Patent Application
20090104162
1. Field of the Invention
The present invention relates generally to the fields of virology, molecular biology and medicine. More particularly, it concerns methods involving attenuated reoviruses for screening or selectively killing certain (e.g., cancerous) sub-populations of cells in vitro or from a larger mixed cell population.
2. Description of Related Art
Reovirus (Respiratory Enteric Orphan virus) is a ubiquitous, non-enveloped virus containing 10 segments of double-stranded RNA as its genome, with human infections that are generally mild, restricted to the upper respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts and often asymptomatic, in immune functional hosts (Tyler, 2001). Attempts to reverse engineer reoviruses have been largely unsuccessful due to several factors, including the double-stranded RNA genome of reoviruses. Reoviral particles lacking σ1 have been understood to be non-infectious (Larson et al., 1994).
Importantly, reovirus has been recognized for many years as displaying striking cytocidal activity when it infects certain types of transformed cells (Duncan et al., 1978; Hashiro et al., 1977). Replication-competent oncolytic viruses provide an attractive anti-cancer therapeutic approach. These oncolytic viruses have two principal advantages. Firstly, unlike conventional chemotherapy and radiotherapy, they specifically target cancer cells because of their restricted ability to replicate in normal cells. Secondly, as compared to replication-incompetent vectors, they can propagate from initially infected cancer cells to surrounding cancer cells, thereby achieving a large volume of distribution and potent anti-cancer effects.
Exposure to wild-type (wt) reoviruses, although often asymptomatic in healthy individuals, can nonetheless present a substantial and potentially very serious risk to immunocompromised individuals, limiting the clinical potential of reoviral therapies in patients such as cancer patients who might otherwise benefit from such a therapy. The underlying basis for reoviral oncolytic activity remained unknown until it was shown that transformed cells containing oncogenic Ras-signaling pathways were preferentially susceptible to reovirus infection (type 3 Dearing strain) in vitro and in vivo (Coffey et al., 1998; Strong et al., 1998; Norman et al., 2004). As Ras gene mutations are frequently observed in various types of human cancers (Duursma et al., 2003), these findings have led to the current use of reoviral therapy in clinical trials (Norman et al., 2005). In immune compromised hosts such as newborn and SCID (severe combined immunodeficiency) animals, however, the wt reovirus exerts significant viral pathogenesis especially in neural tissue and cardiac muscle tissue (Sabin, 1959; Weiner et al., 1977; Baty et al., 1993; Loken et al., 2004). In some cases, even in immune-competent hosts including humans, wt reovirus has been associated with viral pathogenesis (Terheggen et al., 2003, Hirasawa et al., 2003). Therefore, especially in immune-compromised or very young hosts, wt reovirus does not always act in a benign manner. For example, in immunocompromised hosts such as very young or immunodeficient adult animals, this virus also has been shown to infect some healthy tissues such as heart, liver, pancreas and neural structures. This concern may further apply to cancer patients treated with extensive radio/chemotherapy as they can be subject to immunosuppression. Thus, there is a clear need to develop a less virulent reovirus for viral oncolytic therapy.
Further, wt reoviruses in many instances possess undesirable virulence and infectivity which limit their potential use in vitro. Specifically, exposure of a cell culture (e.g., a bone marrow transplant taken from a cancer patient) to wt reoviruses may result in the undesirable side effect of killing cells such as stem cells which would be needed for a purpose such as repopulating the immune system of a cancer patient. Thus, the increased virulence of WT reoviruses present significant limitations for the clinical potential of in vitro applications involving exposure of cells to reoviruses. Certain methods relating to the exposure of cellular populations to wt reoviruses have been described (e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,994,858, U.S. Patent Publication 2004/0109878, U.S. Patent Publication 2002/0037543, U.S. Patent Publication 2006/0029598, U.S. Patent Publication 2005/0026289, U.S. Patent Publication 2002/0006398, U.S. Patent Publication 2001/0048919 which are incorporated by reference in their entirety without disclaimer); however these methods do not resolve the above-mentioned limitations involving the use of WT reoviruses. Clearly, there exists a need for improved methods for selective killing or purging of cellular sub-populations (e.g., cancerous cells) from a mixed cellular population while limiting damage to necessary or beneficial cells (e.g., stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells).
The present invention overcomes limitations in the prior art by providing methods for the screening or purging of cellular sub-populations (e.g., cancerous cells) from a mixed cellular population in vitro using attenuated reoviruses. In certain embodiments, an attenuated reovirus lacking a wild-type S1 gene may be exposed to a mixed cellular composition; the decreased virulence of the attenuated reovirus can then result in killing of cancerous or neoplastic cells with a reduced toxicity to healthy cells such as stem cells or hematopoietic cells. In various embodiments, the mixed cellular composition may be obtained from various sources such as an autologous or allogenic tissue sample (e.g., blood, bone marrow, cultured stem cells such as adult stem cells, embryonic stem cells, partially differentiated precursor cells, etc.).
An aspect of the present invention relates to a method to kill or remove neoplastic cells from a cellular composition suspected of containing such neoplastic cells comprising contacting the cells with an attenuated reovirus under conditions which result in oncolysis or killing of one or more of the neoplastic cells. The attenuated reovirus may express a defective σ1 capsid protein, an undetectable σ1 capsid protein, or no σ1 capsid protein. The attenuated reovirus may lack a wild-type reovirus S1 gene. The attenuated reovirus may lack a wild-type reovirus S4 gene. The attenuated reovirus may have a heritable mutant reovirus S1 gene and/or a heritable mutant reovirus S4 gene. In certain embodiments, the attenuated reovirus is a mammalian reovirus, such as a human reovirus. In certain embodiments, the human reovirus is the AV reovirus.
The cellular composition may comprise stem cells, such as embryonic stem cells. In certain embodiments, the embryonic stem cells are derived from cord blood or placenta. The stem cells may be adult stem cells, hematopoietic stem cells, or human hematopoietic stem cells. The cellular composition may be harvested from bone marrow or blood, such as mobilized peripheral blood. The method may further comprise contacting the attenuated reovirus-treated cellular composition with an anti-reovirus antibody, a peptidyl fluoromethyl ketone (e.g., Z-FA-FMK), an RNA-directed RNA polymerase inhibitor, or an antiviral agent. The method may further comprise removing one or more attenuated reovirus from the cellular composition via washing, centrifugation, or fluorescence activated cell sorting.
The attenuated reovirus-treated cellular composition may be transplanted or implanted into a recipient. In certain embodiments, the cellular composition comprises bone marrow. The recipient may be a human. In certain embodiments, the recipient has received or will receive a cancer therapy, a chemotherapy, or a radiation therapy. The recipient may be immunocompromised. The recipient may be immunocompromised due to a cancer therapy, a chemotherapy, a radiation therapy, or HIV. The transplantation may be autologous or allogenic. The cellular composition may comprise hematopoietic stem cells.
In certain embodiments, the method comprises a method for reducing a risk of recurrence of cancer or tumors in a human patient due to transplantation of the cellular composition, wherein the cellular composition comprises hematopoietic stem cells; wherein the cellular composition is obtained from the human patient; and wherein the attenuated reovirus-treated composition is implanted into the patient. The cellular composition may be a mixed cellular composition.
