Schizophrenia gene signatures and methods of using the same

Abstract

Compositions and methods that are useful for the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia are provided. More specifically, “gene signatures” are described that are characteristic of schizophrenia in an individual. The specific classes of genes that can be identified from these signatures are useful in that they provide the basis for identification of novel therapeutic protein targets for the treatment of schizophrenia, and provide potential diagnostic markers for schizophrenia and markers for evaluating the therapeutic response to antipsychotic agents.

Description

STATEMENT UNDER 37 C.F.R. §1.77(b)(4)

This application refers to a “Sequence Listing” listed below, which is provided as an electronic document on two identical compact discs, labeled “Copy 1” and “Copy 2.” These compact discs each contain the file named “100M970.ST25.pdf” (670,208 bytes, created on Jun. 21, 2004). Pursuant to 37 C.F.R. § 1.77(b)(4), the sequence listing on these compact disc is hereby incorporated by reference into the subject application.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

The present invention relates to compositions and methods that are useful for the diagnosis and treatment of schizophrenia. More specifically, the invention comprises sets of genes referrred to as “gene signatures” that are characteristic of schizophrenia in an individual. The set of genes marked by the signatures provide the basis for the identification of novel therapeutic protein targets for schizophrenia, as well as potential diagnostic markers for schizophrenia and markers for evaluating the therapeutic response to antipsychotic agents.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

In order to facilitate reference to various journal articles, a listing of the articles is provided at the end of this specification. However, the listing or citation of these or other references does not constitute an admission that the reference(s) is(are) “prior art” to the present invention.

Schizophrenia is estimated to be prevalent in up to 1% of the population. While small molecule drugs are used to treat the disease, these drugs all exhibit side effects. In addition, many patients are or become resistant to these treatments. The mode of action for these drugs is thought to be through antagonist/agonist action of G protein coupled receptors that mediate neurotransmission. These small molecule-receptor interactions may also be responsible for the negative or side effects of these drugs as well. The major challenge in developing superior drugs that treat the root causes or impairments in schizophrenia is the lack of identified biochemical process targets that are aberrant in the disease.

Biochemical studies on post-mortem schizophrenic tissue have to date not provided a comprehensive set of such biochemical targets that are amenable to drug discovery. Several brain regions have been implicated in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, particularly the hippocampus, frontal cortex, and temporal lobe (Tamminga et al., 1992; Benes, et al., 2002). Biochemical changes within these regions include decreases in neuronal size, increased cellular packing densities, distortions in neuronal orientation (Arnold & Trojanowski, 1996; Byne et al., 2002; Harrison, 1999), alterations in various neurotransmitter pathways and presynaptic components (Beasley et al., 2002; Benes, 2000). Changes include findings from positron emission tomography imaging studies, which have revealed abnormalities of regional cerebral blood flow (CBF) and glucose metabolism in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of schizophrenic patients (Tamminga et al., 1992; Dickey et al., 2002; McCarley et al., 1999; Kishimoto et al., 1998). At a cellular level, cortical interneurons, hippocampal dentate granule neurons, and CA3 pyramidal cells have been most strongly implicated as being different in schizophrenia or bipolar disease. Unfortunately, these morphological studies provide little information about potential functional impairments or routes for therapeutic intervention using drug discovery methods.

An alternative strategy is the comparison of gene expression profiles within defined neuron populations from the brains of normal and diseased patients. A single study has combined laser capture microdissection (LCM) with T7-based RNA amplification to obtain genomic expression profiles from a neuronal population, the rat dorsal root ganglion (Luo et al., 1999; Van Gelder et al., 1990; Eberwine et al., 1990). The only similar study in on brain tissues identified gene expression in single entorhinal cortical neurons in schizophrenic and normal cases (Hemby et al., 2002). A down-regulation of various G-protein-coupled receptor-signaling transcripts, glutamate receptor subunits, and synaptic proteins was seen in the schizophrenia cases.

The advent of microarray-based gene expression profiling has allowed several groups to identify CNS gene expression changes in schizophrenics. These studies have uniformly used frozen blocks of frontal cortex, and revealed alterations in genes that encode for proteins involved in synaptic signaling (Hemby et al., 2002; Mirnics et al., 2000), neurotransmitters (Vawter et al; Bahn et al. 2001), myelination (Hakak et al., 2001; Davis et al., 2003) and energy metabolism (Middleton et al., 2002). However, the presence of multiple cell types within the tissue blocks used in these studies may dilute and mask gene expression changes otherwise seen in specific cell populations. The impact of schizophrenia or any psychiatric disease on gene expression within hippocampal neurons remains unknown.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention provides novel “gene signatures” that are indicative of schizophrenia. Another embodiment of the invention comprises a method for diagnosing whether a patient has schizophrenia. In yet another embodiment, the invention comprises a method for monitoring a therapeutic response in an individual undergoing treatment for schizophrenia. In an alternative embodiment, the present invention provides kits for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual. In another embodiment, the present invention describes measurement of gene expression profiles of neurons extracted from the hippocampal dentate gyrus or CA3 region of schizophrenic, bipolar, major depression patients and controls. Amplified antisense RNA (aRNA) prepared from these samples is analyzed, e.g., by cDNA microarrays to identify disease-specific changes in gene expression. The dentate granule cells and CA3 neurons reveal robust changes in gene expression in schizophrenia relative to controls. Most pronounced are decreases in macromolecular complexes involved in mitochondrial function and energy metabolism (NADH dehyrdogenase, malate dehyrdogenase, ubininol:cytochrome c reductase, succinate dehydrogenase, cytochrome c oxidase and ATP synthase) and proteasome function (proteasome subunits, ubiquitin, and proteasome-specific ATP synthase). Genes involved in synaptic transmission (syntaxin 8, syntenin, SNAP 25 and drebrin), neurite outgrowth, and cytoskeletal proteins (GAP-43, cadherin-like 22 and contactin and RAB 33-A) are also consistently decreased. These macromolecular-specific changes in gene expression in schizophrenia demonstrate highly statistically significant decreases in expression level between the normal and schizophrenic data sets.

A second example describes experiments in which gene expression profiles of neurons extracted from the hippocampal dentate gyrus of schizophrenic, bipolar, major depression patients and controls were measured. Amplified antisense RNA (aRNA) prepared from these samples is analyzed, e.g., by cDNA microarrays to identify disease-specific changes in gene expression. Again, the dentate granule cells reveal robust changes in gene expression in schizophrenia relative to controls. These changes in gene expression are not observed with bipolar disorder or non-psychotic major depression data sets, or in dentate neurons of rats treated chronically with clozapine. In addition, these changes in gene expression in schizophrenia are not associated with patient demographics including age, sex, brain weight, body weight, post-mortem interval, or drug history. Decreases in expression level between the normal and schizophrenic data sets are observed in large, overlapping clusters of genes that encode for protein turnover (i.e. proteasome subunits and ubiquitin), mitochondrial oxidative energy metabolism (i.e. isocitrate, lactate, malate, NADH and succinate dehydrogenases; cytochrome C oxidase and ATP synthase) and genes associated with neurite outgrowth, cytoskeletal proteins and synapse plasticity. These sets of genes are useful in that they provide the basis for the identification of novel therapeutic protein targets for the treatment of schizophrenia, potential diagnostic markers for schizophrenia, and markers for evaluating the therapeutic response to antipsychotic agents.

The invention therefore provides nucleic acids which can be used collectively in methods of the present invention, e.g. for diagnosing or treating schizopherenia, or for monitoring a therapy (for example, the administration of one or more drugs or other therapeutic compounds) to treat schizopherenia in an individual. Such collections of nucleic acids, are also referred here as a “gene signature” and comprise collections of nucleic acid sequences that are demonstrated (e.g., in the Examples of this application) to exhibit robust changes in gene expression in individuals with schzopherenia relative to control or reference groups who do not have or exhibit symptoms of that disease.

In one aspect, therefore, the invention provides methods in which a gene signature of the invention is used to diagnose schizophrenia in an individual. Such methods generally involve obtaining a cell or tissue sample from an individual who is either suspected of having schizopherenia or who is at risk for that disease (e.g., because of a family history of schizopherenia), and detecting or otherwise determining the expression level for at least one gene (i.e., one nucleic acid) in a gene signature of the invention. The determined expression level(s) for the one or more nucleic acids are then compared to expression levels of those nucleic acids in an individual (which can actually be the average from a collection of individuals) who does not have schizopherenia. A substantial or statistically significant difference in the expression level(s) of the nucleic acid in the first individual relative to the levels of expression in an individual(s) not having schizopherenia then indicates that the individual being tested does have, or is at risk of developing schizopherenia.

In another embodiment, the invention provides methods (e.g. screening methods) for identifying compounds that can be used to treat schizophrenia. Generally speaking, such methods involve contacting a cell or tissue sample with a test compound, determining the expression in the cell or tissue sample, of one or more nucleic acids in a gene signature of the invention. The expression level(s) thus determined can then be compared to expression level(s) for the nucleic acid(s) in a control cell or tissue sample that is not contacted with the test compound. In these methods, a difference in the expression of the nucleic acid(s) when the cell or tissue sample is contacted with the test compound indicates that the test compound can be used, or is at least a candidate compound, for treating schizoprenia. In preferred embodiments of those methods, a neural cell (or more precisely, a neural cell line) is used. However, other types of cells or tissue samples can also be used.

In still other embodiments, the invention provides methods for monitoring a therapy or a “therapeutic response” in an individual who is being treated for schizophrenia. Such methods generally involve steps of determining, e.g., in a cell or tissue sample from the individual, the level of expression for one or more genes in a gene signature of the invention, and comparing these determined expression levels to level(s) of expression, e.g., in a cell or tissue sample not having or undergoing a therapy for schizophrenia. More typically, expression levels are compared to a collective average of expression levels in individuals who do not have and/or are not undergoing therapy for schizophrenia. Alternatively, the determined expression levels can be compared to a collective average of expression levels in individuals who have successfully undergone therapy for schizophrenia. In such methods, a successful therepautic response is indicated if the determined expression level(s) is (are) similar to the corresponding expression level(s) in individuals against which the determined expression levels are compared.

In all of the above-described methods, the “gene signature” nucleic acids can be any one of, or a combination of two gene signature nucleic acids described here. Preferred nucleic acids are set forth in Table 14, infra, and in SEQ ID NOS: 1-249. In preferred embodiments, expression levels for a plurality of these gene signature nucleic acids are determined is used. For example, the expression levels for at least 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80, 90, 100, 110, 120, 130, 140, 150 or more gene signature nucleic acids can be determined and used in the various methods of this invention. In particularly preferred embodiments, expression levels are determined for at least 14, for at least 28, or for at least 42 gene signature nucleic acids.

Another aspect of the invention is a kit for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual comprising a plurality of nucleic acid probes. In this aspect of the invention, each of the probes contained in the kit specifically hybridizes of any one or more of the genes identified in Table 14. In yet another aspect of the invention is a kit for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual comprising a plurality of primer pairs. In this aspect of the invention, each of the primer pairs contained in the kit specifically amplifies any one or more of the genes identified in Table 14. In preferred embodiments, one or more polymerase are used to amplify the genes. Preferably, the kits of the present invention further comprise a detectable label.

In yet another embodiment, the diagnostic methods of the invention comprise a step of measuring the expression level of any one or more of the genes identified in Table 14, infra, in an individual who is undergoing treatment for schizophrenia. The one or more measured expression levels may then be compared to the expression levels of the corresponding gene signatures described herein for individuals who do not have schizophrenia. A therapeutic response is indicated if the expression levels in the individual who is undergoing treatment for schizophrenia are similar to the expression levels (gene signature) derived from tissue samples of individuals who do not have schizophrenia.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIGS. 1A-D is a representative photomicrographs of dentate granule neurons collected from human hippocampus. FIG. 1A depicts low (12.5X) magnification of the Nissl-stained section. FIG. 1B depicts high (40X) magnification of Nissl-stained section. FIG. 1C depicts high (40X) magnification of the tissue surrounding the dentate cell layer within the transfer film. FIG. 1D depicts high (40X) magnification of the dentate neurons embedded within the transfer film.

FIGS. 2A-C show scatter plots as follows: FIG. 2A shows scatter plots of gene expression changes in the dentate gyrus for schizophrenia of cohort 1 (n=8-10 per group); FIG. 2B shows scatter plots of gene expression changes in the dentate gyrus for bipolar disorder of cohort 1 (n=8-10 per group); and FIG. 2C shows scatter plots of gene expression changes in the dentate gyrus for depression cases of cohort 1 (n=8-10 per group). For each gene (black dot), the ratio of the average relative expression value in disease versus that for controls (n=9) is plotted on the y-axis. The x-axis is the average intensity for the specified gene in control cases.

FIGS. 3A-B shows the numbers of modulated genes identified in cohorts 1 and 2 as follows: FIG. 3A shows the number of decreased genes identified in cohorts 1 and 2 to the left or right of each circle, respectively (p<0.05;>25% decrease). FIG. 3B shows the number of increased genes identified in cohorts 1 and 2 to the left or right of each circle, respectively (p<0.5;>25% decrease). The maximum percent overlap between adjacent circles (% overlap) is presented. The 36% and 28% overlaps in decreases and increases between the two cohorts were 7- and 5-fold more likely than would be expected by chance, respectively, from the 12,388 and 12,725 genes whose basal expression were detected in either cohort.

FIGS. 4A-F show the two-way ANOVA of the 263 genes that showed co-directional changes in both schizophrenia cohorts. Distribution of the number of genes (“count”) whose variance changed as a function of each demographic factor, plotted for several significance value ranges (“p value”). FIG. 4A is a plot of the significance value range versus the distribution for Disease. FIG. 4B is a plot of the of the significance value range versus the distribution for Brain pH. FIG. 4C is a plot of the significance value range versus the distribution for Brain Weight. FIG. 4D is a plot of the significance value range versus the distribution for PMI. FIG. 4E is a plot of the significance value range versus the distribution for Brain pH. FIG. 4F is a plot of the significance value range versus the distribution for Sex. Note the expanded scale for p values between 0 and 0.2 for Disease (FIG. 4A) and Brain pH (4 C).

FIGS. 5A-D show expression of four genes representative in the individual controls and schizophrenic cases as follows: FIG. 5A shows expression of the proteasome; FIG. 5B shows expression of ubiquitin, FIG. 5C shows the expression of lactate dehydrogenase A and FIG. 5D shows the expression of NADH dehydrogenase. Mean expression level for each group is indicated by the black bar. Arrows identify the 3 patients who were not on antipsychotics at the time of death. These genes were also not altered in dentate neurons of rats (n=10/group) treated with the pharmacologically complex antipsychotic drug, clozapine, used by half of the schizophrenic patients. Expression levels for the half of the schizophrenia cases who had been treated with clozapine were evenly distributed within the entire group.

FIG. 6 is a schematic summarizing the biochemical pathways for which the most affected mRNA species were found in schizophrenia, and their relation to excitatory neurotransmitter inputs, pH control, and synaptic functions.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE TABLES

Table 1. Lists genes relevant to mitochondria that were identified as being significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 2. Lists genes relevant to non-mitochondrial energy metabolism that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 3. Lists genes relevant to the ubiquitin-proteasome system that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 4. Lists lysosomal genes that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 5. Lists genes relevant to immune/inflammatory mediators that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 6. Lists genes relevant to synaptic plasticity, growth and development that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Table 7. List binomial probabilities for some gene groups in which disproportionately high levels of individual genes are down regulated by schizophrenia in dentate.

Table 8. Lists the diagnostic category (Description), case ID number, case age, sex, PMI, brain pH, brain weight, body weight, and cumulative antipsychotic exposure of the 65 cases in Cohorts 1 and 2.

