tumor cell surface. CD47 knockout was confirmed by DNA sequencing, flow cytometry, and immunofluorescence microscopy.
An inactivation technique that renders the genetically modified cells non-replicating, but at the same time non-apoptotic, provides an effective vaccine for use. It was surprisingly found that inactivating the cells using the chemical alkylating agent Mitomycin-C (MMC), masked the involvement of the target protein, CD47. In other words, MMC-treated inactive melanoma cells had some effect as anti-tumor vaccines, but the depletion of cell surface CD47 did not enhance this effect. However, when inactivated by gamma irradiation, the effect of CD47 was clearly seen, a 1.5-fold increase in comparison with CD47+/+ inactivated whole-cell vaccines, see
Since the deletion of CD47 and its subsequent effects have been tested as proof of concept for melanoma, this system is expected to be especially effective on solid tumors that are capable of creating neo-vasculature around themselves. The experiments reveal of the involvement of the PD-1/PD-L1 pathway proteins, and the presence of myeloid derived cells that are usually present in hypoxic conditions. The following are the categories of tumors based on immune infiltration:
a. “Hot” inflamed tumors: High mutational burden, T-cell infiltration, and elevated expression of PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins, like non-small cell lung cancer, liver cancer, bladder cancer, melanoma, head and neck cancer, etc.
b. “Warm” semi-inflamed tumors: Moderate mutational burden, peripheral presence of T-cells. PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins may or may not be expressed depending on the type of cancer. Examples: ovarian cancer, kidney cancer, some brain tumors, some lung cancers.
c. “Cold” non-inflamed tumors: Very few mutations, no T-cell infiltration, and virtually no PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins. Examples: ER+ breast and prostate cancers, pancreatic cancer, glioblastoma.
The CD47−/− whole-cell tumor vaccines according to the present technology would work on the “hot” and “warm” categories. They may also find use in the “cold” category, and also in tumors which are uncharacterized or which are heterogeneous and include regions or metastases of various types. As noted in the art, the irradiated tumor cells are antigenic, regardless of the CD47− mutation, and therefore the cells may have activity both specifically because of the CD47 knockout and for other reasons.
Further, it is noted that the vaccine operates to stimulate immune cells systemically, and not necessarily in proximity to a tumor. Inactivated such as irradiated CD47−/− (null) autologous cancer cells can serve as immunotherapy vaccines to eliminate (kill) and prevent the cancer recurrence after treatment. Further, the irradiated or otherwise inactivated cells may also be used as a heterologous vaccine. For example, if a patient has an aggressive tumor that has a likely future mutation with poor prognosis, a vaccine may be prepared from cells of a different patient that have already mutated, and thus induce immunity before the patient's own cells undergo the changes. This may also be used as a preventive vaccine in patients with high risk, but before neoplasia is found.
The genetic engineering of the cells is not limited to CD47 knockout, and, for example, the same cells may have their genome edited with a knock-in of an immune-stimulatory adjuvant, such as GM-CSF, which enhances the efficacy of the inactivated CD47−/− autologous cancer vaccines. Further, other knock-outs or knock-ins may be provided, such as a PD-L1 knock-out.
The dual knock-out of CD47 and PD-L1 and knock-in GM-CSF tumor cells can be developed into immune checkpoint-free tumor organoids for in vitro training and generating tumor-responsive T cells by coculturing these tumor organoids with peripheral blood lymphocytes. The trained tumor responsive T cells can then be transplanted into patients to eliminate tumors, or to provide a reservoir of immunity against future tumors.
The efficacy of the CD47−/− vaccines can be further enhanced through cancer combination therapy by combining the vaccination with antibody therapy such as PD-L1 antibody therapy. Normally, the PD-L1 expresses at a low level. The expression of PD-L1 is usually upregulated under the stress such as production of IFN-γ or GM-CSF. The introduction of CD47−/− cancer vaccine as disclosed herein will induce the production of IFN-γ, upregulating PD-L1 expression on tumor cells. Therefore, the efficacy of 0D47−/− vaccines can be considerably enhanced if anti PD-L1 antibodies are used along with vaccines, enabling more tumor-specific T cells to attack and kill tumor cells. PD-L1 antibody treatment has been successful, but being limited to very few tumors. The combination treatment with vaccine and PD-L1 antibody therapy will maximize the immunotherapy by targeting two immune checkpoints simultaneously.
It is therefore an object to provide a vaccine against a neoantigen, comprising a nucleated live cell expressing the neoantigen, which is genetically engineered to block expression of at least one immunosuppressive cell product, and which is nonapoptotic and replicatively incompetent.
It is also an object to provide a method of producing a vaccine against a neoantigen, and the vaccine per se, comprising: obtaining a nucleated live cell expressing the neoantigen; genetically engineering the live cell to block expression of at least one immunosuppressive cell product; and modifying the live cell to render it non-apoptotic and replicatively incompetent.
It is also an object to provide a method for preparing whole-cell vaccine, and the vaccine itself, comprising: isolating a live cell which expresses at least one tumor-associated antigen; genetically editing the live cell to suppress the presentation of cell surface CD47; and modifying the live cell to ensure that it remains alive but is incapable of proliferating in vivo in a patient.
It is a further object to provide a method of treating a disease, comprising: obtaining a biopsy sample from a patient comprising a cell type; genetically editing a cell of the cell type to knockout the expression of CD47; culturing the genetically edited cell to expand the culture; rendering cells of the expanded culture replication nonapoptotic and incompetent; and administering the nonapoptotic replication incompetent cells to the patient, to thereby induce an immune response in the patient to the cell type.
A further object provides a vaccine, comprising a mitosis-arrested and/or senescent cell expressing a target antigen, being genetically edited to reduce expression of a checkpoint molecule.
It is also an object to provide a vaccine, comprising genetically edited cells which express tumor-associated antigens, and do not express cell surface CD47, the genetically edited cells being incapable of proliferating in vivo in a patient and being nonapoptotic.