Another aspect of the present invention relates to a method to kill or remove neoplastic cells from a cellular composition suspected of containing such neoplastic cells comprising contacting the cells ex vivo with an attenuated reovirus under conditions which result in oncolysis of one or more of the neoplastic cells.
Yet another aspect of the present invention relates to a cellular composition prepared according to the methods of the present invention.
As used herein, “neoplastic cells,” also known as “cells with a proliferative disorder,” refer to cells which proliferate without the normal growth inhibition properties. A new growth comprising neoplastic cells is a neoplasm or tumor. A neoplasm is an abnormal tissue growth, generally forming a distinct mass, that grows by cellular proliferation more rapidly than normal tissue growth. Neoplasms may show partial or total lack of structural organization and functional coordination with normal tissue. As used herein, a neoplasm is intended to encompass hematopoietic neoplasms as well as solid neoplasms.
A neoplasm may be benign (benign tumor) or malignant (malignant tumor or cancer). Malignant tumors can be broadly classified into three major types. Malignant neoplasms arising from epithelial structures are called carcinomas, malignant neoplasms that originate from connective tissues such as muscle, cartilage, fat or bone are called sarcomas and malignant tumors affecting hematopoietic structures (structures pertaining to the formation of blood cells) including components of the immune system, are called leukemias and lymphomas. Other neoplasms include, but are not limited to, neurofibromatosis.
As used herein, “immunocompromised” refers to a subject (e.g., a non-human animal, a mammal, a human patient) with an immune system rendered deficient relative to a normal subject by, for example, a genetic mutation or disorder (e.g., a mouse bred to possess a deficient immune system), an immunodeficiency disorder, a disease (e.g., HIV), administration of an immunosuppressive agent (e.g., a chemotherapeutic), or exposure to radiation. Examples of immunocompromised subjects include mammals or human patients suffering from a viral infection such as AIDS, CMV, or influenza. Immunocompromised subjects also include a patient or subject receiving a chemotherapy and/or radiotherapy (e.g., to treat a cancer), transplant patients receiving anti-rejection agents and patients that have been exposed to a sufficient level of a toxic chemical, metal and radiation exposure.
As used herein, “cellular composition” means a composition comprising cells. The composition may contain non-cellular matter. For example, whole blood is a cellular composition which contains plasma, platelets, hormones and other non-cellular matter in addition to cells such as erythrocytes and leukocytes. A cellular composition may contain cells of various types, origin or organization. For example, tissues and organs which contain different cell types arranged in defined structures are considered cellular compositions. Cellular compositions which contain more than one cell type are referred to as “mixed cellular compositions.”
The term “isolated” means that the material is removed from its original environment (e.g., the natural environment if it is naturally occurring). For example, a naturally occurring nucleic acid or polypeptide present in an intact virus or in a living animal is not isolated, but the same nucleic acid or polypeptide, separated from some or all of the co-existing materials in the natural system, is isolated. Such nucleic acids could be part of a vector and/or such nucleic acids or polypeptides could be part of a composition, and still be isolated in that such vector or composition is not part of its natural environment.
As used herein, a “peptidyl fluoromethylketone” (PFMK) is a fluoromethylketone-containing compound that contains two or more amino acids and reduces or inhibits viral replication by about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, about 99%, about 100%, or any value or range in between. The amino acid may be any natural amino acid, any unnatural amino acid, or any combination thereof, as known by those of skill in the art. In certain aspects, a PFMK may be chemically modified and still retain the desired effects of the PFMK compound prior to the chemical modification. Such modified PFMKs may involve the addition, removal, or substitution of one or more chemical moieties on the parent PFMK molecule. Non-limiting examples of the types modifications that can be made to the compounds and structures disclosed herein include the addition or removal of peptide moiety, or lower alkanes such as methyl, ethyl, propyl, or substituted lower alkanes such as hydroxymethyl or aminomethyl groups; carboxyl groups and carbonyl groups; hydroxyls; nitro, amino, amide, and azo groups; sulfate, sulfonate, sulfono, sulfhydryl, sulfonyl, sulfoxido, phosphate, phosphono, phosphoryl groups, and halide substituents. Additional modifications can include an addition or a deletion of one or more atoms of the atomic framework, for example, substitution of an ethyl by a propyl; substitution of a phenyl by a larger or smaller aromatic group. Alternatively, in a cyclic structure, heteroatoms such as N, S, or O can be substituted into the structure instead of a carbon atom.
A variety of amino protecting groups may be appended to the N-terminus of a PFMK. Such protecting groups are well-known in the art, and non-limiting examples include a benzyloxycarbonyl (Z or Cbz) group, a t-butoxycarbonyl (Boc) group and an N-morpholineurea group. Other such groups are listed in Greene and Wuts, 1999, incorporated herein in its entirety. Such protecting groups may be chemically modified as described above.
Yet other modifications to a PFMK may include the addition of substituents that target the resultant PFMK to a particular cellular compartment, such as an endosome or a lysosome. Such substituents are well-known in the art. Non-limiting examples of cellular compartment-targeting substituents include cyclodextrin and galactosyl carbohydrate groups. Such substituents may localize enhancement in concentration of the PFMK at the site of its putative activity, allowing for lower concentrations of the PFMK to be administered. Such substituents may also provide enhanced solubility, persistance and/or stability in vivo and/or in vitro. The present invention specifically contemplates PFMKs that comprise cellular compartment-targeting substituents.
Exemplary PFMKs include N-benzyloxycarbonyl-Phe-Ala-fluoromethylketone (Z-FA-FMK), Mu-FhF-FMK (N-morpholineurea-phenylalanyl-homophenylalanyl-fluoromethylketone) and Z-VAD-FMK (Z-Val-Ala-Asp-fluoromethylketone).
In certain aspects, a PFMK may be characterized as follows, wherein R represents a di-, tri-, tetra-, penta-, or hexa-peptide:
The term “effective,” as that term is used in the specification and/or claims, means adequate to accomplish a desired, expected, or intended result.
The terms “contacted” and “exposed,” when applied to a cell, tissue or organism, are used herein to describe the process by which a PFMK compound, such as a cathepsin inhibitor, e.g., Z-FA-FMK, Mu-FhF-FMK, is delivered to a target cell, tissue or organism or is placed in direct juxtaposition with the target cell, tissue or organism.
The use of the word “a” or “an” when used in conjunction with the term “comprising” in the claims and/or the specification may mean “one,” but it is also consistent with the meaning of “one or more,” “at least one,” and “one or more than one.”
Throughout this application, the term “about” is used to indicate that a value includes the inherent variation of error for the device, the method being employed to determine the value, or the variation that exists among the study subjects.
The use of the term “or” in the claims is used to mean “and/or” unless explicitly indicated to refer to alternatives only or the alternatives are mutually exclusive, although the disclosure supports a definition that refers to only alternatives and “and/or.”
As used in this specification and claim(s), the words “comprising” (and any form of comprising, such as “comprise” and “comprises”), “having” (and any form of having, such as “have” and “has”), “including” (and any form of including, such as “includes” and “include”) or “containing” (and any form of containing, such as “contains” and “contain”) are inclusive or open-ended and do not exclude additional, unrecited elements or method steps.