Table 9. Lists groupings of altered genes into functional pathways based upon binomial probability computation or Fisher exact test calculated by the EASE software. The functional categories in parentheses are for the EASE calculations. Bonferroni corrections (Bonf.) are a division of the p value score by the 11,000 distinct terms in gene ontology for the Binomial method and 9,000 terms used in EASE. A value of 1 indicated non-significant p value. Unmarked boxes represent terms not used by EASE or our binomial analysis.

Table 10. Lists genes relevant to the mitochondria and energy metabolism system that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons in Cohorts 1 and 2.

Table 11. Lists genes relevant to the ubiquitin-proteasome system that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons in Cohorts 1 and 2.

Table 12. Lists genes relevant to neuronal plasticity, growth and development that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons in Cohorts 1 and 2.

Table 13. Validation of representative changes in mitochondrial, proteasome, ubitquitin, and neuronal plasticity genes using TawMan Q-PCR. Microarray Cohort 1: n=9/group, Cohort 2:n=14-15/group Q-PCR Cohorts 1 and 2: n=22 control, 20 schizophrenic cases.

Table 14. List of genes that were identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). The average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus neurons in Cohorts 1 and 2.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is now described, in detail, by way of the following particular examples. However, the use of such examples is illustrative only and in no way limits the scope or meaning of this invention or any exemplified term. Nor is the invention limited to any preferred embodiments(s) described herein. Indeed, many modifications and variations of the invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading this specification, and such “equivalents” can be made without departing from the invention in spirit or scope.

EXAMPLE 1

Identification of Mitochondrial; Non-Mitochondrial Energy; Ubiquitin Proteasome; Lysosomal; Immune/Inflammatory Mediator; and Synaptic Plasticity, Growth and Development Genes Differentially Expressed in Schizophrenia

LCM and cDNA microarrays were used to profile gene expression within hippocampal dentate granule or CA3 neurons in normal controls and in patients with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or depression. Reported is the specific down-regulation of large numbers of genes in the hippocampus of schizophrenic patients that encode for a few distinct macromolecular complexes. These complexes are involved in mitochondrial function, energy metabolism, proteasome function, lysosomal function, and synaptic transmission.

Materials and Methods

• Human tissue: All post-mortem brain tissues used in the present study were obtained from the Stanley Foundation Neuropathology Consortium. The patients were diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria and comprised those with schizophrenia, bipolar disease, depression, and also included control patients who were free of diagnosed psychiatric disease (n=10-13 patients per group).
• Preparation of sections: Ten μm-thick frozen coronal sections that contained the hippocampus were thaw-mounted onto 2×3 inch gelatin-coated microscope slides and stored at −80 deg C. until use.
• Cell capture: Each section was quick-thawed, fixed in 75% ethanol, re-hydrated in dH2O and stained for 2 min. with Arcturus Histogene™ staining solution. The sections were dehydrated in ascending ethanols, placed into xylene for 5 minutes and air-dried for 15 minutes prior to laser-capture. Approximately 1000 dentate granule cells or CA3 cells were micro-dissected from each of 2-3 sections using an Arcturus PixCell II-eTM laser-capture microscope. All tissue collection and subsequent procedures were conducted in a blind and counterbalanced manner between the four patient groups.
• RNA Amplification: The total RNA extracted from the dentate granule or CA3 cells of each patient sample underwent two rounds of linear amplification using the Arcturus RiboAmp kit, yielding an average of 167 ug of amplified RNA (aRNA) for each sample. Equal amounts of each control sample were pooled to generate a common reference sample, against which the individual samples were hybridized on microarrays.
• RNA Labeling for Agilent Microarrays. 400 ng of aRNA (individual or common reference sample) was mixed with 400 ng of random hexamers (Promega) in a volume of 50 ul, denatured for 10 min at 700° C., chilled on ice, and collected by brief centrifugation. 50 ul of a 2× master mix (containing First Strand Reaction Buffer, DTT, dNTPs and MMLV-RT from the Agilent Direct-Label cDNA Synthesis Kit and 2.5 ul of 1.0 uM Cyanine 3-dCTP or Cyanine 5-dCTP from Perkin-Elmer NEN) was added on ice. Reactions were incubated for 10 min at 25° C., 1 h at 42° C., and 10 min at 70° C., chilled on ice, and collected by brief centrifugation. Following treatment with 2 ul of 0.05 mg/ml RNase IA (Agilent Technologies) for 30 min at room temperature, the labeled cDNA was purified using the QIAquick PCR Purification Kit (Qiagen) following the manufacturer's directions, with an additional wash step of 0.75 ml 35% guanidine hydrochloride prior to washing with Qiagen buffer PE. The purified Cy3 and Cy5-labeled cDNAs were combined, concentrated to dryness in a Speedvac centrifuge concentrator (Savant), and resuspended in 7.5 ul H2O.
• Hybridization, Washing, and Scanning of Agilent Human 1 cDNA Microarrays. 2.5 ul Deposition Control Target (Operon), 2.5 ul human 1 mg/ml COT-1 DNA (Invitrogen), and 12.5 ul 2× Hybridization Buffer (Agilent) was added to the labeled cDNA. The mixture was heated at 98° C. for 2 min, centrifuged for 5 min at room temperature and applied to coverslipped Agilent Human 1 cDNA Microarrays. Arrays were hybridized for 17 hr at 65° C. in humidified chambers (Corning). Coverslips were removed by submerging briefly in 0.5×SSC, 0.01% SDS, then arrays were agitated for 5 min at room temperature in the same buffer, followed by 2 min in room temperature 0.06×SSC. Slides were dried by centrifugation at 500×g and scanned using the Agilent G2565AA Microarray Scanner System.
• Microarray Data Analysis: Only those genes that produced an average intensity of at least 300 in at least one of the sample groups were evaluated. The log ratio for each sample/reference value was determined for each gene and the mean log ratio calculated for each patient group. Log ratios are utilized in the processing of two-channel array data because it is expected that the distribution of log ratios is closer to normality than the distribution of ratios. For each gene, the mean ratio for the patient group was then divided by the mean ratio of the control group to calculate the fold change between the two groups. Welch t test p values were determined by comparing schizophrenia/reference log ratios to control/reference log ratios for each gene. Genes were selected as those with a p value<0.05 and a fold change compared to controls of greater than 25%.

Results

Tables 1-6 below provide lists of genes identified as being significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10-13/group). These genes were in each table according to their relevance to mitochondria (Table 1), non-mitochondrial energy metabolism (Table 2), the ubiquitin-proteasome system (Table 3), lysosome (Table 4), immune/inflammatory mediators (Table 5), and synaptic plasticity, growth and development (Table 6). In each table, the average change (“ratio”) and statistical relevance (“P value”) is presented for the hippocampal dentate gyrus (“Dentate”) and cells collected in the CA3 region of the hippocampus (“CA3”).

Microarray experiments, such as the ones described here, simultaneously measure changes in the expression of many different genes. Therefore, there is some concern that many of the observed changes may result from chance fluctuations and are not representative of a real disease effect on gene expression. The likelihood of chance fluctuations is significantly less is multiple changes are observed among genes of a common pathway, macromolecular complex or other biological functional group. This is because, where such a “cluster” of genes is truly affected by a disease, the proportion of gene changes within that cluster will be significantly greater than the proportion of gene changes among all genes expressed by the cell(s).

In the experiments described here, binomial probabilities are used to assess whether the proportion of genes in a functional group that are declared “hits” (based on the cut-off criteria for p-values and ratios) is significantly greater than the average proportion of hits among all genes. For example, in the dentate experiments described here, 9342 genes were expressed at levels that pass the abundance cut-off requirement of 300. Of these expressed genes, a total of 576 genes were downregulated in schizophrenia with p-values below 0.05 and ratios less than 0.8. Hence, the probability that any randomly selected gene is downregulated is schizophrenia is 576/9342 or 6.17%. Of the expressed genes, 55 are in the proteasome pathway and 14 (i.e., approximately 25%) of those genes are down-regulated with p-values and ratios that fall below the above-mentioned cut-off values. Yet the probability that 14 randomly selected genes (out of the total 9342 genes expressed) are all down regulated is only (0.0617)¹⁴=4.5×10⁻⁶. Similar binomial probabilities are set forth in Table 7, infa, for other pathway groups. Such a low probabilities give great confidence that the fluctuations observed among the different pathway genes are real effects of the schizophrenia disease and not merely a random fluctuation in gene expression.

	TABLE 1
	CA3
	Dentate		P
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	Value
2,4-dienoyl CoA reductase 1, mitochondrial	L26050			0.726	0.0377
3-hydroxybutyrate dehydrogenase (heart,	AW246790			0.687	0.0067
mitochondrial)
acetyl-Coenzyme A acetyltransferase 1	D90228	0.799	0.00793
(acetoacetyl Coenzyme A thiolase)
acetyl-Coenzyme A acyltransferase 2	D16294	0.733	0.01538
(mitochondrial 3-oxoacyl-Coenzyme A thiolase)
acyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase, C-4 to C-12	AA505399			0.751	0.0459
straight chain
AFG3 ATPase family gene 3-like 2 (yeast)	Y18314	0.673	0.00791
alternative; H. sapiens gene for phosphate	X77337	0.756	0.00106
carrier.
arginase, type II	D86724	0.777	0.02395
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	X60221	0.649	0.00126
F0 complex, subunit b, isoform 1
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	BE383477	0.646	0.00084	0.621	0.0328
F0 complex, subunit c (subunit 9) isoform 3
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	D13119	0.795	0.01715
F0 complex, subunit c (subunit 9), isoform 2
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	NM_007100	0.787	0.00134
F0 complex, subunit e
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	AI138629	0.755	0.00252
F0 complex, subunit g
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	D14710	0.682	0.00078	0.680	0.0375
F1 complex, alpha subunit, isoform 1, cardiac
muscle
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	AF052955	0.781	0.00427
F1 complex, epsilon subunit
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	D16563	0.697	0.00483	0.590	0.0491
F1 complex, gamma polypeptide 1
ATP synthase, H+ transporting, mitochondrial	AI215675	0.679	0.00008	0.665	0.0455
F1 complex, O subunit (oligomycin sensitivity
conferring protein)
ATP/ADP translocator; Human heart/skeletal	J04982	0.652	0.00035
muscle ATP/ADP translocator (ANT1) gene,
complete cds.
cytochrome b-245, beta polypeptide (chronic	X04011	0.747	0.00029	0.775	0.0365
granulomatous disease)
cytochrome b5 outer mitochondrial membrane	AB009282	0.757	0.00878	0.671	0.0142
precursor
cytochrome c oxidase subunit IV isoform 1	NM_001861	0.786	0.00198
cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIc	X13238	0.738	0.00244
cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIIa polypeptide	AA525082	0.660	0.00026
2 (liver)
cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIIa polypeptide	AI355189	0.776	0.00910
2 like
cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIIb	AI209213	0.654	0.00085	0.771	0.0399
cytochrome c; Human somatic cytochrome c	M22877	0.632	0.00205	0.576	0.0311
(HCS) gene, complete cds.
cytochrome P450 4F4	AAC52358	0.772	0.03089
cytochrome P450IIE1; Human cytochrome	J02843			0.769	0.0377
P450IIE1 (ethanol-inducible) gene, complete
cds.
diaphorase (NADH) (cytochrome b-5	M16462	0.795	0.01151
reductase)
diazepam binding inhibitor (GABA receptor	AA868701	0.738	0.00040
modulator, acyl-Coenzyme A binding protein)
dihydrolipoamide dehydrogenase (E3	J03620	0.779	0.00246	0.728	0.0162
component of pyruvate dehydrogenase
complex, 2-oxo-glutarate complex, branched
chain keto acid dehydrogenase complex)
electron-transfer-flavoprotein, alpha	W19485	0.698	0.00087
polypeptide (glutaric aciduria II)
electron-transfer-flavoprotein, beta polypeptide	X71129	0.787	0.03428
enoyl Coenzyme A hydratase 1, peroxisomal	AI718453			0.780	0.0316
EST, Highly similar to CY1_HUMAN	AK026633	0.712	0.00815	0.649	0.0194
Cytochrome c1, heme protein, mitochondrial
precursor [H. sapiens]
EST, Moderately similar to NUML_HUMAN	AL110150	0.669	0.01789	0.593	0.0284
NADH-ubiquinone oxidoreductase MLRQ
subunit (Complex I-MLRQ) (CI-MLRQ)
[H. sapiens]
EST, Weakly similar to TTC1_HUMAN	AK000594	0.781	0.03182
Tetratricopeptide repeat protein 1 (TPR repeat
protein 1) [H. sapiens]
fatty-acid-Coenzyme A ligase, very long-chain 1	NM_003645	0.763	0.00873
glutamic-oxaloacetic transaminase 2,	M22632	0.767	0.01843	0.735	0.0367
mitochondrial (aspartate aminotransferase 2)
glycine C-acetyltransferase (2-amino-3-	AF077740			0.773	0.0409
ketobutyrate coenzyme A ligase)
glycine cleavage system protein H	D00723	0.674	0.01163
(aminomethyl carrier)
H. sapiens gene encoding enoyl-CoA	X98126	0.787	0.00036
hydratase, exon 1(and joined CDS).
H. sapiens gene for mitochondrial ATP	X69907	0.753	0.00152	0.668	0.0154
synthase c subunit (P1 form).
H. sapiens gene for mitochondrial ATP	X69908	0.798	0.00030
synthase c subunit (P2 form).
Homo sapiens (clone f17252) ubiquinol	L32977	0.587	0.00007
cytochrome c reductase Rieske iron-sulphur
protein (UQCRFS1) gene, exon 2.
Homo sapiens ATP synthase beta subunit	M27132	0.775	0.00423
precursor (ATPSB) gene, complete cds.
Homo sapiens cDNA: FLJ22657 fis, clone	AK026310	0.718	0.00034
HS107791, highly similar to HUMCYB5 Human
cytochrome b5 mRNA.
Homo sapiens cDNA: FLJ22970 fis, clone	AK026623			0.696	0.0496
KAT10766, highly similar to HUMCOXNE
Homo sapiens nuclear-encoded mitochondrial
cytochrome c oxidase Va subunit mRNA.
Human cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIa	U83702	0.722	0.00060
gene, exon 3 and complete cds.
Human cytochrome c oxidase subunit VIII	J04823	0.746	0.00150	0.704	0.0105
(COX8) mRNA, complete cds.
Human DNA sequence from BAC 15E1 on	AL021546	0.742	0.00142
chromosome 12. Contains Cytochrome C
Oxidase Polypeptide VIa-liver precursor gene,
60S ribosomal protein L31 pseudogene, pre-
mRNA splicing factor SRp30c gene, two
putative genes, ESTs, STSs and putative CpG
islands
Human gene for ATP synthase alpha subunit,	D28126	0.717	0.00768	0.661	0.0361
complete cds (exon 1 to 12).
inner membrane protein, mitochondrial	L42572	0.780	0.00339	0.637	0.0485
(mitofilin)
isocitrate dehydrogenase 2 (NADP+),	X69433	0.782	0.00005
mitochondrial
isocitrate dehydrogenase 3 (NAD+) alpha	U07681	0.705	0.00451
isocitrate dehydrogenase 3 (NAD+) beta	BE409783	0.740	0.00356	0.685	0.0456
L-3-hydroxyacyl-Coenzyme A dehydrogenase,	X96752	0.762	0.03391	0.659	0.0337
short chain
liver isoform; Homo sapiens cytochrome-c	AF134406	0.656	0.00051
oxidase subunit VIIaL precursor (COX7AL)
gene, complete cds.
low molecular mass ubiquinone-binding protein	AL036415	0.654	0.00011
(9.5 kD)
malate dehydrogenase 1, NAD (soluble)	D55654	0.695	0.01172
malate dehydrogenase 2, NAD (mitochondrial)	AW249275	0.609	0.00002	0.621	0.0049
malic enzyme 3, NADP(+)-dependent,	X79440			0.665	0.0433
mitochondrial
metaxin 2	AF053551	0.681	0.00044	0.664	0.0488
mitochondrial carrier homolog 1	AF176006	0.723	0.00039	0.685	0.0157
mitochondrial ribosomal protein L3	NM_007208	0.708	0.00202
mitochondrial ribosomal protein L32	AF161401			0.743	0.0159
mitochondrial ribosomal protein L33	NM_004891	0.691	0.00001
mitochondrial ribosomal protein S18A	AK001410	0.786	0.03928
mitochondrial ribosomal protein S30	AL355715			0.673	0.0186
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 alpha	AF087661	0.789	0.00275	0.715	0.0099
subcomplex, 10, 42 kDa
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 alpha	NM_002490			0.690	0.0364
subcomplex, 6, 14 kDa
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 beta	AF047181	0.592	0.00013	0.681	0.0265
subcomplex, 5 (16 kD, SGDH)
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 beta	AF035840	0.706	0.00532
subcomplex, 6 (17 kD, B17)
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1 beta	AF112200			0.787	0.0368
subcomplex, 7, 18 kDa
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1,	BE266480			0.675	0.0247
alpha/beta subcomplex, 1, 8 kDa
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) 1,	AF047184	0.794	0.00186	0.730	0.0460
subcomplex unknown, 1 (6 kD, KFYI)
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe—S	AF050640	0.798	0.00938
protein 2, 49 kDa (NADH-coenzyme Q
reductase)
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe—S	AF020351	0.588	0.00010	0.635	0.0202
protein 4 (18 kD) (NADH-coenzyme Q
reductase
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone) Fe—S	AF038406	0.755	0.01283	0.785	0.0455
protein 8 (23 kD) (NADH-coenzyme Q
reductase)
NADH dehydrogenase (ubiquinone)	AW250734			0.696	0.0090
flavoprotein 1, 51 kDa
ornithine aminotransferase (gyrate atrophy)	M12267	0.752	0.01470
phosphogluconate dehydrogenase	U30255	0.754	0.00104	0.778	0.0429
precursor; Human mitochondrial creatine	J04469			0.696	0.0171
kinase (CKMT) gene, complete cds.
programmed cell death 8 (apoptosis-inducing	AF100928	0.794	0.01132
factor)
propionyl Coenzyme A carboxylase, alpha	S79219	0.752	0.00090
polypeptide
pyruvate dehydrogenase (lipoamide) beta	NM_000925	0.751	0.03512
Pyruvate dehydrogenase complex, lipoyl-	U82328	0.692	0.00460	0.555	0.0287
containing component X; E3-binding protein
SCO cytochrome oxidase deficient homolog 1	AI332708	0.612	0.00034	0.624	0.0437
(yeast)
serine hydroxymethyltransferase 2	NM_005412			0.706	0.0187
(mitochondrial)
similar to CI-AGGG; Homo sapiens NADH-	AF067166	0.704	0.00013
ubiquinone oxidoreductase AGGG subunit
precursor homolog mRNA, nuclear gene
encoding mitochondrial protein, complete cds.
solute carrier family 25 (mitochondrial carrier;	J02683	0.621	0.00029	0.694	0.0220
adenine nucleotide translocator), member 5
succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit A,	L21936	0.739	0.00478	0.662	0.0396
flavoprotein (Fp)
succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit B,	AW960231	0.660	0.00002	0.704	0.0230
iron sulfur (Ip)
succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit C,	D49737	0.775	0.00662
integral membrane protein, 15 kD
succinate dehydrogenase complex, subunit D,	NM_003002	0.660	0.00171
integral membrane protein
surfeit 1	Z35093	0.759	0.00060
thioredoxin reductase 1	D88687	0.754	0.00343
translocase of inner mitochondrial membrane	AW247564	0.625	0.00021	0.641	0.0325
17 homolog A (yeast)
ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase (6.4 kD)	AW163002	0.673	0.00011	0.745	0.0157
subunit
ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase core protein I	AI373152	0.747	0.01916	0.718	0.0241
ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase core protein	NM_003366	0.784	0.00901	0.661	0.0261
II
ubiquinol-cytochrome c reductase hinge	AI093521	0.642	0.00069	0.621	0.0324
protein
voltage-dependent anion channel 1	L06132	0.710	0.00278