The method may further comprise administering the vaccine to an animal or human. The animal or human may be the same or different from a source of the cell. The method may further comprise obtaining the administering the live cell from a human suffering from a neoplasia, wherein the live cell is a neoplastic cell, and readministering the modified live cell to the human. The cell may be of an immunogenic or non-immunogenic tumor cell type. The cell type may be selected from the group consisting of melanoma, bladder cancer, head and neck cancers, kidney cancer, liver cancer, and non-small cell lung cancer. The cell type may be selected from the group consisting of ovarian, prostate, and pancreatic cancer. The cell type may be selected from the group consisting of non-small cell lung cancer, liver cancer, bladder cancer, melanoma, and head and neck cancer. The cell type may be a neoplastic cell having an elevated, or normal, or reduced expression of PD-1 and PD-L1 proteins with respect to normal cells from the same organ.
The at least one immunosuppressive cell product may comprise CD47 and/or PD-L1. The vaccine may be administered in conjunction (i.e., prior, concurrently, or subsequently) to a therapy targeting cells that express PD-1, CTLA-4 and/or LAG-3, e.g., monoclonal antibodies. The live nucleated cell may be further genetically engineered to express an immunostimulant. The immunostimulant may be a cytokine, such as GM-CSF. The cells may also produce a protease inhibitor, e.g., a serpin, that acts on the cell's own products or on factors produced by immune cells with which it interacts. Preferably, the protease inhibitor targets a regulatory pathway. The cells may also produce a protease, e.g., a serpin, that acts on proteins in its environment. For example, the protease can target immunosuppressive factors, or itself act in an immunostimulatory capacity. The protease may be a regulatory protein, e.g., which acts on a specific substrate, as part of a regulatory cascade, or a more generic degradative enzyme. The protease and/or protease inhibitor(s) may act to enhance the immune response to the vaccine, and/or reduce immunosuppressive effects of the tumor cell independent of CD47.
The cells may be genetically edited with CRISPR, e.g., CRISPR-Cas9, ZFN, TALEN, rAAV, transposons, or the like. The cell may express an RNAi, which reduces expression of the immune checkpoint molecule. The live nucleated cell may be genetically engineered to include at least one restriction endonuclease recognition site, a nuclease, and/or a guide RNA (gRNA).
The cell may be derived from a neoplastic cell, e.g., a melanoma cell. The cell may be rendered nonapoptotic and replicatively incompetent and/or senescent by irradiation, e.g., gamma irradiation.
The method may further comprise administering the vaccine to a human or animal, wherein the vaccine is an autologous vaccine derived from nucleated live cells of the same human or animal to which it is administered or a heterologous vaccine derived from nucleated live cells of a different human or animal to which it is administered.
The cell may be edited to knockout the expression of antigens specific to the human or animal from which it is derived, and/or to produce expression of antigens specific to the human or animal to which it is administered.
It is also an object to provide an ex vivo method of training immune cells to respond to cancer cells, comprising interacting cancer cells which express a neoantigen, with immune cells (myeloid cells), under conditions of depleted expression of their immune checkpoint blockades, to therefore train T-cells to recognize the neoantigen with reduced suppression by cellular “don't eat me” signals. The cancer cells may be obtained from a patient having a cancer, and the trained T-cells may be infused back into the patient. It is also an object to provide a method of training T-cells to target cancer cells expressing a neoantigen, comprising: extracting cancer cells expressing the neoantigen from a host; modifying the cancer cells expressing the neoantigen; and training T-cells to cause T-cell activation toward the cancer cells expressing the neoantigen, wherein at least one of the cancer cells and the T-cells are modified to eliminate SIRP-α binding to CD47, PD-L1 binding to PD-1, etc. The cancer cells may be derived from the same host or a different host. Likewise, activated T-cells may be infused back into the host, or a different host. Preferably, heterologously activated T-cells are genetically modified to prevent graft vs. host disease or host vs. graft disease.
Another object provides a method of training T-cells to target cancer cells expressing a neoantigen, comprising: providing cancer cells expressing the neoantigen; extracting T cells from a host; modifying at least one of the cancer cells and the T cells to increase immune recognition of the cancer cells by the T cells; and contacting the cancer cells with the T cells, to cause activation of the T-cells toward the cancer cells. The modifying may reduce at least one of SIRP-α binding of CD47 and a PD-L1 binding to PD-1, and the cancer cells may be provided during the contacting as organoids expressing the neoantigen comprising only replication-incompetent cells.
The cancer cells may be processed to form an organoid and used for immune training as described above. The cancer cells may be processed to render them nonapoptotic and replicatively incompetent, such as by irradiation. For example, organoids may be irradiated after reaching a desired stage of maturation. The cancer cells may be genetically edited to include a conditional lethal gene, wherein after training of the immune cells, the cancer cells are killed by triggering of the conditional lethality caused by the gene. The cancer cells may be further edited to alter expression of cytokines, and other immunostimulatory and/or immunosuppressive factors, in a manner to enhance training of immune cells to produce activated T cells. An organoid may be formed including the neoplastic cells, as well as other cells, e.g., fibroblasts, which may be normally differentiated or stem cells from the same host, or a different host. The organoid may be cultured to provide a plurality of cell types within the organoid, including cells which express the neoantigen. In some cases, the organoid emulates the source tumor, but in other cases, it may emulate an environment of a metastasis. In still other cases, it may emulate a privileged biological compartment or immune organ. Such immune checkpoint blockades depleted organoids can also be used as an in vitro model for determining the underlying mechanisms of vaccination.
The activated T-cells may then be reinfused into the host, to provide a therapy for the cancer.
The cancer cells expressing the neoantigen, and/or the entire organoid, may be are further modified to render them nonapoptotic and replicatively incompetent, for example by irradiation. The cancer cells may also be genetically edited to include a lethal susceptibility, and a condition which triggers the lethal susceptibility applied after training, to thereby kill the cancer cells and ensure that live cancer cells are not implanted into a host along with the trained T-cells. Cell separation technology such as FACS (fluorescence-activated cell sorting) and/or MACS (magnetic-activated cell sorting) may also be used to selected trained T cells to ensure infusing only the activated T-cells into the host. (Lavender et al. 2013; Baglole et al. 2006; Kleeff et al. 2016; Kroemer et al. 2013; Peinado et al. 2017; Tseng et al. 2013; Fong et al. 2001; Mittal et al. 2014; Liu et al. 2015; Galon et al. 2002).