Other objects, features and advantages of the present invention will become apparent from the following detailed description. It should be understood, however, that the detailed description and the specific examples, while indicating specific embodiments of the invention, are given by way of illustration only, since various changes and modifications within the spirit and scope of the invention will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this detailed description.
The following drawings form part of the present specification and are included to further demonstrate certain aspects of the present invention. The invention may be better understood by reference to one or more of these drawings in combination with the detailed description of specific embodiments presented herein.
The patent or application file contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent or patent application publication with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
The present invention relates, in certain embodiments, to an attenuated reovirus having desirable properties for use as an oncolytic agent ex vivo or in vitro, thereby providing unexpected advantages over naturally-occurring wild-type reoviruses. The attenuated reovirus used in the below examples and disclosed herein comprises an infectious, replication-competent reovirus virion that lacks a detectable reovirus σ1 capsid protein by virtue of the genome of such reovirus lacking a wild-type reovirus S1 gene. As such, the attenuated reovirus derives from the surprising observation that a mutated reovirus which lacks a detectable reovirus σ1 capsid protein unexpectedly retains the ability to productively infect a target tumor cell while desirably avoiding cytopathic effects on non-malignant cells. As noted above, prior to the instant disclosure, reoviral particles that lacked σ1 had been understood to be non-infectious (Larson et al., 1994).
The present invention provides methods for the screening or purging of cellular subpopulations (e.g., cancerous cells) from a mixed cellular population in vitro using an attenuated reovirus. In certain embodiments, an attenuated reovirus lacking a wild-type S1 gene may be exposed to a mixed cellular composition; the decreased virulence of the attenuated reovirus can then result in killing of cancerous or neoplastic cells with a reduced toxicity to healthy cells such as stem cells or hematopoietic cells. In various embodiments, the mixed cellular composition may be obtained from various sources such as an autologous or allogenic tissue sample (e.g., blood, bone marrow, cultured stem cells such as embryonic stem cells, partially differentiated precursor cells, etc.).
As shown in the below examples, attenuated reoviruses demonstrate significant safety for use with stem cells such as adult or embryonic stem cells, including hematopoietic stem cells. In contrast to wild-type (wt) reovirus, evidence that the attenuated AV reovirus did not inhibit growth of a teratoma in a mouse model in the below examples, combined with evidence of the anti-neoplastic effects of this attenuated reovirus, indicates that the AV reovirus may be administered to a cell population comprising healthy stem cells such as hematopoietic cells and selectively kill or purge neoplastic cells from the composition while resulting in little or no damage or toxicity to the healthy stem cells. The reduced cytopathogenicity of attenuated reovirus (e.g., the AV reovirus) towards healthy stem cells allows for safer in vitro killing of cancerous cells from a mixed cellular composition that comprises stem cells (e.g., a bone marrow transplant comprising hematopoietic stem cells).
The reoviruses (Reoviridae) comprise a family of naturally-occurring, non-enveloped viruses having a double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) genome that is divided into ten segments and enclosed by two concentric icosahedral protein capsids. Infectious mammalian reovirus virions of various tropisms occur as particles of approximately 85 nm in diameter. The virion outer capsid includes several distinct protein species, among them sigma-1 (σ1, 50 kDa) which mediates viral attachment to host cell surfaces (Lee et al., 1981; Duncan et al., 1991; Nagata et al., 1987; Turner et al., 1992) via discrete carbohydrate-binding (Chappell et al., 1997; Chappell et al., 2000; Connolly et al., 2001) and virion-anchoring (Mah et al., 1990; Fernandes et al., 1994; Lee et al., 1994) domains. σ1 is a product of the bicistronic reoviral S1 gene, which also encodes a non-structural protein designated σ1s using a distinct but overlapping reading frame (Ernst et al., 1985; Jacobs et al., 1985; Sarkar et al., 1985). Reoviral particles that lack GI have been reported to be non-infectious (Larson et al., 1994). The reoviral S1 gene has been believed to play a significant role in determining reoviral pathogenesis (Haller et al., 1995; Wilson et al., 1994; Kaye et al., 1986; Weiner et al., 1980).
The herein described attenuated reovirus lacks a detectable σ1 capsid protein yet is, unexpectedly, infectious. σ1 has been implicated in reoviral binding and attachment to cells via cell surface sialic acid residues in an initial step of viral replicative infection (Lee et al., 1981; Duncan et al., 1991; Nagata et al., 1987; Turner et al., 1992; Chappell et al., 1997; Chappell et al., 2000; Connolly et al., 2001). Despite lacking detectable σ1, the attenuated reovirus described herein is capable of host cell entry and cytolytic viral replication. Additionally, the attenuated reovirus exhibits the surprising property of inducing a decreased (i.e., reduced with statistical significance) level of one or more cytopathic effects toward a non-malignant cell relative to the level of the cytopathic effect that is exhibited toward the non-malignant cell by a naturally occurring, non-attenuated reovirus. Accordingly and as described in greater detail below, the attenuated reovirus provided herein offers improvements over reoviruses of the prior art, including suitability for use as an oncolytic agent without undesirable side-effects such as tropism for, and cytolysis of, normal (e.g., non-malignant) cells. Specifically, this attenuated reovirus may be used in vitro for the selective killing of cancerous or neoplastic cells.
In certain embodiments, an attenuated reovirus as described in U.S. Application 60/704,604, filed Aug. 5, 2006, and International Patent Application No. PCT/US2006/029881, filed Jul. 31, 2006, which are incorporated by reference herein in its entirety without disclaimer, may be used with the present invention. In certain embodiments, the attenuated reovirus may lack a wild-type reovirus S1 gene. The attenuated reovirus may possess a S1 gene which produces a reduced and/or undetectable amount of the S1 gene product (σ1) or a truncated, mutated, and/or dysfunctional σ1. An attenuated reovirus may have a S1 gene that contains one or more mutations, as compared to a wild-type S1 gene, wherein the mutation is a nucleotide substitution, a nucleotide deletion or a nucleotide insertion.
“Attenuated” reoviruses described herein include reoviruses that exhibit altered (i.e., increased or decreased in a statistically significant manner) infective, replicative and/or lytic properties toward or in a host cell, relative to levels of one or more such properties that are exhibited by known, naturally occurring or wild-type reoviruses. In certain embodiments, the attenuated reovirus will exhibit decreased infectivity, replicative ability and/or lytic potential, relative to a wild-type reovirus. Examples of such altered properties by which one may discern an attenuated reovirus as presently disclosed include various manifestations of viral cytopathic effects, for instance, the multiplicity of infection (MOI, the average number of virions that infect each cell) required for productive infection of a given host cell, the degree of host cell cytolysis induced by viral infection (further including apoptosis and/or necrosis), the titer of viruses released from a productively infected host cell following cytolytic viral replication, and other parameters by which those familiar with the art can determine viral activities toward host cells. Other indicia of cytopathic effects include altered host cell morphology, altered cell adhesion (to substrates such as extracellular matrix proteins or semisolid growth media, or to other cells), altered expression levels of one or more cellular genes, altered ability of host cells to replicate, and/or other alterations in cellular metabolic activity.