	TABLE 2
	Dentate	CA3
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
aldehyde dehydrogenase 9 family,	U34252	0.7402	0.00523
member A1
ferrochelatase (protoporphyria)	D00726	0.7211	0.04746	0.706	0.0224
H. sapiens gene for	X83464	0.7795	0.00007
glucosephosphate isomerase (exon
15, 16, 17 and 18).
H. sapiens lactate dehydrogenase B	X13800	0.7890	0.00152
gene exon 8 (EC 1.1.1.27).
Homo sapiens aldose reductase	AF032455	0.6683	0.00009	0.701	0.0105
gene, complete cds.
Homo sapiens COX17 (COX17)	AF269245			0.664	0.0289
gene, exon 3.
Homo sapiens gene for insulin	AB000732	0.7874	0.00831
receptor substrate-2, complete cds.
Homo sapiens insulin induced	U96876	0.6265	0.00159
protein 1 (INSIG1) gene, complete
cds.
Human aldose reductase (AR)	M59783	0.6571	0.00019	0.733	0.0150
gene, segment 2.
Human glucose transporter 2	L09674			0.709	0.0180
(GLUT2) gene, exon 1.
lactate dehydrogenase A	X02152	0.5732	0.00017	0.558	0.0211
lactate dehydrogenase B	Y00711	0.6206	0.00009
phosphofructokinase, muscle	M26066	0.6892	0.03342
phosphorylase kinase, beta	X84908	0.7328	0.01187
protein phosphatase 1, regulatory	NM_006241	0.7884	0.00771	0.590	0.0482
(inhibitor) subunit 2
sialyltransferase 8A (alpha-N-	NM_003034	0.7236	0.02322
acetylneuraminate: alpha-2,8-
sialytransferase, GD3 synthase)

	TABLE 3
	Dentate	CA3
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
26S proteasome-associated pad1 homolog	U86782	0.717	0.00645	0.665	0.0484
F-box and leucine-rich repeat protein 2	AF176518	0.784	0.00313
Homo sapiens cONA FLJ13228 fis, clone	AK023290			0.650	0.0414
OVARC1000085, highly similar to Human
mRNA for proteasome subunit HC5.
Homo sapiens UbcM2 mRNA, complete cds.	AF085362	0.756	0.00076
Homo sapiens ubiquitin carboxy-terminal	AF076269	0.640	0.00041
hydrolase L1 (UCHL1) gene, exon 3.
Homo sapiens ubiquitin gene.	X04803	0.578	0.00002	0.631	0.0195
Human mannosidase, beta A, lysosomal	AF224669	0.774	0.00026	0.791	0.0278
(MANBA) gene, and ubiquitin-conjugating
enzyme E2D 3 (UBE2D3) genes, complete
cds.
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	L02426	0.778	0.00163
subunit, ATPase, 1
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	BE397250			0.653	0.0284
subunit, ATPase, 4
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	AF006305	0.725	0.00134
subunit, ATPase, 6
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	D44466			0.737	0.0428
subunit, non-ATPase, 1
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	AB009619			0.686	0.0200
subunit, non-ATPase, 10
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	D38047	0.633	0.00007	0.618	0.0152
subunit, non-ATPase, 8
proteasome (prosome, macropain) 26S	AB003177	0.745	0.00031
subunit, non-ATPase, 9
proteasome (prosome, macropain) activator	AA310524	0.728	0.01419	0.716	0.0167
subunit 1 (PA28 alpha)
proteasome (prosome, macropain) inhibitor	D88378	0.750	0.00456
subunit 1 (PI31)
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	AI889267	0.679	0.00049
alpha type, 1
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	D00760	0.735	0.02299	0.619	0.0429
alpha type, 2
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	AF054185	0.799	0.03398
alpha type, 7
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	AL031259	0.713	0.00080	0.677	0.0357
beta type, 1
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	D26598	0.705	0.01348	0.647	0.0275
beta type, 3
proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit,	D29012	0.660	0.00007	0.662	0.0079
beta type, 6
ubiquitin A-52 residue ribosomal protein	AF075321	0.798	0.04430
fusion product 1
ubiquitin B	BE250544	0.638	0.00001	0.680	0.0150
ubiquitin C	AA600188	0.734	0.00290	0.755	0.0252
ubiquitin carrier protein	AI571293	0.794	0.00146	0.750	0.0158
ubiquitin specific protease 14 (tRNA-guanine	NM_005151	0.794	0.01580	0.562	0.0311
transglycosylase)
ubiquitin specific protease 9, X chromosome	NM_004652	0.779	0.00582
(fat facets-like Drosophila)
ubiquitin-activating enzyme E1C (UBA3	AL117566	0.742	0.01442	0.665	0.0277
homolog, yeast)
ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2A (RAD6	NM_003336	0.702	0.00105	0.718	0.0370
homolog)
ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2D 1 (UBC4/5	AI816068	0.768	0.00096	0.629	0.0464
homolog, yeast)
ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2G 1 (UBC7	D78514	0.799	0.02525
homolog, C. elegans)
ubiquitin-conjugating enzyme E2N (UBC13	D83004	0.715	0.00318
homolog, yeast)
ubiquitin-like 1 (sentrin)	U61397	0.740	0.00300

	TABLE 4
	Dentate	CA3
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 13 kD, V1	AW962223	0.609	0.00053	0.475	0.04296
subunit G isoform 2
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 21 kD, V0	D89052	0.759	0.02063	0.734	0.02699
subunit c
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 31 kD, V1	X76228	0.673	0.00003	0.634	0.04942
subunit E isoform 1
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 34 kD, V1	H82183	0.563	0.00031	0.531	0.04111
subunit D
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 38 kDa,	X71490			0.673	0.01133
V0 subunit d isoform 1
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 42 kD, V1	AI338777	0.747	0.01640
subunit C, isoform 1
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 50/57 kD	AF132945	0.718	0.00270
V1 subunit H
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal 56/58 kD,	L35249	0.748	0.00059
V1 subunit B, isoform 2
ATPase, H+ transporting, lysosomal	NM_001183	0.797	0.00741	0.800	0.03972
interacting protein 1
Human lysosomal membrane glycoprotein	M58485	0.765	0.00131
CD63 mRNA.
lipase A, lysosomal acid, cholesterol esterase	X76488	0.683	0.00227	0.719	0.03961
(Wolman disease)
Lysosomal-associated multispanning	U51240			0.758	0.02800
membrane protein-5
lysosomal-associated protein transmembrane	D14696	0.704	0.00196
4 alpha
sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1, acid	X59960	0.727	0.01428
lysosomal (acid sphingomyelinase)

	TABLE 5
	Dentate	CA3
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
alternative; Homo sapiens rac1 gene.	AJ132695	1.295	0.0030
arachidonate 15-lipoxygenase	M23892	1.250	0.0085
CC chemokine receptor-3; CCR3; Human	U51241			1.485	0.0330
eosinophil eotaxin receptor (CMKBR3) gene,
complete cds.
chemokine (C—C motif) ligand 13	U46767			1.324	0.0490
chemokine (C—C motif) receptor 2	U03882	1.265	0.0128
chemokine binding protein 2	U94888	1.272	0.0284
complement component 1, r subcomponent	X04701	1.315	0.0062
complement component 5 receptor 1 (C5a ligand)	M62505	1.285	0.0072
H. sapiens cDNA for TREB protein.	X55543	1.300	0.0228
Human CRFB4 gene, partial cds.	U08988			1.424	0.0429
Human helix-loop-helix protein (HEB) gene,	U35052	1.462	0.0223
promoter region and exon 1.
interleukin 13	NM_002188	1.250	0.0115
interleukin 17 (cytotoxic T-lymphocyte-associated	U32659	1.271	0.0105
serine esterase 8)
interleukin 3 receptor, alpha (low affinity)	M74782	1.355	0.0059	1.439	0.0160
interleukin 6 receptor	NM_000565	1.256	0.0377	1.540	0.0398
interleukin 8 receptor, beta	AW028346	1.311	0.0097
interleukin 9 receptor	M84747	1.267	0.0008
leukocyte immunoglobulin-like receptor, subfamily	AF004231			1.299	0.0353
B (with TM and ITIM domains), member 2
leukocyte-associated Ig-like receptor 1	NM_002287			1.670	0.0052
Lps; encodes most common amino acid sequence	AF177765	1.267	0.0099
in humans; membrane spanning component of the
human LPS receptor; human homolog of the
mouse Lps gene product; Homo sapiens toll-like
receptor 4 (TLR4) gene, TLR4A allele, complete
cds.
mannose-binding lectin (protein C) 2, soluble	X15422			1.499	0.0432
(opsonic defect)
nuclear factor NF-IL6 (AA 1-345); Human gene for	X52560	1.282	0.0011
nuclear factor NF-IL6.
prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2	L15326	1.283	0.0036
(prostaglandin G/H synthase and cyclooxygenase)
receptor-interacting serine-threonine kinase 2	AF027706	1.250	0.0038
transcription factor 7 (T-cell specific, HMG-box)	X59870			1.438	0.0178
vitronectin (serum spreading factor, somatomedin	X03168	1.266	0.0220
B, complement S-protein)