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Current cancer treatments are not satisfactory. On the other hand, the body immune system is designed to defend the body against pathogens and dangerous invaders including cancers. However, the body immune system fails to act on cancer cells. The increased expression of CD47 on tumor cells prevents them from being recognized by circulating immune cells such as macrophages. The use of anti-CD47 antibodies to block CD47 on tumor cells has proven effective. Nevertheless, this treatment represents some challenges including difficulty in penetrating antibodies into solid tumors. CD47 is expressed on the surface of many cells and is involved in a range of cellular processes such as apoptosis, proliferation, adhesion, and migration. Thus, the use of anti-CD47 antibodies can have some unpredictable side effects. The present technology utilizes whole-tumor cells as vaccines against cancer. According to a preferred embodiment, CD47-deficient cancer cells serve as both preventive and therapeutic vaccines to facilitate phagocytosis by macrophages, which then present tumor antigens to and activate immune cells such as cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. The activated CD8+ T cells will attack and kill cancer cells on their own.
The technology harnesses the body immune system to eliminate cancer cells by creating CD47-deficient cancer cell vaccines. Cancer cells can easily escape from the immune system due to the expression of CD47 on their surface. The deletion of CD47 by genome editing enables their phagocytosis by macrophages that activate cytotoxic CD8+ T cells. The activated CD8+ T cells attack and kill cancer cells. The adaptive immune response is induced by either a standard cell line vaccine, or by using the patient's own tumor cells that have been genome-edited (to delete CD47) and inactivated by irradiation (to suppress their proliferation). Moreover, it is very powerful for treating metastatic cancer cells where none of current therapies is effective or eliminate recurrent cancer cells after solid tumors are surgically removed.
It is noted that in some cases, it is not the primary tumor which represents the ultimate target of the therapy. That is, in some cases, a tumor is benign or low grade, but is associated with a possible or even likely future change toward increased aggressiveness. Therefore, in such patients, a treatment may be provided that vaccinates the patient against the aggressively transformed cells.
To demonstrate the technology, i.e., the hypothesis of whether CD47 null tumor cells can be formulated into a vaccine eliciting a strong immune response of the host to eliminate cancers from the body, the cd47 gene from B16F10, a mouse melanoma cell line, was knocked out through CRISPR/Cas9 genome editing.
Two guide RNAs were designed that target the exons 1 and 2 of the cd47 gene (SEQ ID: 001, SEQ ID: 002). The guide RNAs were subcloned individually into an all-inclusive plasmid system, PX458 and co-transfected into B16F10 cells. Transfected cells were FACS sorted, and the resultant single cell clones were screened for bi-allelic CD47 knockout by PCR and DNA sequencing (Table 1). The resultant clone was named as 3BD9. The biallelic gene deletion was confirmed through DNA sequencing (
Opsonizing Antibody Enhances Phagocytosis of CD47−/− B16 Cells (3BD9) by Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages (BMDMs)
While CD47 depletion makes cells more susceptible to phagocytosis by macrophages, efficient phagocytosis requires the presence of an opsonizing antibody that engages the Fc receptors on macrophages. An in vitro phagocytosis assay was performed to determine whether phagocytosis of 3DB9 cells by BMDMs is enhanced in the presence of opsonizing antibody such as TA99, an antibody against glycoprotein 75 (gp75), a common melanoma tumor-associated antigen (Sockolosky et al. 2016). The expression of gp75 on the surface of the B16F10 and 3BD9 was determined by flow cytometry (
The efficiency of phagocytosis of 3BD9 and B16F10 by BMDMs is shown in
These together appear to show that the phagocytosis of melanoma cancer cells is correlated to (i) the blockade of CD47-SIRP-α binding, (ii) the engagement of the Fc receptors on macrophages, and (iii) the presence of enhancing cytokines. Translated in vivo, this observation implies that the antigen presenting compartment must be aided by the effector compartment for efficient anti-tumor activity.
CD47 Ablation Delays Melanoma Tumor Growth Significantly In Vivo
To determine whether CD47 ablated melanoma cells can elicit a strong immune response, tumor development was examined by implanting CD47−/− 3BD9 cells in syngeneic immunocompetent C57BL/6 mice (Weiskopf et al. 2016). For the mice that developed tumors, growth was delayed by at least 10 days in comparison with the mice implanted with CD47+/− B16F10. (
To characterize the immune activity in tumors that do not express CD47, an additional cohort of 15 mice per group that received B16F10 implants, and 3BD9 implants subcutaneously, were used. Examining immune organs of 3BD9 engrafted mice, enlarged spleens and lymph nodes were discovered (data not shown), indicating significant immune cell expansion after implantation. To further confirm the elicitation of an immune response by CD47−/− 3BD9, lymphocyte immuno-phenotyping was performed in the tumor microenvironment (TME) and in the tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs) through multicolor flow cytometric analysis. Table 2 lists three panels of antibodies used for immuno-phenotyping: Panel T1 was used for phenotyping the antigen presenting compartment and the tumor cell phenotypes in the tumor microenvironment; Panel SL1 was used for phenotyping the antigen presenting compartment in the TDLNs; and Panel P2 was used for phenotyping the effector cell populations (T cells and NK cells) in both the TME and the TDLNs.
The immuno-phenotyping of the tumor cells revealed a significant increase in cell surface PD-L1 expression as tumor progressed, in B16F10 engrafted mice, suggesting a gradual development of an immunosuppressive environment corresponding to the stage of tumor growth (
The immuno-phenotyping of effector immune cells in lymph nodes confirmed this observation. A higher number of the Ki67+ activated CD4+ and CD8+ T cells, as well as natural killer (NK) cells, were discovered in the CD47−/− tumor microenvironment (
Immunization with Inactivated CD47−/− Tumor Cells Protects Mice from a Tumor Challenge.