A. Mutant Reovirus S1 and S4 Genes
Considering that the S1 gene segment of reovirus is strongly associated with reoviral virulence (Weiner et al., 1977; Weiner et al., 1980; Mann et al., 2002), the inventors have surprisingly isolated an S1 attenuated reovirus (“AV reovirus”) from a persistent reovirus infection of cultured cells (Kim et al., 2006). The attenuated reovirus strain displays significantly reduced viral pathogenesis in an immune-deficient animal model without compromising its viral oncolytic activity in vivo. Because wt reovirus is known to adversely affect the development of rat and murine embryos by retarding development and inhibiting blastocytst formation (Priscott, 1983; Heggie et al., 1979), the inventors further evaluated the pathogenicity of AV reovirus on stem cells. Thus, the inventors compared the pathogenicity of wt and AV reovirus on embryonic stem cells (ESCs). As shown in the below examples, wt reovirus readily infects ESCs in vitro and significantly suppresses stem cell development in a teratoma model, whereas AV reovirus minimally infects ESCs in vitro and does not affect stem cell development in a teratoma model.
In various embodiments, the attenuated reovirus may comprise one or more additional mutations. For example, in certain further embodiments, the attenuated reovirus may lack a wt reovirus S4 gene. The reovirus wt S4 gene encodes a reovirus capsid σ3 polypeptide involved in virion processing during reoviral replicative infection of a host cell (e.g., Ahmed et al., 1982; Giantini et al., 1984).
The attenuated reovirus may comprise a replication-competent reovirus virion. Further, an attenuated reovirus may have a heritable mutation (e.g., substitution, insertion deletion) in the S1 gene and/or the S4 gene.
The wt reovirus S1 gene is known to those of skill in the art. For example, wt S1 gene sequences include the S1 gene sequences identified in predominant forms of naturally-occurring reoviruses isolated from respiratory or enteric tissues of infected subjects, or consensus sequences derived from such sequences. S1 gene sequences for a number of reoviruses, including the human reoviruses, have been determined, (e.g., Genbank Accession numbers for human reovirus S1 gene sequences: human type 3 reovirus S1: X01161; human type 2 reovirus S1: M35964; human type 1 reovirus S1: M35963) including polynucleotide sequences encoding σ1 proteins as well as the amino acid sequences of the encoded σ1 proteins themselves. (e.g., Genbank Accession numbers for major human reovirus serotype S1 gene sequences: human type 1 reovirus strain Lang (T1L) Acc. No. M35963; human type 2 reovirus strain Jones (T2J) Acc. No. M35964; human type 3 reovirus strain Dearing (T3D) Acc. No. X01161; human type 3 reovirus strain Abney (T3A) Acc. No. L37677.
According to certain embodiments, there is provided an attenuated reovirus comprising a reovirus genome that lacks a wild-type reovirus S1 gene, or that comprises a mutated reovirus S1 gene that is incapable of encoding a reovirus σ1 capsid protein that has an amino acid sequence that is greater than 10%, 20%, 40%, 50%, 70%, 90%, or 95% identical to the amino acid sequence set forth in SEQ ID NOS:1-3 (Genbank Accession numbers for human reovirus S1 gene sequences: human type 3 reovirus S1: X01161; human type 2 reovirus S1: M35964; human type 1 reovirus S1: M35963). Methodologies for determining whether a mutated S1 gene is present by sequencing a reovirus S1 gene will be apparent from the present disclosure and as known in the art, according to techniques described, for example, in Ausubel et al. (1989); Ausubel et al. (1993); Sambrook et al. (1989); Maniatis et al. (1982); Glover (1985); Hames and Higgins (1985); and elsewhere. A mutated S1 gene thus refers to an S1 gene having a polynucleotide sequence that differs at one or a plurality of nucleotide sequence positions from the nucleotide sequence of a corresponding S1 wt or consensus sequence by one or more of a nucleotide substitution, a nucleotide insertion, and a nucleotide deletion, as can be readily determined.
Additionally or alternatively, polynucleotide sequences of reoviral S1 genes, or amino acid sequences of reoviral S1 polypeptides, can be compared for purposes of determining whether a mutated S1 gene (or its product) may be present. As known in the art “similarity” between two polypeptides is determined by comparing the amino acid sequences and conserved amino acid substitutions thereto of a first polypeptide to the sequence of a second polypeptide. As used herein, “% identity” refers to the percentage of identical amino acids situated at corresponding amino acid residue positions when two or more polypeptide are aligned and their sequences analyzed using an appropriate sequence analysis tool, such as the gapped BLAST algorithm (e.g., Altschul et al., 1997) which weights sequence gaps and sequence mismatches according to the default weightings provided by the National Institutes of Health/NCBI database (Bethesda, Md.; see the world wide web address ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/BLAST/nph-newblast), or with other similar tools (e.g., MEGALIGN™, GENEWORKS™, Align or the BLAST algorithm (Altschul, 1991; Henikoff et al., 1992), which is available at the NCBI website (see the world wide web address ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/cgi-bin/BLAST>). Other sequence alignment algorithms, with which those having ordinary skill in the art will be familiar, may also be used.
The presence of nucleic acids which hybridize to σ1 encoding polynucleotide sequences, or their complements, can be determined, as will be readily apparent to those familiar with the art, if there is at least 70%, preferably 80-85%, more preferably at least 90%, and still more preferably at least 95%, 96%, 97%, 98% or 99% identity between the sequences. Certain embodiments particularly relate to nucleic acids which hybridize under stringent conditions to the σ1 encoding nucleic acids referred to herein. As used herein, the term “stringent conditions” means hybridization will occur only if there is at least 90-95% and preferably at least 97% identity between the sequences. The ability to detect presence or absence of nucleic acids which hybridize to σ1 encoding nucleic acids referred to herein may be used, in preferred embodiments, to determine whether a mutated reoviral S1 gene is incapable of encoding polypeptides which retain substantially the same biological function or activity as the wild-type reoviral σ1 polypeptides such as those described in the references cited herein.
As used herein, to “hybridize” under conditions of a specified stringency is used to describe the stability of hybrids formed between two single-stranded nucleic acid molecules. Stringency of hybridization is typically expressed in conditions of ionic strength and temperature at which such hybrids are annealed and washed. Typically “high,” “medium” and “low” stringency encompass the following conditions or equivalent conditions thereto: high stringency: 0.1×SSPE or SSC, 0.1% SDS, 65° C.; medium stringency: 0.2×SSPE or SSC, 0.1% SDS, 50° C.; and low stringency: 1.0×SSPE or SSC, 0.1% SDS, 50° C. As known to those having ordinary skill in the art, variations in stringency of hybridization conditions may be achieved by altering the time, temperature and/or concentration of the solutions used for prehybridization, hybridization and wash steps, and suitable conditions may also depend in part on the particular nucleotide sequences of the probe used, and of the blotted, proband nucleic acid sample. Accordingly, it will be appreciated that suitably stringent conditions can be readily selected without undue experimentation where a desired selectivity of the probe is identified, based on its ability to hybridize to one or more certain proband sequences while not hybridizing to certain other proband sequences.