	TABLE 6
	Dentate	CA3
Gene Description	Genbank	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
adaptor-related protein complex 2, sigma 1 subunit	X97074	0.791	0.00088
adaptor-related protein complex 2, sigma 1 subunit	AB030654	0.782	0.00864
adenosine A1 receptor	L22214	0.770	0.03475
ADP-ribosylation factor 4-like	L38490	0.610	0.00019	0.672	0.0212
adrenergic, alpha-1D-, receptor	S70782			0.706	0.0198
amino-terminal enhancer of split; GRG PROTEIN; ESP1	AC005944			0.759	0.0402
PROTEIN; AMINO ENHANCER OF SPLIT; AES-1/AES-2;
gp130 associated protein GAM; Homo sapiens
chromosome 19, cosmid F23613, complete sequence.
amphiphysin (Stiff-Man syndrome with breast cancer	X81438	0.643	0.00039	0.640	0.0442
128 kD autoantigen)
amphiphysin (Stiff-Man syndrome with breast cancer	U07616	0.627	0.00055
128 kD autoantigen)
amyloid beta precursor protein (cytoplasmic tail) binding	D86981			0.697	0.0152
protein 2
brain-derived neurotrophic factor	X60201	0.724	0.03351
cadherin-like 22	AF035300	0.665	0.00037
calbindin 1, 28 kDa	NM_004929	0.633	0.00579
calnexin	L10284	0.765	0.00335	0.744	0.0458
Chrot-Leyden crystal protein	L01664	0.742	0.00000
chromosome 11 open reading frame 8	NM_001584	0.731	0.04126
coated vesicle membrane protein	AK024976	0.729	0.00080
coatomer protein complex, subunit beta 2 (beta prime)	X70476	0.741	0.02229	0.658	0.0395
copine VI (neuronal)	AB009288	0.785	0.02239	0.770	0.0255
development and differentiation enhancing factor 2	AB007860	0.758	0.00386
doublecortin and CaM kinase-like 1	AB002367	0.698	0.02760
drebrin 1	D17530	0.763	0.00047
dynein, axonemal, heavy polypeptide 9	AJ404468	0.697	0.00726	0.698	0.0271
dystrophin related protein 2	U43519			0.706	0.0075
early growth response 3	X63741	0.594	0.00346	0.560	0.0345
ephrin-B3	U66406			0.659	0.0325
fibroblast growth factor 12	U66197	0.792	0.03240
fibroblast growth factor 13	NM_004114	0.755	0.04986
fibroblast growth factor 7 (keratinocyte growth factor)	AI075338	0.706	0.02709
GDP dissociation inhibitor 2	Y13286			0.768	0.0228
glutamate receptor, metabotropic 3	X77748			0.780	0.0338
growth arrest and DNA-damage-inducible, alpha	M60974	0.674	0.02750
growth arrest-specific 2	U95032	0.739	0.04722
growth associated protein 43	M25667	0.609	0.00029
growth associated protein 43	F02494	0.732	0.00127	0.686	0.0280
growth factor receptor-bound protein 10	D86962	0.782	0.03071
Homo sapiens cDNA FLJ10863 fis, clone	AK001725	0.767	0.00400
NT2RP4001575, highly similar to Rattus norvegicus
mRNA for ARE1 protein.
Homo sapiens vesicle trafficking protein sec22b mRNA,	AF047442	0.747	0.00253
complete cds.
human alpha-tubulin mRNA, 3′ end.	K00557			0.699	0.0312
Human fibroblast growth factor homologous factor 4	U66200			0.796	0.0404
(FHF-4) mRNA, complete cds.
huntingtin-associated protein interacting protein (duo)	NM_003947			0.731	0.0422
inhibitor of DNA binding 2, dominant negative helix-loop-	M97796	0.798	0.00443
helix protein
insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor	X04434	0.729	0.00039
kinesin family member 3C	AF035621	0.798	0.02051
low density lipoprotein receptor (familial	NM_000527	0.631	0.00136	0.783	0.0408
hypercholesterolemia)
low density lipoprotein-related protein-associated protein	NM_002337	0.764	0.03547	0.639	0.0059
1 (alpha-2-macroglobulin receptor-associated protein 1)
mannose-6-phosphate receptor (cation dependent)	M16985			0.696	0.0146
mesoderm development candidate 2	D42039			0.794	0.0371
myelin basic protein	M13577	0.663	0.00000
myelin protein zero (Charcot-Marie-Tooth neuropathy 1B)	D10537	0.670	0.01637
N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein,	AK023725	0.694	0.02659
gamma
neural precursor cell expressed, developmentally down-	AW960243	0.760	0.00108	0.662	0.0195
regulated 8
neuropeptide FF-amide peptide precursor	AF005271			0.694	0.0479
neuropilin 2	AF016098			0.728	0.0146
phosphotidylinositol transfer protein	D30036			0.767	0.0352
piccolo (presynaptic cytomatrix protein)	AB011131	0.756	0.00877
potassium voltage-gated channel, KQT-like subfamily,	AF074247			0.662	0.0316
member 2
predicted protein of HQ2706; Homo sapiens PRO2706	AF119891	0.799	0.02872
mRNA, complete cds.
protease, serine, 11 (IGF binding)	Y07921	0.720	0.00238
protein tyrosine phosphatase, receptor-type, Z	M93426			0.666	0.0396
polypeptide 1
protocadherin beta 10	AF131761			0.650	0.0331
protocadherin beta 2	AF152495	0.795	0.00434
putative; Human neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) gene, complete	M37763	0.658	0.01027
cds.
RAB33A, member RAS oncogene family	D14889	0.627	0.00128
RAB4A, member RAS oncogene family	NM_004578	0.706	0.01831
RAB5A, member RAS oncogene family	M28215	0.777	0.04868
Rab9 effector p40	Z97074	0.766	0.00313
radixin	AL137751	0.013	0.78491
Ras-like without CAAX 2	U78164			0.501	0.0087
Ras-like without CAAX 2	Y07565	0.755	0.01070	0.495	0.0169
retinoblastoma binding protein 7	U35143	0.704	0.00153	0.662	0.0330
Ric-like, expressed in neurons (Drosophila)	Y07565	0.735	0.00235
Ric-like, expressed in neurons (Drosophila)	U78164	0.788	0.00528
roundabout, axon guidance receptor, homolog 1	AF040990			0.638	0.0301
(Drosophila)
scrapie responsive protein 1	AJ224677			0.645	0.0295
sema domain, seven thrombospondin repeats (type 1 and	U52840	0.765	0.02291
type 1-like), transmembrane domain (TM) and short
cytoplasmic domain, (semaphorin) 5A
SH3-domain GRB2-like 2	AF036268	0.648	0.00113	0.551	0.0297
sorcin	M32886	0.738	0.00057	0.727	0.0218
sorting nexin 1	U53225	0.717	0.00549
sorting nexin 3	NM_003795	0.650	0.01372	0.555	0.0385
sphingomyelin phosphodiesterase 1, acid lysosomal (acid	X59960			0.727	0.0143
sphingomyelinase)
stathmin-like 2	D45352	0.675	0.04962	0.643	0.0381
superoxide dismutase 1, soluble (amyotrophic lateral	X02317	0.714	0.01620	0.621	0.0488
sclerosis 1 (adult))
synaptic glycoprotein SC2	AAF32373	0.624	0.01686
synaptojanin 1	AB020717	0.705	0.01007
synaptosomal-associated protein, 25 kD	D21267	0.662	0.00160
syndecan binding protein (syntenin)	AF006636	0.695	0.00080
syndecan binding protein (syntenin)	AF000652	0.649	0.00097
syntaxin 8	NM_004853	0.699	0.00152
synuclein, alpha (non A4 component of amyloid	L08850	0.659	0.00127
precursor)
TGFB inducible early growth response	AF050110	0.756	0.03234
transforming growth factor beta-stimulated protein TSC-	AJ222700	0.721	0.01087
22
tubulin, alpha, ubiquitous	AF141347			0.729	0.0273
tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase	U54778	0.774	0.03442
activation protein, epsilon polypeptide
tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase	S80794	0.738	0.01748
activation protein, eta polypeptide
tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/tryptophan 5-monooxygenase	X56468	0.657	0.00126
activation protein, theta polypeptide
vesicle-associated membrane protein 3 (cellubrevin)	BE379661	0.769	0.02787
voltage-dependent anion channel 1	L06132	0.724	0.01818
zinc finger protein 183 (RING finger, C3HC4 type)	X98253			0.780	0.0417
zinc finger protein 45 (a Kruppel-associated box (KRAB)	L75847	0.624	0.04792	0.690	0.0215
domain polypeptide)

TABLE 7
Binomial probabilities of some gene groups down
regulated by schizophrenia in dentate.
	Number of	Number	Probability
Group	expressed genes	of hits	of the group(*)
Ubiquitin	73	10	1.4e−2
Ubiquinon	33	7	3.5e−3
ATP synthase	24	10	7.0e−7
Proteasome	55	14	4.5e−6
tyrosine 3-monooxygenase/	7	3	6.8e−3
tryptophan
5-monooxygenase
activation protein
(*)Hit probability of 0.0617 is assumed.

EXAMPLE 2

Deficient Expression of Proteasome, Ubiquitin, and Mitochondrial Genes in Hippocampal Neurons of Multiple Schizophrenia Patient Groups

This example describes additional experiment, in which laser-capture microdissection (LCM) and cDNA microarrays were used to discover gene expression differences in hippocampal neurons for two cohorts of normal controls and cases with schizophrenia. By “cohort” is meant a groups of individuals who share one or more characteristics in a research study and who are followed over time. The discovery of large clusters of co-directionally changing genes that encode for ubiquitin, the proteasome, and mitochondrial and neuronal functions in schizophrenia indicate that dentate gyrus neurons appear to under-express genes that are essential for normal cellular metabolism, protein processing, and neuronal functions.

Laser-captured hippocampal dentate granule neurons from two separate cohorts of normal controls and schizophrenics (9 and 8, cohort 1, and 14 and 15, cohort 2) were examined and compared with bipolar disease (8/group) and major depressive disorder cases (10/group). Group averages of the expression of human genes from the Agilent human 1 cDNA rnicroarray chip relative to a common pool of control samples were determined. Group expression intensities were independently calculated for representative genes using a polymerase chain reaction assay.

The microarray studies revealed in both schizophrenia cohorts decreases in large, overlapping clusters of genes that encode for protein turnover (i.e., proteasome subunits and ubiquitin), mitochondrial oxidative energy metabolism (i.e. isocitrate, lactate, malate, NADH and succinate dehydrogenases; cytochrome C oxidase and ATP synthase) and genes associated with neurite outgrowth, cytoskeletal proteins, and synapse plasticity. These changes were not obtained in cases with bipolar disorder or non-psychotic major depression, or in dentate neurons of rats treated chronically with clozapine. The changes were not associated with patient demographics including age, sex, brain weight, body weight, post-mortem interval, or drug history.

The decreases of genes involved with mitochondrial metabolism, proteasome function, and synaptic transmission in hippocampal neurons are highly consistent with functional brain imaging and other post-mortem measures in schizophrenia. Decreases in energy metabolism and protein processing of hypofunctioning hippocampal neurons allow our identification of drug discovery targets that can reverse the cognitive and sensory processing deficits of schizophrenia.

Material and Methods

• Human tissue: All post-mortem brain tissues used in the present study were obtained from the Stanley Medical Research Institute. The protocols for tissue collection and informed consent were approved by the Institutional Review Board of the Uniformed Services University of the Health Sciences (Torrey et al., 2000). Informed consent from each of the deceased subjects' next of kin was obtained for the use of brain tissue in scientific research. One set of brain sections was obtained from among the Neuropathology Consortium that consists of 60 individuals (n=15 in each of four groups; schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, depression and unaffected controls). A second set of sections was obtained from a cohort of Stanley Foundation non-consortium cases (n=9 schizophrenia and n=9 unaffected controls) and to these were added several samples from cohort 1 (Table 8) whose microarray images failed inclusion criteria in the first study. All cases were diagnosed according to DSM-IV criteria. Details regarding the SMRI brain collection, storage of tissue, and post-mortem diagnosis can be found in Torrey et al (Torrey et al., 2000). The balancing of samples between disease categories according to patient demographics including age, race, body weight, sex, sample pH, and postmortem interval is listed in Table 8.
• Preparation of sections: Fourteen μm-thick frozen coronal sections that contained the hippocampus were thaw-mounted onto 1.5×3 inch gelatin-coated microscope slides and stored at −80° C. until use. All subsequent procedures, including neuron capture, RNA processing, and microarray hybridizations were conducted in a blind manner and processed in a counterbalanced order between the two or four diagnosis groups.
• Cell capture: Each section was quick-thawed, fixed in 75% ethanol, re-hydrated in dH₂O and stained for two minutes with Arcturus Histogene™ staining solution. The sections were dehydrated in ascending ethanols, placed into xylene for five minutes and air-dried for 15 minutes. Approximately 2000-3000 Nissl-stained dentate granule neurons (FIG. 1) were consistently acquired from 2 or 3 slide-mounted tissue sections of the hippocampus of all cases using a PixCell II-e™ laser-capture microscope (Luo et al., 1999) (Arcturus, Mountain View, Calif.).
• RNA amplification. The RNA of sections adjacent to those used for LCM revealed average 28S/18S ratios of 2.06±0.47 (X±SD). These ratios and normal ribosomal band intensities indicated that minimal RNA degradation occurred in these postmortem tissues, and that they were suitable for microarray studies (Bahn et al., 2001). Approximately 1 ng of mRNA extracted from the dentate granule cells of each case underwent two rounds of linear RNA amplification (Van Gelder et al., 1990; Eberwine et al., 1996) using the Arcturus RiboAmp kit (Mountain View, Calif.). This yielded approximately 1 μg and 138 μg of amplified RNA (aRNA) after the first and second round, respectively.
• Expression profiling on Agilent cDNA microarrays: 400 ng of aRNA from each sample was reverse-transcribed using the Agilent direct-label cDNA synthesis kit (Palo Alto, Calif.) according to the manufacturer's directions, except that 400 ng of random hexamers was used to prime amplified RNA. Labeled cDNA was purified using QIAquick PCR purification columns (Qiagen, Valencia, Calif.), and concentrated by vacuum centrifugation. The cDNA was suspended in hybridization buffer and hybridized to Agilent Human 1 cDNA microarrays for 17 hours at 65° C. according to the Agilent protocol. Instead of randomly pairing samples from two cases for two channel cDNA arrays (Mirnics et al., 2000), each sample was labeled with cyanine-5 dye and co-hybridized to the same microarray with a common reference sample prepared from a pool of all control samples that was labeled with cyanine-3 dye. Arrays were washed and scanned using an Agilent scanner, using the default settings for cDNA arrays.
• Microarray data analysis: RNA failures or poor microarray images occurred in several LCM samples in either experimental cohort. These failures were most commonly due to tissue processing, low amplification yields, and failed chips. The data analysis, therefore, consisted of only the best quality cDNA chips from the Neuropathology Consortium cases (n=9 control, n=8 schizophrenia, n=9 bipolar disorder and n=10 depression) and non-consortium cases (n=15 control and n=14 schizophrenia).

Signal intensities in both channels on all chips were normalized to the global mean of the experiment. Only those genes that produced a mean intensity of at least 300 in at least one of the sample groups were analyzed. For each gene, the log ratio value of each sample/reference was determined and the mean of each patient group was calculated. Logarithms of ratios, referred to as “log ratios”, are commonly used to process two-channel array data because the distribution of ratios is skewed (Quackenbush et al., 2002).

• Statistical analysis: To calculate the fold change between the two groups, the mean log ratio of the control group was subtracted from the mean log ratio of the patient group. Raising 2 to the power of this remainder gives the fold change. The formula for computing a ratio of two values from the ratios of each value to a common reference is derived as follows. The common reference comprises a pool of all controlled samples used in the study. If A/R is the ratio of gene expression in schizophrenia to the reference and B/R is the ratio of normal to the reference, then:log(A/R)−log(B/R)=log(A)−log(R)−log(B)+log(R)=log(A/B)A/B=2^log2(A/B)

The Welch t-test was used to evaluate the statistical significance of disease effects on gene expression. The p values were computed using the t test function implemented in the R statistical software package (See r-project.org on the WorldWideWeb and Venables et al., 2002), with two sets of binary logarithms of sample/reference ratios as the input, e.g., schizophrenia vs. reference and normal vs. reference. Since we were primarily interested in the contrasts between disease cases and normal cases, we have separately compared each disease group to the normal group. t tests are commonly used for such comparisons in the analysis of microarray data (Slonim et al., 2002).

Some of the genes that showed a change in expression levels between diseased and control samples were grouped according to their biological function using the EASE routine and with internally-produced algorithms based on binomial probability computation (Table 9). Such groupings increase confidence in the results when the proportion of genes that change within a group is significantly greater than the proportion of such genes on the entire chip. For example, 10,159 gene probes on the Agilent chip showed a sufficient signal to be considered expressed in the second cohort. About 7.5% of those were altered in schizophrenia, as determined by the criteria of greater than 1.25-fold change and a t test p value less than 0.05. Some of these changes are probably random artifacts due to multiple testing. However, if we identify by name a group of genes that are related to a particular function, such as the proteasome, we see that 32% of them are affected, as determined by the same criteria. The binomial probability computation was used to estimate the probability that such a concentration of “hits” in a particular group of genes could have occurred by chance. Because the size of a functional group of genes is much smaller than the total number of probes on the chip, the binomial probability computation results in p values similar to those obtained with the alternative method, the Fisher exact test used for similar purposes in the EASE (Hosacket al., 2003) and GoMiner software (Zeeberg et al., 2003). The binomial probability computation test is implemented in the R software package (See r-project.org on the Worldwideweb and Venables et al., 2002).