Upon confirming the immune response of mice to CD47−/− cancer cells, it was determined whether inactivated CD47−/− cancer cells can be used as a vaccine to protect mice from a tumor challenge. First, 3BD9 cells were chemically inactivated using Mitomycin-C (MMC) which inhibits DNA synthesis, hence rendering the cell non-replicating. Mice were vaccinated with PBS (vehicle control), MMC-treated B16F10 (MMC-B16F10), and MMC-treated 3BD9 (MMC-3BD9), by following an immunization regime depicted in
Immunogenicity in these vaccinated mice was determined after challenging the mice using B16F10 cells on day 7 post the second dose of vaccination. The MMC-3BD9 vaccinated mice exhibited a significantly delayed tumor growth by approximately 5 days (
The inactivation of 3BD9 using γ-irradiation (Roy et al. 2001) was then tested. Irradiation is one of the most commonly used methods for inactivating cells while maintaining their biological integrity Dranoff et al. 1993). Inactivated B16F10 and 3BD9 cells were prepared by γ-irradiating them using a Cs source at 35 Gy and used them to vaccinate mice before a tumor challenge. As controls, mice vaccinated with PBS and irradiated B16F10 cells were studied alongside. Flow cytometric analysis confirmed the expression of CD47 and the absence of CD47 on irradiated B16F10 and 3BD9 cells, respectively (
Mice (15 per group) were vaccinated subcutaneously with irradiated 3BD9 or B16F10 cells, on their left flanks and challenged with live B16F10 cells on the same flank 7 days later (
In the irradiated 3BD9 vaccinated group, 40% of the mice (6/15) were tumor-free until day 70 post tumor challenge, and 33% of the mice (5/15) were tumor-free until the end of the regime (90-days post tumor challenge). More significantly, 13% of these mice (2/15) were tumor free at the end of 90-days post tumor challenge (
Vaccination with Irradiated CD47−/− Tumor Cells Confers Immunity to Mice by Upregulating Antigen Presentation and Increasing Effector Cell Activity
To understand the underlying mechanisms that confer an anti-tumor immune response in the 3BD9 vaccinated mice, multi-parametric immune cell phenotyping was performed to characterize different immune cell subsets in the TME and in the TDLNs of mice using cell-specific protein markers shown in Table 3. A combination of various markers helped us identify specific subsets of cells, their lineages, and correlation with response to vaccines. A comprehensive list of cell types and subsets based on the markers chosen is available in Table 4. The immune mechanisms involved in mice that showed a complete response to vaccination by irradiated 3BD9 cells, i.e., those that did not develop a tumor 90-days post vaccination, were investigated. To that end the immune cell populations in the TDLNs of responders (CD47−/− 3BD9 R), and non-responders (CD47−/− 3BD9 NR) or those that developed delayed tumors after vaccination were compared.
A significant increase in the M1-type anti-tumorigenic macrophages was observed, and a reduction in the M2-type pro-tumorigenic macrophages. M1 macrophage populations were five times higher and M2 macrophage populations were almost half the amount in the responders when compared to the non-responders. Additionally, the percentage of migratory DCs (Parajuli et al. 2010) and activated DCs that efficiently present antigens to the T cells, were significantly increased (
Activated DC population were 6-7 times higher in the responders. These data suggest that the antigen presenting compartment is efficient in the TDLNs of the mice that responded to the 3BD9 vaccine. Moreover, the ratio of regulatory T cells (T-regs) to activated (Ki67+) T cells was drastically reduced in the responders (
Comparison of tumor and lymphocyte populations in mice vaccinated with irradiated B16F10 and irradiated 3BD9 confirms the vital role of CD47
To elucidate the specific role of CD47 in this immunologic reaction, lymphocyte populations in the TME and in the TDLNs of irradiated B16F10 and 3BD9 vaccinated mice that developed tumors after a tumor challenge were compared. It was important to track the alteration in the immune phenotypes as the tumors grew to understand how the microenvironment and the specific immune responses evolve. To this end, cell types were characterized at three different stages of tumor growth—small (200-300 mm3), medium (500-600 mm3), and large (800-900 mm3). In the TME, activated and proliferated T and NK cells were examined, and found that the 3BD9 vaccinated mice had significantly higher percentages of Ki67+ effector cells, especially in the small and medium sized tumors. In contrast, the B16F10 vaccinated mice lost their effector cell populations over time (
FIG. 9A09E show lymphocyte populations and loss of CD47 expression over time in B16F10 and 3BD9 vaccinated mice. (
The specific effect of the absence of CD47 might be in improving the long-term survival of mice by increasing effector cell populations over time and delaying their exhaustion while keeping the suppressive cells to a minimum. The T-reg populations in the inactivated cell vaccinated mice were consistently observed to be higher than in the PBS vaccinated ones (
Another very remarkable observation pertaining specifically to the involvement of CD47 in the anti-tumor response, was in the non-TIL compartment of the tumors of vaccinated mice. All tumor implants were B16F10 cells, known to express CD47 on their surface. However, upon analysis of the CD45− (negative for the pan-leukocyte marker) tumor cells in the TME, CD47 was down regulated in 3BD9 vaccinated mice significantly (
Investigating the TME and TDLNs of 3BD9 vaccinated mice reveals actively anti-tumorigenic conditions, with distinct TAM phenotypes.
After determining the role of CD47 in eliciting an immune response in vaccinated mice, the immune activity in the tumor microenvironment and the draining lymph nodes of the mice vaccinated with irradiated 3BD9 cells was investigated. The populations of active antigen presenting cells and proliferating effector cells were investigated. More effector immune cell populations (Ki67+ T cells and NK cells), but fewer antigen presenting cells in the TME of 3BD9 vaccinated mice as compared to those vaccinated with PBS were detected (
The suppressor cells—the tumor associated macrophages (TAMs) and the myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), were investigated in the tumor microenvironment. TAMs and MDSCs are responsible for a sizable portion of effector cell suppression (Bronte et al. 2016; Elliott et al. 2017; Italiani et al. 2014). This suppression is active and occurs both in the TME and in the TDLNs (Kumar et al. 2016; Movahedi et al. 2010). Phenotypic characterization of MDSCs and TAMs have been studied in previously. It has been emphasized that common characteristics of tumors that have been irreversible thus far like metastatic potential, downregulation of MHC genes, and overexpression of evasion markers, can be attributed to the specific APC phenotypes in the TME (Ostrand-Rosenberg et al. 2009; Richards et al. 2013). They are often distinguished by their cell surface marker expression (Table 4), and further studied based on mechanisms of action, T cell suppression potential, inhibitory cytokine production, and effect on other cell types. A very specific gating strategy was employed to characterize TAMs based on expression of the granulocytic lineage marker Ly6G, the monocytic marker Ly6C, and the antigen presentation complex MHC-II (
Tumors were harvested from mice at three stages of growth—small (200-300 mm3), medium (500-600 mm3), and large (800-900 mm3). With increase in tumor size, the MHC-IIhi TAMs in the TME of 3BD9 vaccinated tumors seemed to gradually lose Ly6G expression (
After scrutinizing the important immune cell populations in the TME, the draining lymph node was then analyzed to understand the immune activity in vaccinated mice. The TDLNs are T cell repertoires and act as hubs for immune cell activity. APCs of multiple phenotypes from the tumor drain into the nearest lymph nodes, and the environment there facilitates the interactions between APCs and the effector cells (T cells, B cells, NK cells). Profiling the immune cell phenotypes in the TDLNs provided an overview of the type of response that would lead to tumor rejection or escape. In contrast to the TME, TDLNs of the 3BD9 vaccinated mice have significantly high populations of activated APCs, and much lower suppressive populations of APCs. A high population of CD11b− effector and activated DCs and a low population of CD11b+ regulatory DCs were detected in the 3BD9 vaccinated mice (
M1-polarized macrophages showed a slight increase, but it was interesting to note that the 3BD9 vaccinated mice had higher populations of M2 macrophages. Conversely, one of the most potent subsets of MDSCs, the monocyte-derived MDSCs (CD11bhi Ly6G− MHC-II+), were significantly lower in the TDLNs of the CD47−/− 3BD9 vaccinated mice (
Vaccinated Mice Maintain Homogenous TIL Populations Throughout Tumor Growth Period.