According to certain embodiments there is provided an attenuated reovirus, comprising a replication-competent reovirus virion that comprises a heritable mutant reovirus S1 gene, the mutant S1 gene comprising one or a plurality of mutations in a reoviral σ1 encoding genomic sequence (e.g., SEQ ID NOS:1-3). Determination of the presence or absence of such a mutant (e.g., one or a plurality of nucleotide substitutions, insertions and/or deletions) is within the routine practice of the art as described herein. Similarly, a heritable mutant reovirus S1 gene refers to a mutated S1 gene (relative to a wild-type sequence such SEQ ID NOS:1-3) that is passed on from an infectious reovirus to progeny which result from productive infection of a host cell, wherein the presence of the heritable mutation in progeny virus can be determined based on the herein described mutated S1 gene, using established molecular biology procedures. Several mutations in a murine reoviral S1 gene sequence encoding a σ1 protein are disclosed by Hoyt et al. (2005) and according to certain embodiments of the invention described herein the mutations of Hoyt et al. are expressly excluded.
As described herein and known to the art, the reovirus outer capsid CY1 protein may be readily detected on the basis of its biochemical and/or immunochemical properties (e.g., Mah et al., 1990; Leone et al., 1991; Chappell et al., 1997), typically by employing one or more techniques including immunodetection (e.g., GI-specific immunoprecipitation, western immunoblot analysis, immunoaffinity chromatography, immunofluorescent staining, immunocytofluorimetry, electrophoresis of radiolabeled reovirus polypeptides, etc.), hemagglutination, and/or related methodologies. Accordingly these and other means for detecting a reoviral σ1 protein have been established, and in view of the teachings herein, those familiar with the art will appreciate what are art-accepted criteria and state-of-the-art sensitivity for detecting σ1 protein, such that a replication-competent reovirus virion that lacks a “detectable” reovirus σ1 capsid protein will be understood to include such a reovirus for which σ1 protein cannot be detected when currently conventional practices for determining σ1 protein, if present, are employed.
B. Production of Attenuated Reovirus
According to certain embodiments as disclosed herein, the attenuated reovirus may be derived from any reovirus, which refers to a member of the Family Reoviridae and includes reoviruses having a variety of tropisms and which may be obtained from a variety of sources (Tyler and Fields, 1996). In certain embodiments, mammalian reoviruses are preferred, and in certain further embodiments human reoviruses are particularly preferred as the starting point for the derivation of an attenuated reovirus as described herein, although the invention is not intended to be so limited, and based on the present disclosure the skilled artisan will recognize situations where any particular reovirus may be desirable for such purposes. In certain embodiments, the attenuated reovirus may be derived from human reoviruses, for example, human Type 3 (Dearing), Type 1 (Lang), Type 2 (Jones), or Type 3 (Abney) reoviruses, while in certain other embodiments (e.g., for use in animal models having relevance to human diseases, or for veterinary applications) the attenuated reovirus may be derived from one or more reoviruses displaying tropisms toward cells of other mammalian species, including non-human primates (e.g., chimpanzee, gorilla, macaque, monkey, etc.), rodents (e.g., mice, rats, gerbils, hamsters, rabbits, guinea pigs, etc.), dogs, cats, common livestock (e.g., bovine, equine, porcine, caprine), etc., or alternatively, reoviruses having distinct tropisms (e.g., avian reoviruses) may be used.
As described herein, certain embodiments relate to attenuated reoviruses that are recovered following persistent infection regimens in vitro, but attenuated reoviruses are also contemplated that may be derived according to other methodologies, including persistent infection regimens in vivo, generation and identification of σ1-deficient and/or σ1-defective mutants (and in certain embodiments also including, additionally or alternatively, generation and identification of σ3-deficient and/or σ3-defective mutants) by molecular biological approaches, and also including isolation of naturally occurring σ1-deficient and/or σ1-defective mutants and/or σ3 mutants, and/or artificial induction of such σ1 (and/or (σ3) mutants by chemical, physical and/or genetic techniques (e.g., assortative recombination of reoviral genes in a productively infected host cell).
Further, the inventors anticipate that mutations resulting in a desirable attenuation phenotype may be observed in other genes that affect viral infectivity, replicative or packaging ability, including any or a combination of the genes encoded on the virus, such as the ten gene segments of a reovirus. For example, mutation of a reovirus S1 or S4 gene, as compared to the reovirus wild-type gene, may be coupled with 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 or more mutations on the ten gene segments of the reovirus.
A variety of biological assays may be combined with any of the foregoing methods for generating an attenuated reovirus, for purposes of selecting for an attenuated reovirus having a desirable phenotype. By way of non-limiting example, an attenuated reovirus that is deficient in σ1 protein expression may be further selected on the basis of its decreased (e.g., in a statistically significant manner relative to wild-type reovirus) adhesion to target host cell surfaces, or of decreased infectivity in normal tissues or decreased damage to cells (in vivo or ex vivo) while retaining oncolytic effects toward malignant cells. Various methods may be used to generate attenuated reoviruses, including methods, e.g., described in U.S. Application 60/704,604.
Attenuated reoviruses are contemplated that may be genetically homogeneous or that may comprise a genetically heterogeneous reoviral population, such as may be the result of mutation and/or of assortative recombination within an infected host cell among reoviral genome segments derived from two or more distinct polymorphic reoviral strains with which the cell has been infected. Attenuated reoviruses described herein comprise a heritable mutant reovirus S1 gene, and as such the invention expressly does not include wt reovirus particles that comprise a wt S1 gene, even where such particles result from subjecting a wt reovirus to proteolytic conditions or otherwise artificially stripping a wt reovirus of σ1 capsid protein (e.g., Chandran et al., 1999; Chandran et al., 2001).
The present invention provides, in certain embodiments, methods for cancer therapies. For example, individuals with hematopoietic or solid cancers that are treated by myeloablative therapy may subsequently receive hematopoietic stem cell rescue using purged bone marrow tissue that was harvested from the individual prior to chemotherapy; in these embodiments, the bone marrow may be treated with an attenuated reovirus in order to remove or kill neoplastic cells while reducing or eliminating damage to hematopoietic stem cells.
The use of patients' own adult stem cells for cell therapies can circumvent the problems of host immunity, graft-versus-host disease and ethical issues. Human adult stem cells have thus been widely evaluated for various tissue regeneration therapeutic modalities. However, it has been reported that spontaneous transformation can occur during the in vitro culture expansion of adult stem cells (Tolar et al., 2007; Romano, 2005). Therefore, a proper purging strategy to eliminate spontaneously transformed cells present in culture expanded adult stem cells for a safer use in transplantation and tissue regeneration. Although wild-type reovirus has shown utility in removing cancerous cells present in autologous hematopoietic stem cell populations in vitro (Thirukkumaran et al, 2003; Thirukkumaran et al., 2005), wild-type reovirus is known to cause various viral pathogenesis in immunodeficient hosts and in some cases is associated with viral myocarditis and CNS disease including humans (Dichter et al., 1984; Flamand et al., 1991; Richardson et al., 1994; Oberhaus et al., 1997; Weiner et al., 1977; Weiner et al., 1980; Mann et al., 2002; Terheggen et al., 2003; Loken et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2006).
Attenuated reoviruses can specifically target transformed cells for viral infection while exerting a reduced viral pathogenesis in immunocompromised hosts, and sparing stem cells and their developmental potential. An attenuated reovirus, such as the AV reovirus as described herein, may be used as a purging agent to eliminate transformed cells present in the culture expanded adult stem cells such as mesenchymal, epithelial and neural stem cells. The inventors anticipate that the present invention may be used with virtually any adult or embryonic stem cell line that is presently known or subsequently discovered.