• Validation by RT-PCR: Total RNA from ˜2000 re-captured dentate neurons for each sample was subjected to DNase treatment in a 10 μl reaction containing 1 μl 10× DNase I reaction buffer, and 1 Unit DNase I (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.). The reaction was carried out at room temperature for 10 minutes. One μl of EDTA (25 mM) and 1 μl of random primers (500 μg/ml, Promega, Madison, Wis.) were added to DNase reaction and heated to 70° C. for 15 minutes to simultaneously inactivate the DNase I enzyme and eliminate RNA secondary structure to allow random primer annealing. The sample was placed on ice for two minutes and collected by brief centrifugation. The RNA in the sample was reverse-transcribed into cDNA by the addition of 8 μl of master mix containing 4 μl of 5× first strand buffer, 2 μl DTT (0.1 M), 1 μl dNTP's (10 mM each), and 1 μl SuperScript II (200 U/μl) (Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.), followed by incubation at 42° C. for 45 minutes. The RT reaction was diluted approximately 10-fold with dH₂O and stored at 4° C.

Diluted cDNA (5 μl) added to a 45 μl PCR reaction mixture containing 25 μl of 2× Univeral TaqMan® PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.), 45 picomole of forward and reverse primer, and between 5 and 15 picomole of fluorescently-labeled probe for each specific gene tested. Each sample was subjected to 40 cycles of real time PCR (ABI PRISM® 7900HT, Applied Biosystems, Foster City, Calif.). Fluorescence was measured during each cycle of 2-step PCR alternating between 95° C. for 15 seconds and 60° C. for 1 minute. The threshold cycle (Ct), or cycle number at which signal fluorescence exceeds a preset fluorescence threshold, was compared to a standard curve generated by six, 10-fold serial dilutions of a concentrated reference cDNA standard (prepared from a pool of all control samples). The expression values for each gene were normalized to the average expression levels of three control genes: beta-2-microglobulin (B2M), Dusty protein kinase (DustyPK), and KIAA0582 (an EST). These genes are moderately expressed in dentate granule cells, were unchanged by microarray analysis, and were confirmed to be unchanged by RT-PCR. The normalized relative expression values for all control and treated samples were averaged, and a Student's t test was performed to calculate the statistical significance between these groups.

Results

Each microarray was co-hybridized with cyanine-5 labeled cDNA from a case and cyanine-3 labeled cDNA from a pool of all control samples. These two labels allowed the abundance of each gene to be determined for each sample relative to that of the pooled control group (FIG. 2). The average fold change for the bipolar and depression groups relative to the normal group appeared to deviate little from the unity line across a 1000-fold range of gene intensities, and produced gene changes at chance levels regardless of p value. In contrast, the expression of many genes in the schizophrenic cases deviated to a greater extent than in the bipolar or depression cases, and many genes changed significantly from those of the normal controls in the first cohort (n=8-10/group; FIG. 2). A very similar and significant deviation in gene expression from controls occurred in the second cohort of schizophrenic patients (n=14-15/group; data not shown). In each schizophrenia cohort, the incidence of significantly altered genes occurred two- to three-times more frequently than would be expected by chance, at p values of 0.05 and 0.005. Also mitigating against a random nature of these gene changes in schizophrenia was our ability to replicate in the two cohorts many of the decreasing and increasing genes (FIG. 3). Six hundred fifty-six genes were down-regulated in cohort 1, compared to 844 down-regulated genes in cohort 2. Two hundred thirty-seven of these, representing 36% of the down-regulated genes in cohort 1, were also down-regulated in cohort 2. Two hundred ninety seven genes were up-regulated in schizophrenic cases from cohort 1, and 713 genes were up-regulated in cohort 2. Eighty-four of these genes, representing 28% of the up-regulated genes in cohort 1, were replicated in cohort 2. These overlaps were 7- to 5-fold more prevalent than the 5% overlap that would be expected by chance. The fact that over 95% of the genes that changed in both cohorts were co-directional greatly increases the reliability of these findings.

Large sets of genes that decreased in each schizophrenia cohort could be readily grouped into common functional classes. These groupings were independently confirmed by an analysis of changes in gene families using the EASE routine and through programs based upon binomial probabilities (Table 9). The calculation of p values was well below 0.05, such as 10⁻³ to 10⁻⁷, and consistent identification of a common category with the same direction of change in the two cohorts (Table 9), is strong evidence that the effect is distinct and reproducible. For example, among the 57 probes on the Agilent cDNA chip that encode for the proteasome macromolecular complex, 18 were decreased in schizophrenia in the second cohort of cases, (p<0.05,>1.5 fold change). Among the 77 genes on the Agilent chip that encode for members of the ubiquitin pathway, 19 were decreased, while 6 out of the 33 genes that encode for the ubiquinone complexes I-V of the mitochondria were decreased.

Age, sex, brain pH, brain weight, and body weight (Table 8), and other variables (Torrey et al., 2000) were equally distributed between the normal control and psychiatric cases. Long post-mortem intervals in 3 schizophrenic cases in cohort 1 and in 2 schizophrenic cases in cohort 2 accounted for non-significant but somewhat higher average values compared to controls. Removing these patients had little if any affect the numbers or kinds of genes found to be altered in schizophrenia. Nevertheless, it remained possible that gene expression could vary with one or more of the demographic variables (Vawter et al., 2001; Bahn et al., 2001; Li et al., 2004; Kingsbury et al., 1995; Lehrmann et al., 2003). The variance in gene expression in the normal controls and schizophrenic cases was therefore evaluated by a simple additive model for which the variance of the Log Ratio is a function of the variance contributed by the following factors: Disease, Brain pH, Brain Weight, PMI , Age, Sex, and Body Weight. This model was included in an analysis of variance (ANOVA) of 263 genes that were found by t test to be changed in both cohorts. In this analysis, 44 cases (22 control and 22 schizophrenics) were studied. Numeric factors, such as age (25 to 68 years), PMI (6 to 112 h), brain pH (5.8 to 6.8), brain weight (1260 to 1980 g), body weight (126 to 325 lb), were divided evenly into 5 sub groups. Each sub group was considered as a distinct level for each factor in ANOVA analysis. A histogram of the number of genes whose variance changed as a function of p value of each demographic factor (FIG. 4) revealed how much each factor contributed to the variance in gene expression for the 263 genes. Disease accounted for the majority of variance in gene expression, followed by brain pH and even lesser still, brain weight. Neither post-mortem interval, age, sex (FIG. 4), nor body weight (not shown) contributed to any more than a chance distribution of variability in gene expression.

An ANOVA for the 263 genes was conducted using a model that evaluated the contributions of disease or brain pH to gene variance in both cohorts, according to the model for which the variance in the Log Ratio is a function of the variance contributed by the following factors: Disease and Brain pH. The variance of 70% ofthese genes was not associated with pH in either cohort (data not shown). A significant association with pH was obtained for 20% of the genes in the first cohort, 8% in the second, and only 2% in both. Consistent with the results of the multifactorial ANOVA, the variance of 80% of the genes was associated with disease only in either or both cohorts.

Many of the 263 genes that decreased in both schizophrenia cohorts could be readily grouped into the same functional classes identified by the EASE and binomial routines (Table 9). These included genes encoding for mitochondria and energy metabolism, such as complex I through IV and mitochondrial ATPase (Table 10), and the proteasome and ubiquitin functions (Table 11). Genes important in neuronal plasticity (Table 12) were not identified as a single class by the EASE routine. The TaqMan RT-PCR evaluation of recaptured dentate neurons from 22 control and 22 schizophrenic cases confirmed the changes in 14 of the 20 genes representative of the mitochondria, neuronal plasticity, proteasome, and ubiquitin categories (Table 13). All genes identified as significantly altered in schizophrenia relative to normal controls (n=10/13/group) are listed in Table 14.

Little contribution of antipsychotic treatments to the gene changes in schizophrenia was suggested by use of five sets of observations. Using the Pearson correlation coefficient test, no significant correlation was obtained between the relative change in expression levels of the 263 genes that changed in both cohorts and the cumulative lifetime antipsychotic exposure of the cases.

Second, antipsychotics were also taken by the bipolar cases and, though doses were lower than those of the schizophrenics (Table 8), the gene changes in the bipolar cases failed to exceed chance levels or show significant overlap with the schizophrenics. Third, among the cases in both cohorts, three schizophrenics who were medication-free from several weeks to over 30 years prior to death contributed about equally to the gene changes we observed. This is illustrated by arrows for 4 genes representative of the mitochondrial, proteasome, and ubiquitin functions (FIG. 5). Fourth, the pharmacologically complex antipsychotic drug, clozapine, was used by half of the schizophrenic patients, yet a segregation of patients into those who were and were not administered clozapine produced no apparent segregation of changes for these four genes, as evidenced by their random distribution among the expression values for schizophrenic cases.

The potential contributions of antipsychotic treatments to the gene changes in schizophrenic hippocampal dentate granule neurons were further evaluated in male Sprague-Dawley rats (10/group) that received a daily intraperitoneal injection for 21 days of the saline vehicle (10 ml/kg) or clozapine (30 mg/kg). Rats were sacrificed 24 hours after the last injection because this post-injection duration was found to change the expression of more genes compared to a 2 hr survival after clozapine. Hippocampal dentate granule neurons were captured by LCM and processed identically to the human material, using one Agilent 60-mer rodent oligo microarray chip per sample. Compared to vehicle-treated rats, and more than seen with a single clozapine injection, the chronic clozapine-treated rats showed a change in the expression of far more genes than would be expected by chance. However, very few of these genes changed in the same direction as in the dentate granule cells of the schizophrenic cases. Using Locus Link ID numbers for the Agilent human 1 cDNA and Agilent 60-mer rodent oligo microarray chip, 2084 pairs of genes were identified as common to these two chips. Sixty-five of these common genes were among the 263 genes that changed in both cohorts. Among these 65 genes, 15 (23%) changed in the dentate granule neurons from both cohorts and the chronic clozapine-treated rats (p<0.05). Only one of these, proteasome (prosome, macropain) subunit, beta type, 6, is present in Table 10, 11 or 12. The remaining 14 genes were from a longer list of genes that were not among the classes represented in these tables. Interestingly, the proteasome gene was among 4 of the 15 genes that increased in response to clozapine but was decreased in schizophrenia.

Specificity of Gene Changes to Schizophrenia

The gene expression changes described here are disease-specific to schizophrenia for several reasons. First, these changes were not seen in cases with bipolar disease or depression, for which gene expression changes did not exceed chance levels. Also, the gene changes in schizophrenia are not associated with drug abuse or medications. A history of alcohol abuse or dependence was reported for only two of the schizophrenics from the consortium cases but was present in six of the 10 bipolar cases, 4 of the 10 depressed cases, and in several of the control cases. The lack of an alcohol-related effect in generating the changes observed in schizophrenia is important because chronic alcohol abuse or dependence affects mitochondrial, ubiquitin, and proteasome genes in the temporal cortex (Sokolov et al., 2003). While some of these genes overlapped with the consistently down-regulated genes reported here, many of them are increased by alcohol (Sokolov et al., 2003). The lack of concomitant medication effects on the disease signature reported here is also suggested by the fact that three patients who were medication-free from several weeks to over 30 years prior to death contributed about equally to the gene changes observed. Also, the cumulative lifetime antipsychotic exposure of the cases did not correlate with the number of gene changes, and chronic clozapine failed to affect gene homologues in rat dentate granule neurons. Based on these results, and because no other psychiatric drug besides clozapine was given to more than a few of the schizophrenic patients, the possibility of a contribution by concomitant drugs or medications to the gene expression changes observed here can be safely dismissed.

Another demographic variable that has been reported to correlate with brain mRNA expression is brain tissue pH (Li et al., 2004; Kingsbury et al., 1995; Johnston et al., 1997; Harrison et al., 1995). Because of this observation, brain pH was counterbalanced between all groups in the present studies, and brain tissue pH was found to have contributed little to the statistical significance of the gene changes reported here. However, the change in so many genes involved in proton transport suggests that a physiological relationship may exist between brain tissue pH and the degree of gene change. Interestingly, the relatively small number of gene expression changes that correlate with pH were positively correlated, such that their expression decreased with decreases in brain tissue pH. A similar positive correlation has been identified in the brains of non-psychiatric individuals (Li et al., 2004; Kingsbury et al., 1995; Johnston et al., 1997; Harrison et al., 1995), where lower pH was associated with decreases in gene expression and RNA quality. However, the patients that contributed the most to these relationships in those studies (Li et al., 2004; Kingsbury et al., 1995; Johnston et al., 1997; Harrison et al., 1995) experienced prolonged agonal conditions of anoxia, respiratory arrest, or coma. In contrast, samples in the study reported herewere included only if they were obtained from patients who did not experience such prolonged agonal stress, contained RNA of equal, high quality across the groups, and were balanced for brain pH. It is possible that the decreases in brain pH and gene expression are related at a physiological level, since many of the genes that showed this co-variation are involved in mitochondrial proton transport.

Cigarette smoking could also be a factor in the gene changes we saw, as it could alter tissue pH or affect genes linked to nicotinic receptor mechanisms. Smoking data is available for 75% of the cases in cohort 1 and for 65% of the cases in cohort 2. In each diagnostic group of these cohorts, however, the proportion of cases that definitely smoked at the time of death was similar. Thus any effect of smoking would probably have affected gene expression equally across diagnostic groups. Furthermore, there was no significant difference in pH levels between those cases that smoked at the time of death and those that did not smoke, nor did pH vary significantly between diagnostic groups.

The gene signatures of the present invention can be used to determine if an individual is afflicted with schizophrenia. The determination can be made by conducting an analyses of the patient's genes to determine if any of the gene signatures SEQ ID NOS: 1-249 of the present invention are present

Discussion and Conclusions

The most consistent and robust gene decreases are those of the various proteasome subunits and for ubiquitin, including ubiquitin-conjugating enzymes. Neuronal ubiquitin (Murphey et al., 2002; Hegde et al., 2002), proteasome (Pak et al., 2003) and the ubiquitin-proteasome system (Ehlers et al., 2003; Speese et al., 2003) control the assembly, connectivity, function, and signaling of the synapse, including regulation of ligand-gated neurotransmitter internalization and turnover of pre- and postsynaptic proteins (Ehlers et al., 2003; Speese et al., 2003). Our observations of decreases in many genes that encode for neuronal plasticity and synaptic functions are consistent with the many reports of synaptic pathology in schizophrenia including microarray-based studies of the frontal cortex (Mimics et al., 2000; Vawter et al., 2001; Bahn et al., 2001; Knable et al., 2001; Hemby et al., 2002). The ability of proteasome inhibitors to deplete neuronal energy reserves and increase neuronal vulnerability to free radical-generators (Hoglinger et al., 2003) suggests that impaired ubiquitin/proteasome functions may weaken the hippocampal synapse by compromising both energy production and synaptic functions (FIG. 6).

The chronic administration of clozapine, haloperidol, or fluphenazine, increases some of the same genes that were decreased in schizophrenia. These include cytochrome C oxidase, which is increased in the hippocampus and frontal cortex of rats treated with these drugs (Prince et al., 1997(a); Prince et al., 1998; Prince et al., 1997(b)), and whose decrease by the psychotomimmetic drugs PCP or methamphetamine is prevented by clozapine and fluphenazine (Prince et al., 1997(b); Prince et al., 1998). Haloperidol enhances and normalizes the utilization of glucose (Holcomb et al., 1996; Desco et al., 2003) and N-acetylasparate (Bertolino et al., 2001) in the schizophrenic brain. Thus, increases in mitochondrial function and glucose utilization may contribute to the therapeutic efficacy of antipsychotic drugs. This hypothesis is supported by the ability of glucose consumption to reverse some of the cognitive deficits in schizophrenia (Stone et al., 2003; Dwyer et al., 2003).