Examining the macroscopic changes occurring the TME after vaccination was important to provide a baseline for developing combination therapies. The alterations to immune cells' infiltration into tumors after vaccination are not limited to the difference in phenotypes of TILs. The levels or amounts of the several types of TILs in the TME is also a crucial factor in the immune modulation potential of vaccines. Many anti-tumor therapies rely on the percentages of TILs in tumors, and tumors often show extreme heterogeneity in infiltrating lymphocytes at various stages of development. An important effect of vaccination before a tumor implant is the maintenance of stable TIL amounts throughout the development of a tumor. In particular, the percentage of suppressive phenotypes of all TILs remains constant at all stages of tumor growth in vaccinated mice, when compared to vehicle controls. Analyzing levels of TAMs and MDSCs (
Preliminary Characterization of a STING Agonist as a Vaccine Adjuvant
The addition of adjuvants to vaccination regimes helps increase tumor specific immune cell infiltration to protect against an upcoming tumor challenge. To this end, addition of a STING pathway agonist—a cGAMP analog, 2′3′-c-di-AM(PS)2 (Rp,Rp)—was attempted as an adjuvant with irradiated whole-cell tumor vaccines following the immunization regime depicted in
Modulations to the Anti-Tumor Immune Response by STING Agonist
The STING agonist treatment in this study was a single subcutaneous dose of 10 μg per mouse along with the 0.5 million irradiated cells as part of the vaccination regime. It was sought to be determined whether the TIL phenotypes are altered by the addition of the adjuvant on the vaccinated groups. To study the immediate infiltration of the antigen presenting cells (DCs being the direct targets of the STING pathway agonist), this analysis was performed when the tumors were starting to grow and had reached a size of 200-300 mm3. As expected, there was a remarkable increase in the DCs infiltrating tumors and priming T cells in the TDLNs (
STING Agonist Increases Immune Evasion Marker Expression on Tumor Cells and Reduces NK Cell Activation
Next, to understand the mechanisms due to which the STING agonist seemed to dampen the anti-tumor effect and sustained tumor rejection due to the 3BD9 vaccines, the cell types in the tumor microenvironment in mice vaccinated with B16F10 and 3BD9 were studied both with and without the STING agonist as an adjuvant. A significant increase in PD-L1 expression on tumor cells as well as dendritic cells in 3BD9 vaccinated mice was discovered, along with a STING agonist (Scarlett et al. 2012; Tran Janco et al. 2015) (
All these outcomes proved important for charting out the specifics of an anti-tumor response after vaccination with irradiated CD47−/− tumor cells, which is pictorially represented in
CD47, an extensively explored immune evasion target, has always been studied in the context of active blockade using a therapeutic antibody treatment. This cell surface antigen has the potential to alter immune response dramatically, as it functions at one of the earliest and most crucial stages of an immune response cascade (Nilsson et al. 2009). The correct cocktail of factors in the body that harnesses cytokine release, macrophage activation, and the presence of tumor-specific antibodies can vividly enhance the already positive effects of CD47 as an immunotherapeutic target. In parallel, vaccinations, as a method of eliciting immune responses, are imperative in developing anti-tumor therapies. The use of inactivated non-replicating tumor cells as vaccines utilizes the immunogenic potential of whole tumor cells—it circumvents the extensive processing of neoantigens and intra-tumoral components to develop an effective vaccine concoction. Tumor cells lacking CD47 expression were hypothesized to elicit a strong immune response against tumors. These cells would aid the accumulation of anti-tumor effector cells that can protect the body from tumor development (preventive vaccines) or even eliminate tumors (therapeutic vaccines) from the body. Tumor cells lacking CD47 confer a lasting immune response, even in live formats. The prophylactic feasibilities of using inactivated CD47 depleted cancer cells was also demonstrated.
CD47−/− inactivated tumor cells can serve as a vaccine to confer a lasting immunity in mice, where 33% (5/15) vaccinated mice remained tumor-free at the end of 90-days post tumor challenge. The mechanisms underlying the action of these vaccines have been elucidated. Extensive profiling the tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and the cells in the draining lymph nodes, revealed remarkable differences in the immune response orchestrated by vaccination. In the mice that exhibited a complete response to vaccination and did not develop tumors for 90 days post a tumor challenge, a significant increase in M1-type and corresponding decrease in the M2-type macrophages were found. The activated effector T cells (CD4+ and CD8+) were significantly higher, as expected. However, there was also a remarkable increase in the number of regulatory T cells as well as PD-1 expression on T cells. Anti-tumor immunity is conferred by the large numbers of highly activated effector cells as well as the anti-tumorigenic macrophages stimulated by the vaccine. (Kooreman et al. 2018).
Enhancement in the populations of anti-tumorigenic macrophages and activated effector cell types in mice vaccinated with CD47−/− whole-cell vaccines in comparison with their CD47+/+ counterparts confirmed the vital role played by CD47 in the efficacy of these vaccines. There was also unexpected extreme downregulation of cell surface CD47 by the tumor cells after vaccination with irradiated CD47−/− cells. The vaccinated tumors express almost no CD47, suggesting that the tumors might be reacting to the specific types of immune cell priming and response, which originated from cells that did not have cell surface CD47. This also suggests that the CD47 depletion from tumor cells had a very specialized effect on the anti-tumor immune response.