The presence of a malignant condition in a subject refers to the presence of dysplastic, inappropriately proliferating, cancerous and/or transformed cells in the subject, including, for example neoplastic, tumor, non-contact inhibited or oncogenically transformed cells, or the like (e.g., melanoma, carcinomas such as adenocarcinoma, squamous cell carcinoma, small cell carcinoma, oat cell carcinoma, etc., sarcomas such as fibrosarcoma, chondrosarcoma, osteosarcoma, etc., hepatoma, neuroblastoma, melanoma, hematopoietic malignancies such as lymphoma, leukemia, myeloma, etc.); which are known to the art and for which criteria for diagnosis and classification are established. Without being bound by any theory, the oncolytic properties of reoviruses may derive from viral tropism for malignantly transformed cells in concert with a susceptible intracellular environment, for example, impaired PKR phosphorylation in Ras-activated cells as described above.
The presently described attenuated reoviruses are contemplated for use in a wide range of activated oncogene-associated malignant conditions, i.e., malignant conditions in which a mutation or other structural or functional alteration to an oncogene or an oncogene product renders the oncogene constitutively active with deleterious consequences (e.g., unregulated cell growth), including malignancies wherein the activated oncogene is Ras or an upstream or downstream component of the Ras pathway, and also including other oncogene-associated malignant conditions, for example, wherein the activated oncogene may be at least one of abl, akt, cbl, ets, mos, Bcl-2, crk, fos, fms, HER2, hTERT, jun, kit, myb, myc, raf, rel, sos, src, and yes. For a review of viral oncogenes see Bishop (1985); Vogelstein et al. (2004).
For instance, resistance to reoviral oncolysis has been observed by the present inventors in human cancer cells having an activated Ras gene and intact PKR phosphorylation, suggesting that reoviral oncolysis is not exclusively dependent on the Ras-status of cancer cells (Kim et al., 2006). Accordingly, certain embodiments relate to attenuated reoviruses that may be used in methods of treating an activated oncogene-associated malignant condition, which methods comprise administering an effective amount of an attenuated reovirus as described herein to a subject having such a malignant condition, under conditions and for a time sufficient for the attenuated reovirus to mediate an oncolytic effect.
Oncolytic activity of the attenuated reovirus described herein need not, however, be limited to activity directed against malignant conditions associated with a known oncogene. Without wishing to be bound by theory, attenuated reovirus oncolytic activity may proceed, for example, via host cell mechanisms of innate immunity (e.g., Martinon, 2005; Philpott et al., 2004) and/or via host cell mechanisms of intrinsic immunity (e.g., Bieniasz, 2004). Additionally according to non-limiting theory, a number of other genes and/or gene products that are not typically regarded as oncogenes or oncogene products per se have been implicated in tumorigenesis or in mechanisms underlying predisposition to cancer (Vogelstein et al., 2004; Futreal et al., 2004), such that certain invention embodiments disclosed herein contemplate attenuated reoviruses having oncolytic activity toward malignancies associated with mutations in oncogenes and/or in non-oncogenes, for instance, tumor-suppressor genes and stability genes. Determination of the suitability of the presently disclosed attenuated reoviruses for oncolytic application to a particular malignant condition may include may be achieved using in vitro or in vivo methodologies such as those described herein or known to the art, for example by obtaining a biological sample comprising tumor cells (e.g., Monks et al., 1991) and administering thereto the attenuated reovirus under conditions and for a time sufficient to detect an oncolytic effect.
A. Removal of Virus From Cellular Compositions
In certain embodiments, it may be desirable to remove an attenuated reovirus from a cellular composition, for example, after a period of time sufficient to allow for killing of a neoplastic cell (if present). For example, bone marrow may be taken from an individual and treated with an attenuated reovirus to destroy neoplastic cells; however, prior to re-implanting the bone marrow in the individual (e.g., an immunocompromised cancer patient) it may be desirable to destroy, eliminate and/or remove the virus from the composition. In these embodiments, an anti-viral agent may be added to the cellular composition. These agents include anti-reovirus antibodies and complements, inhibitors of essential viral enzymes such as RNA-directed RNA polymerase inhibitors, or agents that interfere with successful viral packaging, assembly or release from infected cells.
In certain embodiments, peptidyl fluoromethylketones (PFMKs) may be applied to the cellular composition to inhibit or eliminate reovirus from the composition. Co-pending U.S. Provisional Application Serial No. 60/906,706, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety, describes peptidyl fluoromethylketones (PFMKs) for inhibiting viral replication and is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety without disclaimer.
Additional purification steps, including washing and/or centrifuging the cells may be employed to further remove virus and/or dead cells from a cellular composition. These methods are known in the art and include methods that would enrich for desirable cell types, including fluorescence activated cell sorting or adhesion based methods that would enable positive selection of intended cells, such as stem cell populations.
B. Combination In Vitro Approaches
In order to increase the effectiveness of the selective killing of neoplastic cells by an attenuated reovirus (e.g., in a mixed cell population in vitro), it may be desirable, in certain embodiments, to contact the cells with an additional anti-cancer agent such as a chemotherapeutic agent or, in some instances, a gene therapy. The term “chemotherapy” refers to the use of drugs to treat cancer. A “chemotherapeutic agent” is used to connote a compound or composition that is administered in the treatment of cancer. One subtype of chemotherapy known as biochemotherapy involves the combination of a chemotherapy with a biological therapy.
Chemotherapeutic agents include, but are not limited to, 5-fluorouracil, bleomycin, busulfan, camptothecin, carboplatin, chlorambucil, cisplatin (CDDP), cyclophosphamide, dactinomycin, daunorubicin, doxorubicin, estrogen receptor binding agents, etoposide (VP 16), farnesyl-protein transferase inhibitors, gemcitabine, ifosfamide, mechlorethamine, melphalan, mitomycin, navelbine, nitrosurea, plicomycin, procarbazine, raloxifene, tamoxifen, taxol, temazolomide (an aqueous form of DTIC), transplatinum, vinblastine and methotrexate, vincristine, or any analog or derivative variant of the foregoing. These agents or drugs are categorized by their mode of activity within a cell, for example, whether and at what stage they affect the cell cycle. Alternatively, an agent may be characterized based on its ability to directly cross-link DNA, to intercalate into DNA, or to induce chromosomal and mitotic aberrations by affecting nucleic acid synthesis. Most chemotherapeutic agents fall into the following categories: alkylating agents, antimetabolites, antitumor antibiotics, corticosteroid hormones, mitotic inhibitors, and nitrosoureas, hormone agents, miscellaneous agents, and any analog or derivative variant thereof.