Others have proposed that mitochondrial dysfunction may explain the psychopathology of schizophrenia (Marchbanks et al., 1995; Maurer et al., 2001; Ben-Shachar et al., 2002). This hypothesis is based on decreases in electron transport by cytochrome oxidase and cytochrome C reductase in medicated and unmedicated schizophrenics (Maurer et al., 2001; Whatley et al., 1996; Cavelier et al., 1995). Decreases in these same genes were confirmed in the present report. The many other decreases in genes involved in electron transport and mitochondrial function support a significant role for hippocampal mitochondrial dysfunction in schizophrenia. These decreases are consistent with decreased energy metabolism, glucose utilization (Tamminga et al., 1992; Dickey et al., 2002; Bertolino et al., 1996; Buchsbaum et al., 1990; Nudmamud et al., 2003), and neuronal metabolism in the hippocampus of live schizophrenic patients (Fannon et al., 2003; Bertolino et al., 1996), including decreases in cytochrome c oxidase in post-mortem striatum (Prince et al., 2000). Intellectual and emotional impariments, but not motoric impairments, of schizophrenics correlate strongly and significantly with decreases in striatal cytochrome oxidase (Prince et al., 2000) and with depressed cortical glucose utilization (Buchsbaum et al., 2002). Our findings are also consistent with the 20-30% decreased number of mitochondria in striatal neurons (Kung et al., 1999) and mitochondrial number and volume of striatal and frontal cortex oligodendroglia in schizophrenia (Uranova et al., 2001). These mitochondrial decreases, and the 20-35% decreases in the expression of mitochondrial genes reported here, might be expected to impair overall mitochondrial function. Deficits in mitochondrial metabolism and glucose utilization of dentate gyrus neurons could also result from deficiencies in the depolarizing influences of excitatory glutamatergic (Tsai et al., 1995) or acetylcholinergic inputs (Freedman et al., 2000) proposed for schizophrenia. This scheme is summarized in FIG. 6. A study of whether the gene decreases in schizophrenia can be mimicked in rats by glutamatergic or cholinergic deafferentation could help answer this question and help identify novel pharmacological targets for therapeutic intervention.

Structural and functional deficits of the hippocampus are well-documented in schizophrenia (Benes et al., 2000; Jessen et al., 2003; Tamminga et al., 1992; McCarley et al., 1999; Fannon et al., 2003; Bertolino et al., 1996; Weinberger et al., 1999; Arnold et al., 1996; Velakoulis et al., 2001; Freedman et al., 2000; Buchsbaum et al., 2002; Knable et al., 2004; Lauer et al., 2003). The impairments in cognition, attention, affect, and working memory are relatively persistent features of this disorder and are believed to result in part from hippocampal neuron dysfunction (Weinberger, 1999; Bertolino et al., 2001). Abnormalities of hippocampal dentate granule and CA3 pyramidal neurons (Arnold et al., 1996; Byne etal., 2002; Harrison et al., 1999; Freedman et al., 2000) point to their likely involvement in the cognitive, mnemonic, and affective components of schizophrenia (Benes et al., 2000; Weinberger et al., 1999). Indeed, schizophrenia is perhaps best-characterized by the early-appearing and persisting deficits in cognition, attention, affect, and working memory, recognized by Kraeplin and Bleuler as “dementia praecox” (Kraeplin et al., 1971; Bleuler et al., 1950). It is reasonable to speculate that such deficits in cognitive functions could result from metabolic and protein processing deficits in brain areas like the hippocampus. It remains to be seen whether other homogeneous populations of brain neurons, such as those in the frontal cortex, will demonstrate similar alterations in gene expression as reported described here. A very recent study identified deficits in mitochondrial gene and protein levels in schizophrenia frontal cortex (Bahn et al., 2004). The present results provide a genomic profile of schizophrenia in which hippocampal neurons contain less MRNA for the basic biochemical functions of energy and protein metabolism, and neuronal plasticity. The discovery of compounds that produce a reciprocal change in these same genes may yield novel antipsychotics that address at least some of the core deficits of schizophrenia.

TABLE 8
						Brain	Body	Lifetime
					Brain	Weight	Weight	Antipsychotics
Description	Case ID #	Age	Sex	PMI	pH	(g)	(g)	(mg)
COHORT 1
Control	1	53	M	28	6.2	1400	133	0
Control	2	44	M	10	6.4	1510	198	0
Control	3	41	M	11	6	1305		0
Control	4	42	M	27	6.6	1500	280	0
Control	5	57	F	26	6	1400	154	0
Control	6	52	M	28	6.5	1700	191	0
Control	7	44	F	25	6.3	1490	259	0
Control	8	59	M	26	6.4	1560	176	0
Control	9	52	M	8	6.5	1840	188	0
Average		49.3	7M/2F	21	6.3	1523	197	0
Stdev		6.7		8.6	0.2	163	50	0
Schizophrenic	10	56	F	12	6.4	1420	142	150000
Schizophrenic	11	30	F	60	6.2	1430	141	6000
Schizophrenic	12	52	M	61	6	1530	174	9000
Schizophrenic	13	30	M	32	5.8	1620	199	50000
Schizophrenic	14	62	F	26	6.1	1270	135	50000
Schizophrenic	15	60	M	31	6.2	1340	158	80000
Schizophrenic	16	32	M	19	6.1	1590	234	15000
Schizophrenic	17	25	M	32	6.6	1555	132	4000
Average		43.4	5M/3F	34.1	6.2	1469	164	45500
Stdev		15.5		17.7	0.2	125	36	50279
Bipolar Disorder	18	25	F	24	6.4	1540	157	7500
Bipolar Disorder	19	48	F	22	5.8	1260	189	32000
Bipolar Disorder	20	37	F	29	6.5	1130	106	1250
Bipolar Disorder	21	57	M	19	6.2	1140	193	60000
Bipolar Disorder	22	34	M	23	6.3	1523	184	7000
Bipolar Disorder	23	48	M	13	6.1	1540	173	200
Bipolar Disorder	24	31	M	28	6.3	1680	210	30000
Bipolar Disorder	25	50	M	19	6.2	1380	208	60000
Bipolar Disorder	26	50	F	62	6.3	1320	265	0
Average		42.2	5M/3F	26.6	6.2	1424	187	21994
Stdev		10.7		14.2	0.2	169	43	24691
Depressed	27	44	F	32	6.2	1410	123	0
Depressed	28	65	M	19	6.2	1360	179	0
Depressed	29	52	M	12	6.5	1520	247	0
Depressed	30	42	F	25	6.3	1340	136	0
Depressed	31	51	M	26	6.3	1550	193	0
Depressed	32	42	M	7	6.2	1350	227	0
Depressed	33	56	M	23	6.5	1240	198	0
Depressed	34	30	F	33	6	1400	130	0
Depressed	35	43	M	43	5.9	1460		0
Depressed	36	47	M	28	6.4	1740	208	0
Average		47.2	7M/3F	24.8	6.3	1437	182	0
Stdev		9.5		10.4	0.2	140	44	0
COHORT 2
Control	37	48	M	12	6.25	1370	234	0
Control	38	52	M	22	6.2	1330	156	0
Control	39	35	F	23	6.6	1340	126	0
Control	40	54	M	22	6.78	1510	212	0
Control	41	56	M	24	6.72	1500	258	0
Control	42	35	F	40	5.8	1560	146	0
Control	43	68	F	13	6.3	1360	136	0
Control	44	58	M	27	6	1780	186	0
Control	45	29	F	42	6.2	1440		0
Control	46	56	M	36	6.62	1980	199	0
Control	47	49	M	46	6.5	1605	220	0
Control	48	48	M	17	6.69	1600	268	0
Control	49	48	M	12	6.51	1410	296	0
Control	50	34	M	23	6.79	1700	265	0
Control	51	38	M	6	6.71	1460	219	0
Average		47.2	11M/4F	24.3	6.4	1530	209	0
Stdev		10.9		12	0.3	182	53	0
Schizophrenic	52	44	M	50	6.5	1640	172	100000
Schizophrenic	53	58	M	74	6.82	1835	192	30000
Schizophrenic	54	44	M	29	5.9	1500	260	130000
Schizophrenic	55	35	M	35	6.5	1380	325	50000
Schizophrenic	56	32	M	24	6.59	1440	241	40000
Schizophrenic	57	40	M	70	6.62	1500	188	140000
Schizophrenic	58	45	F	52	6.51	1510	180	20000
Schizophrenic	59	49	F	38	6.2	1260	215	150000
Schizophrenic	60	57	M	20	6.66	1590	222	0
Schizophrenic	61	44	F	30	6.55	1480	148	200000
Schizophrenic	62	35	M	9	6.44	1415	128	180000
Schizophrenic	63	32	M	112	6.59	1550	158	1000
Schizophrenic	64	60	F	40	6.2	1395	264	0
Schizophrenic	65	31	M	14	5.8	1555	284	4000
Average		43.3	10M/4F	42.6	6.4	1504	213	74646
Stdev		9.9		27.6	0.3	136	57	72756

	TABLE 9
	Cohort 1	Cohort 2
	Binomial	Binomial	EASE	EASE	Binomial	Binomial	EASE	EASE
	Score	Bonf.	Score	Bonf.	Score	Bonf.	Score	Bonf.
Proteasome	4.5E−06	4.1E−02	1.0E−03	1	1.1E−07	1.20E−03	8.1E−04	1
(Proteasome Complex)
Ubiquitin (Ubiquitin-	1.4E−02	1	4.6E−02	1	3.3E−06	3.60E−02	1.1E−02	1
dependent protein
catabolism)
Ubiquinone	3.5E−03	1			3.5E−02	1
ATP synthase	7.0E−07	6.4E−03			1	1
Energy pathways			1.2E−07	1.8E−04			4.3E−05	8.4E−02
Mitochondrion			1.3E−07	1.9E−04			1.3E−11	2.6E−08

TABLE 10
	Vendor
Gene Probe	Probe	Accession	Cohort 1	Cohort 2
ID	ID	Number	Ratio	P value	Ratio	P value
12458	3888832	D90228	0.77	0.016	0.66	0.013
4755	1634342	AW873466	0.67	0.004	0.72	0.040
751	1901073	AF032455	0.69	0.002	0.66	0.041
5267	1459967	X76228	0.67	0.001	0.70	0.035
597	4900592	U83411	1.26	0.019	1.23	0.045
11907	1619292	AK026633	0.72	0.045	0.65	0.017
6731	3585709	M16462	0.80	0.014	0.80	0.040
11212	1519369	AF112219	0.62	0.023	0.74	0.037
4326	3126072	L32977	0.66	0.008	0.64	0.026
5610	3986667	M59783	0.69	0.006	0.62	0.021
5930	1573840	X83464	0.77	0.002	0.76	0.039
1541	3490376	M25161	1.23	0.028	1.20	0.038
9415	2054607	U07681	0.72	0.008	0.76	0.036
2983	4372330	AK026515	0.65	0.004	0.66	0.040
1922	1977053	AW249275	0.62	0.002	0.58	0.011
2583	2899863	AF067166	0.74	0.005	0.71	0.043
10456	2467357	AF047181	0.70	0.020	0.68	0.041
418	2935594	AF020351	0.69	0.017	0.59	0.012
8148	1986109	U30255	0.75	0.014	0.72	0.007
3715	4421909	J04173	0.60	0.004	0.64	0.040
9177	1903759	AW959460	0.78	0.036	0.57	0.004
880	1741214	NM_000925	0.76	0.042	0.64	0.048
14	644927	AI332708	0.65	0.012	0.70	0.043
1568	3745348	J02683	0.67	0.010	0.63	0.029
4204	3804843	L21936	0.72	0.012	0.71	0.037
2191	2458933	AW247564	0.69	0.024	0.58	0.019

TABLE 11
Gene	Vendor
Probe	Probe	Accession	Cohort 1	Cohort 2
ID	ID	Number	Ratio	P value	Ratio	P value
Proteasome
10492	1488021	AF006305	0.78	0.027	0.63	0.040
1045	2123183	BE271628	0.76	0.028	0.65	0.036
11991	1872245	D38047	0.68	0.008	0.69	0.046
3002	2057812	AB003177	0.74	0.003	0.72	0.011
9466	2211625	AA310524	0.69	0.021	0.74	0.005
5380	2195309	AI889267	0.72	0.019	0.53	0.005
9595	2989852	BE264172	0.67	0.006	0.56	0.024
1497	4534748	D29012	0.68	0.009	0.61	0.023
1513	5161001	D29012	0.73	0.002	0.58	0.009
Ubiquitin
4324	2054420	AI660551	0.76	0.027	0.74	0.026
1581	3737319	AF224669	0.80	0.011	0.61	0.009
7772	1599036	AF076269	0.65	0.020	0.69	0.031
7463	3137251	BE250544	0.71	0.009	0.71	0.036
9051	2156453	X04803	0.66	0.008	0.64	0.032
6469	2365530	AI816068	0.81	0.030	0.77	0.046
10565	3340760	NM_014235	1.31	0.002	1.23	0.039

TABLE 12
Gene Probe	Vendor	Accession	Cohort 1	Cohort 2
ID	Probe ID	Number	Ratio	P value	Ratio	P value
11533	2819848	L22214	0.78	0.040	0.83	0.017
5702	3837686	L12168	0.80	0.014	0.77	0.042
10551	1505827	AB003476	0.75	0.025	0.67	0.025
6131	702628	AF022109	1.29	0.018	1.25	0.032
4823	3561540	S77094	0.47	0.002	0.53	0.034
9282	4117578	NM_001584	0.74	0.048	0.66	0.019
4447	1650782	X70476	0.75	0.029	0.71	0.045
7602	1854862	D17530	0.77	0.001	0.82	0.017
4575	1873115	U50733	0.81	0.013	0.74	0.029
8873	4063074	AJ404468	0.70	0.009	0.68	0.014
10457	4244154	AF035300	0.67	0.001	0.69	0.010
3996	2267630	NM_005544	1.23	0.046	1.22	0.043
382	3629462	AW296221	1.26	0.022	1.33	0.025
7648	1649906	L06237	1.22	0.015	1.37	0.004
7500	1754454	AW960243	0.79	0.028	0.73	0.022
3704	4692382	S41458	1.22	0.020	1.29	0.004
8058	1231405	D14889	0.63	0.002	0.52	0.004
8544	926444	U78164	0.81	0.033	0.69	0.035
8216	2287230	Y07565	0.76	0.015	0.60	0.008
10389	1902608	AK001725	0.77	0.005	0.76	0.019
2635	5121313	U52840	0.77	0.029	0.76	0.012
3950	1259691	AB002372	1.36	0.003	1.43	0.013
6381	1890049	NM_004853	0.70	0.002	0.70	0.045
696	5297230	AF060568	1.30	0.013	1.43	0.004
11609	311459	AF060568	1.29	0.001	1.33	0.026