In the mice that showed delayed outgrowth of tumors after 3BD9 vaccination, there were significantly more effector cells infiltrating the tumor, which accounted for a delayed outgrowth. At the same time the activated antigen presenting cells (macrophages and DCs) were reduced in number, suggesting that multiple doses may prove more effective. It seemed that the regulatory T cell populations and the PD-1 expression on CD4+ T cells were elevated, signifying the anti-tumor and suppressive function of these cells leading to eventual tumor escape in these mice. An increase in tumor infiltrating NK cells in the CD47−/− vaccinated mice was constantly observed. Other studies have shown the dependence of NK cell-associated cytotoxicity on CD47 expression (Kim et al. 2008; Soto-Pantoja et al. 2014), and the present experiments confirmed that the absence of CD47 leads to higher amounts of active NK cell populations, leading to tumor containment and sustained rejection. Presence of prominent levels of functionally activated NK cells keeps the immune response consistently anti-tumorigenic Guillerey et al. 2016; Lowry et al. 2017). Other principal factors in a suppressive environment are TAMs and MDSCs. The MHC-IIlow TAMs were significantly elevated, suggesting that the tumors became more hypoxic in the CD47−/− 3BD9 vaccinated mice. These TAMs were also found to express high levels of Ly6G, the neutrophil lineage marker. Aside from the MHC-IIlow TAMs, all other suppressor cells, including the PMN- and Mo-MDSCs, were highly downregulated in the TME of CD47−/− vaccinated tumors, proving that they have an overall anti-tumorigenic environment.
An important consideration in the design of therapeutic regimes for actively growing tumors is the intensity of immune activity in the tumors (Lehmann et al. 2017; Lee et al. 2012). Cold tumors, hence, are often hard to treat just by therapeutics, and this also one of the reasons solid tumors in the first place are harder to treat with immunotherapeutic agents than liquid or systemic tumors. The immune infiltration was found not only to increase, but also a consistent composition was maintained throughout the phases of tumor growth after vaccination. The extreme heterogeneity that is characteristic of melanoma tumors, is reversed upon vaccination, and tumors harvested at the three stages of growth show more homogeneity in TIL populations, especially in the suppressive subsets. These tumors also show a gradual increase in the effector cell compartment as tumor progresses, an effect opposite to the one seen in the tumors of mice vaccinated with inactivated B16F10 cells, which distinguishes the two types of vaccines and emphasizes the involvement of CD47 as a target in this regime.
The stimulator of interferon genes (STING) is a protein present on the endoplasmic reticulum of cells and is activated by a stream of preceding signaling mechanisms that involve the recognition of pathogen- or tumor-associated DNA by dendritic cells (DCs). One of the most crucial players in this pathway is the cyclic GMP-AMP (cGAMP) synthase (cGAS) that produces cyclic dinucleotides, commonly annotated as 2′3′-cGAMP that activated STING directly (Sokolowska et al. 2018; Li et al. 2016). The activation of STING leads to the production of Type-I interferons (IFNs): IFN-α and IFN-β. These IFNs act both as a self-stimulatory signal that helps in the maturation of DCs and a T cell proliferation signal that leads to the priming, maturation, and proliferation of CD8+ cytotoxic T cells (CTLs). STING agonists have been used in the recent years to mediate anti-tumor immunity in solid tumors (Curran et al. 2016; Bullock et al. 2017). Also, the use of adjuvants to vaccines has been names as one of the most crucial elements in the design of vaccines (Overwijk et al. 2017; Bullock et al. 2017). STING has also been shown previously to be involved in the CD47 blockade-based mechanism of anti-tumor activity (Liu et al. 2015). For the purpose of this study, 2′3′-c-di-AM(PS)2 (Rp,Rp) VacciGrade™, a cyclic dinucleotide cGAMP analog, that directly activates the STING protein, was used in the vaccine solution as an adjuvant to elicit a tumor-specific immune response.
The addition of a STING pathway agonist to therapeutic regimes is shown to increase the infiltration of dendritic cells into the TME and help the development of effective anti-tumor T cell responses. In this study, however, the addition of a STING pathway agonist as a vaccine adjuvant did delay the tumor development significantly, but also seemed to dampen the effect of the vaccine and cause an inferior prognosis. The addition of the adjuvant significantly increased not only dendritic cell infiltration into tumors but also macrophage infiltration. The most glaring reasons for the seemingly inverse effect of the STING agonist on vaccine efficacy are a drastic increase in PD-L1 expression on tumor cells and DCs, and a remarkable reduction of activated NK cells in these mice. Studies have found previously the very alarming role DCs seem to play in the TME and non-specific activation of the DC compartment could be leading to an unprecedented effect in combination with the CD47-based regime (Benencia et al. 2012; Keirsse et al. 2017; Dudek et al. 2013; Merad et al. 2013). Additionally, the STING agonist seemed to reverse the earlier observed CD47 reduction on tumor cells and showed a significantly higher expression in comparison with the CD47−/− cell vaccine regime without the adjuvant. This adjuvant study was a preliminary, single-dose study, and the effects observed would help design a better method of employing the anti-tumor capabilities of STING pathway stimulation.
The present findings point to the fact that as a certain type of immune cell population increases in percentage, the regulatory or suppressive phenotypes of that population also increase correspondingly. An increase in M2-type and TAM populations was observed as compared to the M1-type and the activated subsets when macrophage populations are enlarged. Similarly, elevated amounts of activated T cell populations were found after CD47−/− vaccination, but also correspondingly found elevated levels of regulatory subsets of these T cells. In the STING adjuvant-treated groups, there was extremely high infiltration of DCs, but the PD-L1 expression on these DCs also increase dramatically, leading to a suboptimal scenario.
Cell Culture. The B16F10 (mouse melanoma) cell line was obtained from ATCC. The cells were cultured using high glucose DMEM (Gibco, MD) supplemented with 10% v/v Fetal Bovine Serum (FBS) (Sigma-Aldrich, MO). Mouse bone marrow derived macrophages (BMDMs) were obtained by flushing out the bone marrows of untreated mice, and culturing for 7 days in RPMI 1640 (Gibco, MD) supplemented with 10% v/v FBS.