The attenuated reoviral purging of neoplastic cells may precede, be co-current with and/or follow the application of other agent(s) to a cell population by intervals ranging from minutes to weeks. For example, in such instances, it is contemplated that one may contact a mixed cell population, tissue or organ with one, two, three, four or more modalities substantially simultaneously (i.e., within less than about a minute) as the attenuated reovirus. In other aspects, one or more agents may be administered within of from substantially simultaneously, about 1 minute, about 5 minutes, about 10 minutes, about 20 minutes about 30 minutes, about 45 minutes, about 60 minutes, about 2 hours, about 3 hours, about 4 hours, about 5 hours, about 6 hours, about 7 hours about 8 hours, about 9 hours, about 10 hours, about 11 hours, about 12 hours, about 13 hours, about 14 hours, about 15 hours, about 16 hours, about 17 hours, about 18 hours, about 19 hours, about 20 hours, about 21 hours, about 22 hours, about 22 hours, about 23 hours, about 24 hours, about 25 hours, about 26 hours, about 27 hours, about 28 hours, about 29 hours, about 30 hours, about 31 hours, about 32 hours, about 33 hours, about 34 hours, about 35 hours, about 36 hours, about 37 hours, about 38 hours, about 39 hours, about 40 hours, about 41 hours, about 42 hours, about 43 hours, about 44 hours, about 45 hours, about 46 hours, about 47 hours, about 48 hours, about 1 day, about 2 days, about 3 days, about 4 days, about 5 days, about 6 days, about 7 days, about 8 days, about 9 days, about 10 days, about 11 days, about 12 days, about 13 days, about 14 days, about 15 days, about 16 days, about 17 days, about 18 days, about 19 days, about 20 days, about 21 days, about 1, about 2, about 3, about 4, about 5, about 6, about 7 or about 8 weeks or more, and any range derivable therein, prior to and/or after administering the attenuated reovirus.
Various combination regimens of the attenuated reovirus and one or more agents may be employed. Non-limiting examples of such combinations are shown below, wherein a composition atteunated reovirus is “A” and an anti-cancer agent is “B”:
In embodiments where an attenuated reovirus is used to purge or kill neoplastic cells in a cellular compositions (e.g., bone marrow transplant), it is anticipated that one or more additional therapies will be administered to the patient. These therapies include therapies known in the art, such as chemotherapy agents (chemotherapy), radiotherapy agents (radiotherapy), a surgical procedure (surgery), immune therapy agents (immunotherapy), genetic therapy agents (gene therapy), hormonal therapy, other biological agents (biotherapy) and/or alternative therapies.
Most human cancers derive from a single cell targeted by genetic and epigenetic alterations that initiate malignant transformation. Progressively, these early cancer cells give rise to different generations of progeny that accumulate additional mutations, as tumor formation seems to be a multi-hit process. In normal tissue, adult stem cells generally maintain the steady state between cells that loose their functionality and regeneration thereof, as they can simultaneously perpetuate themselves and generate differentiated daughter cells. An understanding of a proto-oncogene and tumor suppressor networks has evolved within the last years that control cancer cell proliferation, but also stem cell self-renewal. Imbalances and transforming mutations within these networks may hence lead to improper cell-divisions that cause cancer (for review see Pardal et al., 2005; Martinez-Climent et al., 2006).
Despite a better understanding of the biology of tumor cells, decreasing mortality rates can be ascribed to early detection and prevention rather than treatment methods, which have not significantly changed over the past decade. Initially identified as a benign (orphan) virus isolated from human respiratory and gastrointestinal tracts, the reovirus has long been recognized for its striking cytocidal activity upon infection of certain types of transformed cells (Duncan et al., 1978; Hashiro et al., 1977). More recently, the molecular basis of this natural oncolytic capacity of reovirus has been established by linking viral oncolysis to cellular oncogenic Ras signaling pathways (Coffey et al., 1998; Strong et al., 1998, Norman et al., 2004). Subsequently, considerable efforts have been undertaken to develop cancer therapeutics using naturally occurring reoviruses (Norman et al., 2005). However, despite reoviral tropism for, and lysis of, Ras-activated tumor cells, efforts to use reoviruses as therapeutic oncolytic agents have been hampered by several factors, including (i) wt reoviral tropism is not strictly limited to cancer cells and naturally occurring reoviruses may not be clinically innocuous, with animal models revealing reoviral infection of cardiac myocytes (DeBiasi et al., 2004; Terheggen et al., 2003; Loken et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2006); (ii) and reoviruses induce many undesirable phenomena such as hemorrhage, fibrosis, hepatitis, pancreatitis, necrotizing encephalitis and myocarditis (Sabin, 1959; Weiner et al., 1977; Baty et al., 1993; Loken et al., 2004; Jun et al., 2003; Richardson et al., 1994; Mann et al., 2002); and (iii) as with other oncolytic regimes, oncolytic reoviral treatments may also compromise the integrity of the host stem cell compartment. wt reovirus is known, for instance, to adversely affect the development of rat and murine embryos by retarding development and inhibiting blastocytst formation (Priscott, 1983; Heggie et al., 1979). Indeed, studies presented herein clearly shows that wt reovirus adversely affects murine embryonic stem cells in vitro and the developmental potential of stem cells in vivo. As shown in the examples below, wt reovirus preferentially infects primitive muscle and neural tissues, resulting in suppression of teratoma growth and development. However, AV reovirus did not affect embryonic stem cells in vitro and the developmental potential of stem cells in vivo.
wt reovirus preferentially infects primitive neural and muscle tissues. It has previously shown that wt reovirus infects neural tissues of suckling mice (Sabin, 1959; Weiner et al., 1977; Flamand et al., 1991; Oberhaus et al., 1997) and cardiac muscle tissues of adult SCID mice (Loken et al., 2004; Kim et al., 2006). In contrast, AV reovirus does not infect primitive neural and muscle tissues of teratomas as well-differentiated mature neural and muscle tissues are readily detectable in the AV reovirus-infected teratomas. Although there is no clear mechanistic explanation for this higher reoviral tropism toward normal muscle and neural tissues, genetic reassortment studies suggest that the reovirus S1 gene segment play a significant role in the reoviral virulence (Weiner et al., 1980; Weiner et al., 1977; Kauffman et al., 1983; Dichter et al., 1984; Haller et al., 1995). As the inventors have previously shown that AV reovirus acquired S1 gene attenuation during a persistent reovirus infection (Kim et al., 2006), this S1 attenuation may significantly contribute to the non-detectable AV reoviral pathogenesis toward primitive neural and muscle tissues.
Because of the high proliferative potential of embryonic stem cells (ESCs), many viruses including oncolytic viruses may have a capacity to adversely affect ESCs and their developmental potential. In fact, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) readily induced significant cytopathic effects on murine ESCs. The self-renewing potential of ESCs is maintained by the activation of the LIF-gp130-STAT3 pathway. At the end of this cascade, the core pluripotency-associated transcriptional regulators Sox-2, Oct-4 and Nanog sustain stemness of ESCs. Recently, a previously uncharacterized small molecule was identified that allows the propagation of ESCs in an undifferentiated, pluripotent state even in the absence of feeder cells (Chen et al., 2006). Biochemical and cellular experiments have led to the conclusion that this molecule, denoted pluripotin, acts through the dual inhibition of Ras GTPase-activating protein and ERK1 suggesting an involvement for Ras in promoting self-renewal. Murine ESCs indeed express a Ras-like gene (Eras). However, ERas-null ESCs maintain pluripotency, but show significantly reduced growth and tumorigenicity, which are rescued by expression of oncogenic ERas cDNA (Takahashi et al., 2003). Without wishing to be bound by any theory, it is possible that WT reovirus targets ESCs via its oncogenic Ras pathway.