	TABLE 13
	Microarray,	Microarray,	TaqMan Q-PCR
	Cohort 1	Cohort 2	Cohorts 1 and 2
		Fold		Fold		Fold
Accession	Category	change	p value	change	p value	change	p value
NM_004046	Mitochon.	0.93	0.530	0.70	0.055	0.68	0.00005
NM_001696	Mitochon.	0.67	0.001	0.70	0.035	0.79	0.00784
NM_004929.2	Neuronal	0.69	0.103	0.51	0.004	0.55	0.00059
NM_001865.2	Neuronal	1.00	0.962	0.70	0.071	0.68	0.00197
NM_002045	Neuronal	1.06	0.454	0.67	0.052	0.55	0.00010
NM_005544.1	Mitochon.	1.23	0.046	1.22	0.043	0.73	0.00232
NM_005566.1	Mitochon.	0.65	0.004	0.66	0.040	0.76	0.00232
NM_002492.1	Mitochon.	0.70	0.020	0.68	0.041	0.93	0.37033
NM_002495.1	Mitochon.	0.69	0.017	0.59	0.012	0.76	0.00035
NM_016446.2	Neuronal	0.67	10E−7	0.74	0.043	0.72	0.00029
NM_148976.1	Proteasome	0.72	0.019	0.53	0.005	0.65	0.00003
NM_002798.1	Proteasome	0.73	0.002	0.58	0.009	0.75	0.00001
NM_002823.2	Neuronal	1.44	0.005	1.55	0.008	0.99	0.88322
NM_004794	Neuronal	0.63	0.002	0.52	0.004	0.70	0.00012
NM_004168.1	Mitochon.	0.72	0.012	0.71	0.037	0.84	0.04256
NM_004853	Neuronal	0.70	0.002	0.70	0.045	0.92	0.13930
NM_018955	Ubiquitin	0.66	0.008	0.64	0.032	0.64	0.00017
NM_003338.3	Ubiquitin	0.81	0.030	0.77	0.046	0.90	0.34074

	TABLE 14
	Reference	Cohort 1	Cohort 2
SEQ ID NO:	Number	GeneProbeID	Accession	Ratio	P Value	Ratio	P Value
SEQ ID NO: 1	NM_006670	12441	Z29083	1.235	0.0310	1.285	0.0371
SEQ ID NO: 2	NM_003815	11233	U41767	1.224	0.0076	1.278	0.0162
SEQ ID NO: 3	NM_005100	8284	AB003476	0.748	0.0246	0.673	0.0253
SEQ ID NO: 4	NM_000019.	8340	D90228	0.772	0.0156	0.661	0.0134
SEQ ID NO: 5	NM_004300	5216	NM_004300	0.810	0.0415	0.734	0.0337
SEQ ID NO: 6	NM_000674	11533	L22214	0.776	0.0401	0.827	0.0166
SEQ ID NO: 7	NM_016282	3371	AK001553	0.714	0.0463	0.664	0.0116
SEQ ID NO: 8	NM_006367	7888	L12168	0.799	0.0140	0.773	0.0418
SEQ ID NO: 9	NM_005484	3454	AK001980	0.758	0.0296	0.698	0.0026
SEQ ID NO: 10	NM_006066	8600	AW873466	0.673	0.0040	0.723	0.0399
SEQ ID NO: 11	NM_020299.	11182	AF032455	0.686	0.0023	0.663	0.0408
SEQ ID NO: 12	NM_014885	3712	AF132794	1.338	0.0238	1.299	0.0394
SEQ ID NO: 13	NM_003801	3883	NM_003801	0.741	0.0061	0.719	0.0058
SEQ ID NO: 14	NM_001139.	7002	AF038461	1.210	0.0340	1.208	0.0412
SEQ ID NO: 15	S80343	10686	S80343	0.757	0.0478	0.692	0.0327
SEQ ID NO: 16	NM_001696	2365	X76228	0.671	0.0010	0.703	0.0353
SEQ ID NO: 17	NM_004323	3950	Z35491	0.771	0.0116	0.768	0.0486
SEQ ID NO: 18	NM_001726	10551	AA884041	1.363	0.0172	1.352	0.0403
SEQ ID NO: 19	NM_007371	2264	D26362	1.366	0.0007	1.381	0.0337
SEQ ID NO: 20	NM_001328	12415	NM_001328	0.642	0.0287	0.601	0.0307
SEQ ID NO: 21	NM_018398	2616	AJ272213	0.704	0.0213	0.628	0.0097
SEQ ID NO: 22	NM_016352	11963	AF095719	1.247	0.0017	1.223	0.0116
SEQ ID NO: 23	NM_003652	418	U83411	1.255	0.0193	1.229	0.0451
SEQ ID NO: 24	NM_001334	6131	N20599	0.788	0.0495	0.751	0.0287
SEQ ID NO: 25	NM_005194.	2597	X52560	1.239	0.0178	1.210	0.0226
SEQ ID NO: 26	NM_001254.	751	AF022109	1.285	0.0180	1.251	0.0318
SEQ ID NO: 27	NM_145054	12017	AAF50630	0.632	0.0053	0.661	0.0060
SEQ ID NO: 28	NM_006430	7197	U38846	0.691	0.0246	0.574	0.0439
SEQ ID NO: 29	NM_000079	12634	S77094	0.470	0.0017	0.529	0.0344
SEQ ID NO: 30	NM_004872	10456	AA305978	0.713	0.0386	0.688	0.0360
SEQ ID NO: 31	NM_001584	9282	NM_001584	0.736	0.0483	0.662	0.0187
SEQ ID NO: 32	NM_005716	1988	AA581812	1.225	0.0093	1.285	0.0263
SEQ ID NO: 33	NM_004891	696	NM_004891	0.770	0.0073	0.686	0.0297
SEQ ID NO: 34	NM_021188	11609	U90919	0.563	0.0017	0.618	0.0377
SEQ ID NO: 35	NM_004766.	4447	X70476	0.746	0.0285	0.709	0.0452
SEQ ID NO: 36	NM_033138	10323	D79413	1.283	0.0126	1.323	0.0306
SEQ ID NO: 37	NM_001847.	2583	D21337	1.348	0.0277	1.344	0.0216
SEQ ID NO: 38	NM_001849	466	AL360197	0.828	0.0386	0.720	0.0258
SEQ ID NO: 39	NM_016129	8649	AK001148	0.623	0.0188	0.524	0.0028
SEQ ID NO: 40	NM_005190	4947	M74091	0.787	0.0401	0.725	0.0178
SEQ ID NO: 41	NM_004354	6386	AI271688	0.754	0.0435	0.618	0.0040
SEQ ID NO: 42	NM_000397	7493	X04011	0.749	0.0016	0.701	0.0303
SEQ ID NO: 43	NM_001916	11729	AK026633	0.723	0.0453	0.654	0.0174
SEQ ID NO: 44	NM_019010	11212	X73501	1.244	0.0116	1.204	0.0366
SEQ ID NO: 45	AW351829	10444	AW351829	1.221	0.0368	1.317	0.0084
SEQ ID NO: 46	NM_004088	970	NM_004088	1.255	0.0264	1.281	0.0242
SEQ ID NO: 47	NM_000398	2503	M16462	0.801	0.0140	0.800	0.0399
SEQ ID NO: 48	NM_012135	6101	Y18504	0.624	0.0083	0.586	0.0094
SEQ ID NO: 49	NM_004395	7602	D17530	0.769	0.0006	0.816	0.0170
SEQ ID NO: 50	NM_006400	11630	U50733	0.810	0.0132	0.737	0.0290
SEQ ID NO: 51	NM_004662	8873	AJ404468	0.703	0.0088	0.678	0.0140
SEQ ID NO: 52	L19267.	1997	L19267	1.247	0.0479	1.343	0.0259
SEQ ID NO: 53	NM_000109	2160	AA661835	0.744	0.0215	0.656	0.0475
SEQ ID NO: 54	NM_007040.	12542	AJ007509	1.210	0.0002	1.217	0.0347
SEQ ID NO: 55	NM_006816.	11384	BE254013	0.828	0.0067	0.710	0.0170
SEQ ID NO: 56	NM_001984	9805	AF112219	0.624	0.0235	0.743	0.0369
SEQ ID NO: 57	NM_182647	8474	AA827495	0.728	0.0070	0.752	0.0222
SEQ ID NO: 58	NM_014239	2796	AF035280	0.772	0.0071	0.672	0.0084
SEQ ID NO: 59	NM_003753	8558	AW249334	0.815	0.0175	0.719	0.0276
SEQ ID NO: 60	NM_005236.	11439	L77890	1.245	0.0267	1.326	0.0357
SEQ ID NO: 61	NM_002027.	7902	L10413	0.785	0.0345	0.804	0.0379
SEQ ID NO: 62	NM_006329	1644	AF112152	0.623	0.0002	0.687	0.0142
SEQ ID NO: 63	NM_004116	14	D38037	0.618	0.0055	0.700	0.0048
SEQ ID NO: 64	NM_004111	3887	BE278623	0.758	0.0337	0.713	0.0267
SEQ ID NO: 65	NM_004816	12538	L27479	1.207	0.0125	1.316	0.0043
SEQ ID NO: 66	NM_004477	5447	AA905219	0.789	0.0200	0.686	0.0217
SEQ ID NO: 67	NM_002092	8310	U07231	0.741	0.0158	0.652	0.0340
SEQ ID NO: 68	NM_002051	502	X58072	1.284	0.0138	1.278	0.0237
SEQ ID NO: 69	NM_014628	5102	NM_014628	0.717	0.0091	0.641	0.0233
SEQ ID NO: 70	NM_004483	2372	D00723	0.680	0.0139	0.691	0.0111
SEQ ID NO: 71	NM_004487.	8490	NM_004487	0.707	0.0236	0.657	0.0171
SEQ ID NO: 72	NM_006597	11631	AW249010	0.547	0.0054	0.639	0.0336
SEQ ID NO: 73	NM_004506	3143	NM_004506	0.814	0.0365	0.776	0.0306
SEQ ID NO: 74	NM_177433	4554	U92544	0.748	0.0144	0.753	0.0314
SEQ ID NO: 75	NM_000566	11986	AAD34932	1.249	0.0288	1.286	0.0420
SEQ ID NO: 76	NM_002128	10485	BE266776	1.218	0.0117	1.270	0.0225
SEQ ID NO: 77	NM_005800	9330	X59131	0.763	0.0278	0.543	0.0104
SEQ ID NO: 78	NM_005340	2481	AK026557	0.627	0.0043	0.660	0.0410
SEQ ID NO: 79	NM_007067	11199	AF140360	0.767	0.0168	0.719	0.0259
SEQ ID NO: 80	NM_015980.	177	AF113537	0.531	0.0043	0.537	0.0410
SEQ ID NO: 81	NM_024293	9735	AK026155	0.751	0.0090	0.575	0.0129
SEQ ID NO: 82	NM_023924	5643	AK026830	0.828	0.0196	0.784	0.0040
SEQ ID NO: 83	NM_024639	12096	AK027046	1.227	0.0231	1.217	0.0422
SEQ ID NO: 84	AF070536	2983	AF070536	1.277	0.0212	1.359	0.0135
SEQ ID NO: 85	NM_014685	4324	AI660551	0.757	0.0269	0.736	0.0258
SEQ ID NO: 86	NM_006003.	6058	L32977	0.660	0.0076	0.636	0.0256
SEQ ID NO: 87	NM_001628.	11907	M59783	0.687	0.0065	0.617	0.0214
SEQ ID NO: 88	NM_002038	1248	AK024814	0.687	0.0491	0.776	0.0156
SEQ ID NO: 89	NM_001914	3862	AK026310	0.781	0.0314	0.718	0.0432
SEQ ID NO: 90	NM_003105	4354	U90916	1.598	0.0442	1.904	0.0460
SEQ ID NO: 91	AF282498	11926	AF282498	0.647	0.0087	0.671	0.0180
SEQ ID NO: 92	AF143872	10107	AF143872	1.287	0.0212	1.209	0.0142
SEQ ID NO: 93	NM_017528	6579	AF218007	0.821	0.0494	0.658	0.0060
SEQ ID NO: 94	Z58229	2397	Z58229	0.765	0.0481	0.656	0.0138
SEQ ID NO: 95	NM_004980.	8341	AL049557	0.785	0.0324	0.749	0.0085
SEQ ID NO: 96	NM_000175	3459	X83464	0.774	0.0020	0.757	0.0386
SEQ ID NO: 97	AP000500	11099	AP000500	1.383	0.0222	1.339	0.0174
SEQ ID NO: 98	NM_006430.	6950	D17080	0.714	0.0179	0.522	0.0201
SEQ ID NO: 99	NM_000786.	382	U51684	1.314	0.0161	1.301	0.0156
SEQ ID NO: 100	NM_001780.	7703	M58485	0.778	0.0157	0.688	0.0291
SEQ ID NO: 101	NM_003340	1581	AF224669	0.805	0.0108	0.611	0.0089
SEQ ID NO: 102	NM_012212	5536	D49387	0.703	0.0461	0.564	0.0040
SEQ ID NO: 103	NM_003319	6868	X90569	1.304	0.0110	1.542	0.0052
SEQ ID NO: 104	NM_001677.	4755	M25161	1.232	0.0284	1.205	0.0381
SEQ ID NO: 105	NM_004820	9177	AF127089	1.224	0.0082	1.271	0.0153
SEQ ID NO: 106	XM_370630	1578	X91192	0.794	0.0142	0.770	0.0424
SEQ ID NO: 107	NM_002823	1590	M67480	1.444	0.0046	1.545	0.0082
SEQ ID NO: 108	NM_005105.	6697	AF231512	0.745	0.0262	0.725	0.0097
SEQ ID NO: 109	U72852	11096	U72852	1.293	0.0230	1.254	0.0363
SEQ ID NO: 110	NM_004181	7772	AF076269	0.653	0.0201	0.694	0.0311
SEQ ID NO: 111	NM_018320.	5992	AK023139	0.796	0.0234	0.710	0.0028
SEQ ID NO: 112	AK000644	1656	AK000644	0.777	0.0070	0.768	0.0165
SEQ ID NO: 113	NM_022752	12046	AK025712	0.707	0.0321	0.725	0.0182
SEQ ID NO: 114	NM_022720	3953	AK025539	1.274	0.0094	1.218	0.0329
SEQ ID NO: 115	NM_021248	10457	AF035300	0.670	0.0006	0.691	0.0097
SEQ ID NO: 116	NM_005785	5222	NM_005785	0.823	0.0495	0.810	0.0349
SEQ ID NO: 117	NM_001545.	4332	X81788	0.782	0.0119	0.730	0.0356
SEQ ID NO: 118	NM_001551	4023	Y08915	0.820	0.0241	0.733	0.0415
SEQ ID NO: 119	M87790	8442	M87790	0.761	0.0086	0.715	0.0238
SEQ ID NO: 120	NM_002221	167	X57206	1.226	0.0239	1.241	0.0422
SEQ ID NO: 121	NM_001567.	5873	Y14385	0.797	0.0496	0.800	0.0172
SEQ ID NO: 122	NM_005544	12292	NM_005544	1.228	0.0459	1.215	0.0426
SEQ ID NO: 123	NM_002178.	6156	M62402	0.616	0.0011	0.826	0.0156
SEQ ID NO: 124	NM_181469.	8401	BE294405	0.732	0.0067	0.687	0.0030
SEQ ID NO: 125	NM_004515	674	AA307289	0.771	0.0166	0.710	0.0200
SEQ ID NO: 126	NM_005530.	3986	U07681	0.717	0.0078	0.759	0.0357
SEQ ID NO: 127	NM_075891	11356	AAC70890	1.259	0.0108	1.326	0.0127
SEQ ID NO: 128	NM_014762.	901	013643	0.714	0.0057	0.684	0.0199
SEQ ID NO: 129	NM_015359.	5285	D31887	0.771	0.0088	0.695	0.0084
SEQ ID NO: 130	NM_014752	10531	AL047241	0.775	0.0344	0.678	0.0216
SEQ ID NO: 131	XM_291253	8481	D63480	0.786	0.0289	0.654	0.0212
SEQ ID NO: 132	NM_015286.	7244	AB002351	0.816	0.0469	0.763	0.0218
SEQ ID NO: 133	NM_014954	1539	AB023202	0.762	0.0202	0.755	0.0435
SEQ ID NO: 134	NM_020868.	6790	AB040925	0.676	0.0120	0.756	0.0350
SEQ ID NO: 135	NM_020882	11332	AB040943	1.255	0.0072	1.298	0.0008
SEQ ID NO: 136	NM_003937	12458	AW296221	1.264	0.0217	1.331	0.0253
SEQ ID NO: 137	NM_005566	3715	AK026515	0.647	0.0042	0.659	0.0397
SEQ ID NO: 138	NM_015907	9204	AF061738	0.731	0.0431	0.698	0.0165
SEQ ID NO: 139	NM_002347	10406	NM_002347	1.260	0.0185	1.323	0.0105
SEQ ID NO: 140	NM_016457	7648	M60458	0.554	0.0310	0.760	0.0473
SEQ ID NO: 141	NM_013446	2744	AF117233	0.722	0.0054	0.664	0.0244
SEQ ID NO: 142	NM_005918	1922	AW249275	0.623	0.0020	0.582	0.0110
SEQ ID NO: 143	NM_006699	5702	AF027156	0.674	0.0076	0.767	0.0356
SEQ ID NO: 144	NM_005909.	7296	L06237	1.215	0.0154	1.368	0.0035
SEQ ID NO: 145	NM_004526	4204	BE250461	0.728	0.0044	0.765	0.0230
SEQ ID NO: 146	NM_002439	9544	NM_002439	1.384	0.0002	1.228	0.0306
SEQ ID NO: 147	NM_004529.	4326	AI110630	1.348	0.0020	1.413	0.0487
SEQ ID NO: 148	NM_021019	5171	M22918	0.724	0.0016	0.627	0.0059
SEQ ID NO: 149	NM_018946	2814	AK001659	0.772	0.0291	0.626	0.0164
SEQ ID NO: 150	NM_177924	4286	AA220921	0.700	0.0360	0.624	0.0280
SEQ ID NO: 151	NM_004546	6731	AF067166	0.742	0.0049	0.714	0.0430
SEQ ID NO: 152	NM_002492.	9906	AF047181	0.698	0.0199	0.683	0.0414
SEQ ID NO: 153	NM_002495.	1541	AF020351	0.689	0.0175	0.587	0.0119
SEQ ID NO: 154	NM_016446.	6245	NM_016446	0.674	0.0000	0.743	0.0430
SEQ ID NO: 155	NM_006156	7500	AW960243	0.790	0.0284	0.733	0.0223
SEQ ID NO: 156	NM_005863.	558	AW237438	0.776	0.0167	0.784	0.0229
SEQ ID NO: 157	NM_020202	10154	AF284574	0.754	0.0076	0.741	0.0219
SEQ ID NO: 158	NM_005489.	5610	AF124251	0.708	0.0335	0.774	0.0251
SEQ ID NO: 159	NM_002552.	8337	NM_002552	0.763	0.0293	0.464	0.0216
SEQ ID NO: 160	NM_002553.	422	U92538	0.820	0.0106	0.773	0.0151
SEQ ID NO: 161	NM_006194	5939	U59628	1.442	0.0295	1.365	0.0398
SEQ ID NO: 162	NM_015946	5996	AK025729	0.700	0.0042	0.632	0.0043
SEQ ID NO: 163	NM_000285	1194	J04605	0.727	0.0367	0.598	0.0174
SEQ ID NO: 164	NM_004461	2385	U07424	0.751	0.0278	0.773	0.0029
SEQ ID NO: 165	NM_000283.	880	S41458	1.219	0.0202	1.292	0.0038
SEQ ID NO: 166	NM_002631	7125	U30255	0.752	0.0144	0.722	0.0066
SEQ ID NO: 167	NM_002629.	7898	J04173	0.596	0.0036	0.640	0.0396
SEQ ID NO: 168	NM_002767	9442	NM_002767	0.795	0.0326	0.609	0.0061
SEQ ID NO: 169	NM_000293.	1930	X84908	0.738	0.0167	0.655	0.0068
SEQ ID NO: 170	NM_005837.	7295	BE206450	0.744	0.0107	0.636	0.0035
SEQ ID NO: 171	NM_020122.	11779	AF155652	0.748	0.0292	0.661	0.0199
SEQ ID NO: 172	NM_002245.	6586	U33632	0.725	0.0479	0.684	0.0259
SEQ ID NO: 173	NM_021161	11111	AF279890	0.762	0.0239	0.790	0.0225
SEQ ID NO: 174	NM_000220.	12116	U65406	1.256	0.0314	1.297	0.0387
SEQ ID NO: 175	NM_014888.	2093	AI491952	0.652	0.0159	0.563	0.0204
SEQ ID NO: 176	NM_002726	1263	X74496	0.690	0.0282	0.700	0.0154
SEQ ID NO: 177	NM_000282	277	S79219	0.770	0.0295	0.699	0.0089
SEQ ID NO: 178	NM_002806	10492	AF006305	0.776	0.0269	0.629	0.0404
SEQ ID NO: 179	NM_002812.	1045	BE271628	0.755	0.0280	0.645	0.0355
SEQ ID NO: 180	NM_063010.	3002	AB003177	0.737	0.0026	0.716	0.0105
SEQ ID NO: 181	NM_176783	9466	AA310524	0.688	0.0209	0.741	0.0048
SEQ ID NO: 182	NM_002786	5380	AI889267	0.721	0.0186	0.534	0.0046
SEQ ID NO: 183	NM_002798	1497	D29012	0.684	0.0088	0.606	0.0230
SEQ ID NO: 184	NM_014297.	3996	NM_014297	0.789	0.0184	0.782	0.0119
SEQ ID NO: 185	NM_006741.	1273	U48707	0.746	0.0417	0.711	0.0031
SEQ ID NO: 186	NM_005389.	1912	D13892	0.633	0.0049	0.730	0.0064
SEQ ID NO: 187	NM_016145	7319	AW405217	0.833	0.0053	0.826	0.0285
SEQ ID NO: 188	NM_019852	6356	AW959460	0.781	0.0360	0.574	0.0039
SEQ ID NO: 189	NM_005801	12691	AF083441	1.238	0.0418	1.250	0.0295
SEQ ID NO: 190	NM_000925.	8538	NM_000925	0.757	0.0424	0.640	0.0482
SEQ ID NO: 191	NM_021252.	3704	AK001555	1.274	0.0307	1.446	0.0292
SEQ ID NO: 192	NM_004794	8058	D14889	0.632	0.0017	0.524	0.0040
SEQ ID NO: 193	NM_002873.	4823	AF098534	0.754	0.0209	0.667	0.0354
SEQ ID NO: 194	NM_006265.	3024	NM_006265	0.826	0.0354	0.774	0.0424
SEQ ID NO: 195	NM_000448.	9956	M29474	1.241	0.0173	1.275	0.0192
SEQ ID NO: 196	NM_005056	4307	NM_005056	1.355	0.0096	1.519	0.0128
SEQ ID NO: 197	NM_002939	549	X13973	0.818	0.0260	0.832	0.0481
SEQ ID NO: 198	NM_002930	8216	Y07565	0.760	0.0147	0.605	0.0078
SEQ ID NO: 199	NM_001754	9415	AW963298	1.299	0.0197	1.260	0.0074
SEQ ID NO: 200	NM_080564	10389	AK001725	0.773	0.0045	0.757	0.0192
SEQ ID NO: 201	NM_004589	10357	AI332708	0.646	0.0118	0.696	0.0433
SEQ ID NO: 202	NM_003966	2635	U52840	0.771	0.0288	0.765	0.0117
SEQ ID NO: 203	AX014302	8148	AX014302	1.214	0.0488	1.233	0.0287
SEQ ID NO: 204	AX015317	378	AX015317	1.341	0.0110	1.309	0.0398
SEQ ID NO: 205	AX018011	95	AX018011	0.819	0.0428	0.731	0.0294
SEQ ID NO: 206	AX017279	11018	AX017279	1.249	0.0327	1.326	0.0132
SEQ ID NO: 207	AX014335	6676	AX014335	0.812	0.0233	0.746	0.0014
SEQ ID NO: 208	AX015383	4575	AX015383	0.665	0.0004	0.694	0.0117
SEQ ID NO: 209	AX017516	6044	AX017516	0.803	0.0461	0.681	0.0186
SEQ ID NO: 210	AX014881	3744	AX014881	0.710	0.0135	0.788	0.0212
SEQ ID NO: 211	AX017258	2371	AX017258	0.649	0.0086	0.734	0.0360
SEQ ID NO: 212	AX011691	5507	AX011691	0.804	0.0046	0.787	0.0176
SEQ ID NO: 213	AX015417	597	AX015417	0.750	0.0069	0.638	0.0068
SEQ ID NO: 214	NM_032635	11303	AW473288	0.749	0.0037	0.794	0.0463
SEQ ID NO: 215	NM_014281	7929	AF114818	0.799	0.0263	0.721	0.0112
SEQ ID NO: 216	NM_020320	4468	AK023550	0.678	0.0060	0.699	0.0122
SEQ ID NO: 217	NM_007069	10562	AI375733	0.772	0.0069	0.768	0.0476
SEQ ID NO: 218	NM_005210	506	AAD15549	1.318	0.0246	1.503	0.0160
SEQ ID NO: 219	NM_032964	933	NM_004166	0.804	0.0113	0.736	0.0147
SEQ ID NO: 220	NM_003083	10496	AI453282	0.739	0.0347	0.785	0.0353
SEQ ID NO: 221	NM_006936	7501	AA160893	0.741	0.0170	0.648	0.0053
SEQ ID NO: 222	NM_001152	1568	J02683	0.666	0.0102	0.625	0.0291
SEQ ID NO: 223	NM_004168	7837	L21936	0.719	0.0119	0.707	0.0373
SEQ ID NO: 224	NM_003172	5291	Z35093	0.826	0.0230	0.803	0.0255
SEQ ID NO: 225	NM_014723	7360	AB002372	1.360	0.0035	1.427	0.0130
SEQ ID NO: 226	NM_004853	6381	NM_004853	0.704	0.0019	0.700	0.0449
SEQ ID NO: 227	NM_030752	3611	X52882	0.702	0.0202	0.645	0.0444
SEQ ID NO: 228	NM_006520	3139	NM_006520	0.763	0.0188	0.667	0.0293
SEQ ID NO: 229	NM_007375	11757	AL050265	0.680	0.0282	0.701	0.0418
SEQ ID NO: 230	NM_003187	5267	U21858	0.733	0.0110	0.676	0.0162
SEQ ID NO: 231	NM_006930	11621	BE386888	0.655	0.0068	0.657	0.0318
SEQ ID NO: 232	NM_000545	3576	M57732	0.798	0.0327	0.812	0.0179
SEQ ID NO: 233	NM_006335	2191	AW247564	0.695	0.0236	0.578	0.0193
SEQ ID NO: 234	NM_000365.	5930	M10036	0.674	0.0178	0.689	0.0274
SEQ ID NO: 235	NM_012410	11722	AJ245820	0.656	0.0050	0.701	0.0083
SEQ ID NO: 236	NM_003332	1619	AF019562	1.262	0.0410	1.341	0.0165
SEQ ID NO: 237	NM_003985.	675	AF097738	1.277	0.0347	1.359	0.0211
SEQ ID NO: 238	NM_018955	7463	BE250544	0.715	0.0090	0.709	0.0361
SEQ ID NO: 239	NM_003338	6469	AI816068	0.813	0.0300	0.766	0.0463
SEQ ID NO: 240	NM_014235	10565	NM_014235	1.310	0.0020	1.232	0.0387
SEQ ID NO: 241	NM_005360	11168	AF055376	0.696	0.0240	0.670	0.0132
SEQ ID NO: 242	NM_003374	4958	L06132	0.729	0.0218	0.627	0.0323
SEQ ID NO: 243	NM_003375	9571	AI015604	0.714	0.0311	0.612	0.0382
SEQ ID NO: 244	NM_001079	4890	L05148	1.497	0.0023	1.428	0.0239
SEQ ID NO: 245	NM_003430	11943	AAA59469	1.261	0.0458	1.296	0.0410
SEQ ID NO: 246	NM_006006	3717	AF060568	1.300	0.0133	1.434	0.0039
SEQ ID NO: 247	NM_003457	4911	AF046001	0.778	0.0243	0.675	0.0151
SEQ ID NO: 248	NM_005674	6574	X82125	0.768	0.0262	0.761	0.0015
SEQ ID NO: 249	NM_005857	881	AW192807	0.826	0.0346	0.657	0.0153