CD47 knockout using CRISPR. The spCas9(BB)-2A-GFP (PX458) plasmid (Addgene, MA) containing the gRNA sequence targeting CD47, and the Cas9 and an eGFP separated by a T2A sequence was transfected into the B16F10 cells using the Viafect transfection kit (Promega, WI). The successfully transfected single cells were sorted into 96-well plates using a BD FACS Aria II sorter. Single cells were expanded and tested for biallelic knockout of CD47 using PCR, T7E1 mismatch assay, and Sanger's sequencing. Absence of the protein expression in genome edited cells was reconfirmed by immunofluorescence microscopy and flow cytometric analysis. Rat anti-mouse CD47 antibody clone miap301 (BD Biosciences, NJ) was used as a primary antibody to determine the absence of CD47 expression in edited cells. This antibody was used at a final concentration of 10 μg/mL (1:50 dilution). Goat anti-rat IgG tagged with AlexaFluor-488 (2 mg/mL) (Sigma-Aldrich, MO) was used as a secondary antibody. This antibody was used at a final concentration of 10 μg/mL (1:200 dilution).
The required gRNA sequence (in the form of a ligated double stranded DNA, Invitrogen, CA) was cloned into the cloning site of the plasmid under a U6 promoter, using restriction digestion. The cloning site was flanked by restriction sites for Bbsl enzyme (New England Biolabs, MA). Two gRNAs were used, targeting Exons 1 and 2 of the cd47 gene. The distance between the cut sites for these gRNAs was approx. 12.9 kb. Confirmation of knockout was done using a PCR primer set (MA-FP/MC-RP) (Eurofins Genomics, KY) flanking the cut sites. The deletion of the 12 kb fragment was visually analyzed by PCR (BioRad, CA) and gel electrophoresis.
In vitro phagocytosis assay. Macrophages were extracted from bone marrows flushed out from the femurs of naïve mice, plated on 10 cm dishes. The growth medium was supplemented with 10 μg/ml GM-CSF. The cells were cultured for 7 days—the growth medium was replaced every 3 days. 5×104 macrophages were co-cultured with 1×105 Carboxyfluorescein (CFSE)-labeled B16F10 tumor cells in RPMI 1640 (Gibco, MD) for 2 hours at 37° C. and 5% CO2 in the presence of 0.5 μg opsonizing antibodies, anti-CD47 miap301 (BD Biosciences, NJ) and anti-gp75 TA99 (BioXCell, NH). Macrophages were then stained with APC-tagged F4/80 (Biolegend, CA). Phagocytosis analysis was done on a BD FACS Aria II flow cytometer.
Vaccination and animal study. 7-week-old female C57BL/6 mice (Jackson Laboratory, ME) were housed in a pathogen-free facility in the vivarium of Binghamton University. All animal study procedures were approved by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee (IACUC) at Binghamton University.
5×105 B16F10 cells were implanted on the left flank of 7-week-old female C57BL/6 mice to induce the tumor development. The tumors were measured using calipers every alternate day after tumor growth was observed.
To prepare whole cell vaccines, CD47−/− B16F10 cells (Referred to as CD47−/− 3BD9) and CD47+/+ B16F10 cells (Referred to as B16 WT) were irradiated with 35Gy gamma irradiation using a Cs source (University of Rochester Medical Center).
Mice (15 animals per group) were vaccinated with 5×105 irradiated 3BD9 or B16 WT cells subcutaneously on the left flank and were challenged with 5×105 live B16F10 cells 7 days later. Two more cohorts of 15 mice each were vaccinated as mentioned above with 3BD9 and B16 WT along with 10 μg/mouse of a STING pathway agonist, 2′3′-c-di-AM(PS)2 (Rp,Rp) VacciGrade™ (InVivoGen).
Tumors and TDLNs at three different stages of tumor growth—small (200-300 mm3), medium (500-600 mm3), and large (800-900 mm3)—were collected from 5 mice per group after euthanasia by CO2 inhalation. For the mice that did not develop tumors, TDLNs alone were collected 90-days post tumor challenge. Organs were enzymatically digested and made into single cell suspensions for immunostaining.
Immunophenotyping. To determine the types of tumor infiltrating lymphocytes (TILs) and TDLN lymphocytes, single cell suspensions of the tumors and TDLNs were stained using two multicolor panels covering the APC compartment—macrophages (Mφ), dendritic cells (DCs), myeloid derived suppressor cells (MDSCs), and monocytes; and the effector cell compartment—cytotoxic T cells (CTLs), helper T cells (TH cells), memory cells, regulatory T cells (T-regs), natural killer (NK) cells, and activated effector cells. All pre-conjugated antibodies were purchased from Biolegend unless otherwise specified. Samples were run on LSR Fortessa flow cytometers (University of Rochester Medical Center Flow Core Facility) and analyzed using the FlowJo software v10 (TreeStar).
Statistical Analyses. All statistical analyses were performed on GraphPad Prism. The non-parametric Mantel-Cox test was used for survival and tumor-free mice data. For other correlative analyses either a one-way ANOVA or an unpaired t test was performed based on the number of groups being compared. The Shapiro-Wilk test was used to determine population distribution when necessary. 95% confidence interval was used in all analyses to accept or reject the null hypothesis.
Nucleofection of RNPs. For knocking out CD47 from GVAX cells (GM-CSF producing B16F10 cells), the ribonucleoprotein (RNP) method was used. gRNA (in the form of mRNA, Integrative DNA Technologies, IA)) was complexed with purified Cas9-3NLS protein in vitro (obtained from Integrative DNA Technologies, IA), and the mixture was added to GVAX cells and electroporated using the Neon Electroporation System (Invitrogen, CA). The cells were analyzed by flow cytometry (BD FACS Aria II) 6-9 days after electroporation, and CD47−/− cells were sorted for single cell colonies into 96-well plates using the BD FACS Aria II Cell Sorter. GVAX 1FC was chosen as the CD47−/− clone for further studies.
T7E1 mismatch assay. PCR products from CRISPR-edited cells were subjected thermal denaturation at 95° C. and cooled down at the rate of 0.1° C./min to 85° C., and then at the rate of 1° C./min to 25° C. Once cooled, 1U of the T7E1 enzyme (New England Biolabs, MA) was added to the mix and incubated at 37 C for 15 mins—the final volume of the mix was 20 μl. The reaction was stopped using 1.5 μl of 0.25M EDTA, and the digested were run on an agarose gel to check for indels in the cut site.
Immunofluorescence microscopy. Cells were plated on individual wells of a 6-well plate and maintained until they reached 70-80% confluency. The cells were washed with 1× D-PBS (Gibco, MD) once. Then they were fixed with 4% paraformaldehyde (PFA) at room temperature for 15 minutes, and washed twice with 1× D-PBS, followed by blocking with 0.5% BSA for 30 mins at room temperature. After blocking, the cells were incubated with primary antibody for 1 hour at 4° C. and washed once with 1×-DPBS. Secondary antibody was then added to the cells and incubated for 1 hour at 4° C. After another wash with 1×-DPBS, the cells were counterstained with a 1:1000 dilution of DAPI (Invitrogen, CA) at room temperature for 15 minutes. The cells were again washed twice with 1× D-PBS and viewed using a fluorescence microscope (Nikon, NY).
In vitro phagocytosis of GM-CSF producing B16F10 cells (GVAX). GVAX is a type of B16F10 mouse melanoma cell line that is genetically engineered to produce the cytokine granulocyte macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF). This cytokine is imperative in the growth, function, and maturation of myeloid derived granulocytes including macrophages and dendritic cells. The use of GVAX as a vaccination regime would mean the presence of GM-CSF as an innate adjuvant. Phagocytosis was performed with fresh BMDMs. 5×104 macrophages were co-cultured with 1×105 CFSE-labeled GVAX and B16F10 tumor cells for 2 hours at 37° C. and 5% CO2 in the presence of 0.5 μg opsonizing antibodies, anti-CD47 miap301 (BD Biosciences) and anti-gp75 TA99 (BioXCell). Macrophages were then stained with APC-tagged F4/80. Phagocytosis analysis was done on a BD FACS Aria II flow cytometer.
Phenotyping tumor cells. gp75 profiling for use of TA99 antibody as opsonizing agent in in vitro phagocytosis assay. The B16 WT and CD47−/− 3BD9 cells were treated with purified anti-mouse TA99 primary antibody (BioXCell), and then with a rat anti-mouse Alexa Fluor 488-tagged secondary antibody (Sigma). As a negative control, the same cells were treated with only the secondary antibody. Cells were analyzed by flow cytometry on the BD FACS Aria II.
CD47 profiling of irradiated cells for use as vaccines in vivo. The gamma irradiated cells used as vaccines—B16 WI and CD47−/− 3BD9 cells were stained for cell surface CD47 expression using an Alexa Fluor 647-tagged anti-CD47 antibody, clone miap301 (Biolegend), and analyzed on the BD FACS Aria II. Isotype control for the CD47 antibody, a rat IgG-k Alexa Fluor 647 (Biolegend), was used as a negative control.
Comparison of CD47−/− and WT melanoma tumor growth in vivo. Tumor implants. 5×105 B16F10 tumor cells (CD47−/− and WT) were implanted subcutaneously into the left flanks of 7-week-old female C57BL/6 mice. Tumor growth was observed every alternate day and tumors were measured using a Vernier caliper. Two separate experiments with 4 mice per group were performed to compare the tumor growth pattern. Another cohort of 15 mice per group was used to study tumor infiltrating lymphocytes and TDLN immunophenotypes at three different stages of tumor growth—small (200-300 mm3 tumors), medium (500-600 mm3 tumors), and large (800-900 mm3 tumors).
Organ Preparation and Immuno-Phenotyping.
Tumors. Tumors were harvested at the three stages mentioned above, stored and transported in media containing RPMI 1640 (Gibco), 2% FBS (Sigma), and 1× Pen-Strep antibiotic (Gibco) on ice. Tumors were then digested using 1 mg/ml Collagenase and 10 mg/ml DNase (Sigma) at 37° C. for one 20-minute cycle with intermittent high-speed vortexing, and another 20-minute cycle with intermittent vigorous pipetting. Homogenized suspensions were filtered using a 70 μm filter and suspended in FACS Buffer (1× PBS, 2% FBS, 2 mM EDTA (Gibco), and 25 mM HEPES (Gibco)) until use.
Lymph nodes. TDLNs were harvested from mice along with the tumors and transported separately in media containing RPMI 1640 (Gibco), 2% FBS (Sigma), and 1× Pen-Strep antibiotic (Gibco) on ice. TDLNs were cut into small pieces using a sharp scalpel and 26G needle (BD Biosciences). Fragments were placed in 2 ml warm Digest Buffer containing 1 mg/ml Collagenase and 10 mg/ml DNase and digested at 37° C. for 30 minutes with intermittent high-speed vortexing. Fragments were filtered using a 70 μm filter and suspended in FACS Buffer until use.
Immunostaining. Approximately 2-4 million cells from tumors and 0.5-1 million cells from TDLNs were transferred to non-treated U-bottom 96-well plates (Costar). Two multi-color panels were used for tumors and TDLNs—Panel T1 for tumors and Panel SL1 for TDLNs (containing all the antibodies for phenotyping the APC compartment, and tumor antigens), and Panel P2 for both (containing an antibody cocktail for phenotyping the effector cell compartment). All the antibodies used in this experiment were titrated using mouse melanoma tumors and the dilutions were optimized for use in the multi-color panels. CD16/CD32 Fc Block (Biolegend, CA) was used to block immune cell receptors along with the antibody cocktails. Cells were stained for extracellular antigens in FACS Buffer for 30 minutes on ice, and then fixed and permeabilized using the Transcription Factor Buffer Set (BD Biosciences) for 30 minutes at 4° C. The intracellular antigen staining was performed using the Perm/Wash Buffer from the set for 30 minutes at 4° C. Stained cells were stored in the dark at 4° C. in FACS Buffer until analysis by flow cytometry. Multi-color compensation was performed by staining polymer beads from the AbC Antibody Compensation Kit (Invitrogen) with the appropriate amounts of all antibodies used in the staining panels.
The present application is a non-provisional of, and claims benefit of priority under 35 U.S.C. § 119(e) from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 62/743,404, filed Oct. 10, 2018, the entirety of which is expressly incorporated herein by reference.
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| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20200113986 A1 | Apr 2020 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 62743801 | Oct 2018 | US |