REFERENCES CITED

Numerous references are cited and discussed in the description of this invention. The citation and/or discussion of such references is provided merely to clarify the description of the present invention and is not an admission that any such reference is “prior art” to the invention described herein. All references cited and discussed in this specification are incorporated herein by reference in the entirety and to the same extent as if each reference was individually incorporated by reference.

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Claims

1. A method for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual, which method comprises: (a) obtaining a cell or tissue sample from a first individual suspected of having schizophrenia; (b) determining levels of expression of at least one nucleic acid in the cell or tissue sample, said nucleic acid being a nucleic acid of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249; and (c) comparing said levels of expression to levels of expression of the nucleic acid from a sample of a second individual who does not have schizophrenia; wherein a difference in the levels of expression of the nucleic acid in the cell or tissue sample obtained from the first individual, relative to the levels of expression in the second individual, indicates that the first individual has schizophrenia.

2. A method of claim 1, wherein the levels of expression of a plurality of nucleic acids in the cell or tissue sample are determined, said plurality of nucleic acids selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

3. A method for identifying a compound to treat schizophrenia, which method comprises: (a) contacting a cell or tissue sample with a test compound; (b) determining expression, in the cell or tissue sample, of at least one nucleic acid selected from the nucleic acids of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249; and (c) comparing the determined expression to expression of the nucleic acid in a cell or tissue sample that is not contacted with the test compound, wherein a difference in expression of the nucleic acid when the cell or tissue sample is contacted with the test compound indicates that the test compound can be used to treat schizophrenia.

4. A method of claim 3, wherein the levels of expression of a plurality of nucleic acids in the cell or tissue sample are determined, said plurality of nucleic acids are selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

5. A method of claim 4, wherein the levels of expression of at least fourteen nucleic acids in the cell or tissue sample are determined, said nucleic acids are selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

6. A method of claim 4, wherein the levels of expression of at least twenty-eight nucleic acids in the cell or tissue sample are determined, said nucleic acids are selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

7. A method of claim 4, wherein the levels of expression of at least forty-two nucleic acids in the cell or tissue sample are determined, said nucleic acids are selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

8. A kit for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual, said kit comprising: a plurality of nucleic acid probes, wherein each of said probes specifically hybridizes to a nucleic acid selected from the group consisting of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

9. A kit for diagnosing schizophrenia in an individual, said kit comprising: a plurality of primer pairs, wherein each of said primer pair specifically amplifies a nucleic acid selected from the group consist of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249.

10. A method for monitoring a therapeutic response in an individual undergoing treatment for schizophrenia, said method comprising: (a) determining expression, in the cell or tissue sample, from said individual of at least one nucleic acid selected from the nucleic acids of SEQ ID NOS: 1-249; and (b) comparing the determined expression to the expression of the nucleic acid in a cell or tissue sample, from a individual who does not have schizophrenia wherein a similar level of expression of the nucleic acid in the cell or tissue sample obtained from the individual undergoing treatment for schizophrenia relative to the level of expression of the nucleic acid in the cell or tissue sample obtained from the individual who does not have schizophrenia indicates a therapeutic response.