AV reovirus clearly demonstrated sparing ESCs and their developmental potential. Moreover, the inventors speculate that not only ESCs but also highly proliferative adult stem cells such as epithelial or hematopoietic stem cells could be affected by many viruses. In order to preserve tissue regeneration capacity, evaluation of viral pathogenesis against embryonic or/and adult stem cell will be required to mediate an optimal oncolytic viral therapy. By exploiting the non-pathogenic nature toward stem cells, oncolytic AV reovirus may be useful for stem cell purging strategies during anti-cancer therapy. For instance, hematopoietic stem cell rescue after high dose cytotoxic therapy has been widely used for treatment of many hematopoietic and solid cancers in clinics. Although wt reovirus has shown a potential for removing cancerous cells present in autologous hematopoietic stem cell populations (Thirukkumaran et al., 2003), AV reovirus could be a safer alternative to spare not only normal hematopoietic stem cells but also other adult stem cells and ESCs, and avoid unwanted wt reovirus-mediated complications. The non-pathogenic nature of AV and wt reovirus toward hematopoietic stem cells is further supported by the reovirus infected teratoma model since bone marrow development is not affected by either AV or wt reovirus treatment, as shown in
The following examples are included to demonstrate preferred embodiments of the invention. It should be appreciated by those of skill in the art that the techniques disclosed in the examples which follow represent techniques discovered by the inventor to function well in the practice of the invention, and thus can be considered to constitute preferred modes for its practice. However, those of skill in the art should, in light of the present disclosure, appreciate that many changes can be made in the specific embodiments which are disclosed and still obtain a like or similar result without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
Cell lines. Murine R1 and D3 embryonic stem cell lines were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC). The cells were maintained in high glucose DMEM, 15% FCS (selected batches), 50 U/ml Penicillin and 50 μg/ml Streptomycin, 1% non essential amino acids and 0.1 mM b-Mercaptoethanol as described (zur Nieden et al., 2001). Thousand U/ml Leukemia Inhibitory Factor (LIF) were added to the culture medium to sustain pluripotency. The cultures were passaged when 80% confluent, usually every second day. All medium components were purchased from Invitrogen. Murine MES1 embryonic stem cells were isolated from 3.5 day post coitum embryos of the 129 IM/SvJ substrain at the blastocyst stage. MES1 were routinely grown as described for R1 and D3 ESCs. Spontaneous differentiation was induced by removal of LIF and formation of embryoid bodies in hanging drops as it was done previously (zur Nieden et al., 2003).
wt and AV Reovirus preparation. The wt reovirus serotype 3 Dearing strain used in these studies was propagated in L929 cells and purified as described previously (Smith et al., 1969). AV reovirus derived from the HTR1 culture (Kim et al., 2006) was purified by the same method used in the wt reovirus preparation except AV reovirus was propagated in HT1080 cells. Reovirus was added at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 5-10 and maintained at 37° C. for 48-72 hrs. After viral cytopathic effects were observed (typically 20-30% cell lysis), the virus was purified from pelleted cells, as described previously (Smith et al., 1969). CsCl centrifugation of the virus was done using an SW41 rotor at 35,000 rpm for 7-8 hrs. The banded virus was collected and dialyzed extensively against 150 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, and 10 mM Tris (pH 7.5).
Immunoblot and Fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS) analysis. Cell lysates were prepared by sonication in a buffer containing 10 mM Tris (pH 7.4), 2 mM EDTA, 1% NP-40, 50 mM mercaptoethanol, 100 μg/ml leupeptin and 2 μg/ml aprotinin at the time points indicated. The lysates were then cleared by centrifugation at 16,000 g for 15 min, normalized for protein amount, mixed with SDS sample buffer, boiled for 5 min and stored at −70° C. After separation by SDS-PAGE, proteins were transferred to nitrocellulose membranes and detected by immunoblot hybridization. The primary antibodies (Abs) were as follows: anti-reovirus polyclonal Ab (Kim et al., 2006), and anti-actin Ab (Cell Signaling, Beverly, Mass.). The secondary antibody was horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse Ab or horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit Ab (Pierce Biotech, Rockford, Ill.). For FACS analysis, cells were trypsinized and fixed using cytofix/cytoperm solution (PharMingen, San Diego, Calif.). The fixed and permeabilized cells were incubated with primary reovirus antiserum and secondary FITC conjugated anti-rabbit IgG (Cedarlane, Ontario, Canada), then analyzed by flow cytometry.
Animal studies. SCID mice (Charles River, Wilmington, Mass.) received a single subcutaneous implantation of 5×106 cells of murine ESCs (R1 or MES1). Twelve days after implantation, palpable teratomas were formed. The R1 teratomas were then injected with reoviruses [wt reo (wild-type reovirus), 1×107 PFU/tumor; n=5, AV reo (AV reovirus), 1×107 PFU/tumor: n=5, D reo (Dead, UV-inactivated reovirus): n=5] and teratoma growth was followed 21-70 days post-infection. For the MES1 teratoma experiment, 12-15 days after implantation, teratomas were intratumorally injected with reoviruses or PBS [wt Reo (wild-type reovirus, 107 PFU per mouse); n=3, AV Reo (AV reovirus, 107 PFU per mouse): n=3, PBS: n=3] and teratoma growth was followed 31-46 days post-infection. Mice were treated according to protocols approved by the University of Calgary Animal Care Committee. Teratoma growth was measured externally using calipers and the volume was determined by the equation V=(L×W2)×0.5, where L is the largest dimension and W is the largest dimension perpendicular to L. Teratomas were taken from the mice at 21-70 days post-infection. The teratomas were then excised and fixed in 10% buffered formalin solution at room temperature, and the specimens were sent to the University of Calgary Histopathology Laboratory Research Service for routine histological analysis (H&E staining).
Histology and Immunohistochemistry. For reovirus antigen detection (reovirus structural proteins), deparaffinized tumor sections were retrieved in a solution containing 50 mM Tris (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, and 0.1% Triton X-100. After blocking the sections with a solution containing 50 mM Tris (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, 0.1% Triton X-100 and 2% normal goat serum for 1 hr, the sections were immunostained with a solution containing 0.1% reovirus antiserum, 50 mM Tris (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, 0.1% Triton X-100 and 2% normal goat serum for 2 hr. As a secondary antibody, biotinylated goat anti-mouse antibody (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.) was used at 1:100 in a solution containing 50 mM Tris (pH 7.5), 120 mM NaCl, 0.2% Tween 20, 0.1% Triton X-100 and 2% normal goat serum for 2 hr at room temperature. Detection was monitored by a diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride-based immunohistochemistry protocol according to the suggestions of the manufacturer (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.). Dehydration was carried out in a series of graded ethanol solutions, followed by clarification in xylene. Slides were mounted with Vectamount (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame, Calif.) and stored at 25° C.
Electron microscopy. EM preparation of cells for electron microsocopy (EM) was performed by the University of Calgary Microscopy & Imaging Facility. Cells grown on glass slides were rinsed briefly with PBS (phosphate buffered saline) and fixed with 4% EM grade glutaraldehyde in 0.1 M cacodylate buffer (pH 7.4) for 1 h at room temperature (RT). After washing three times with the same buffer, cells were post-fixed in 1% osmium tetroxide buffered with 0.1M cacodylate for 1 h at RT. Then cells were rinsed twice briefly with distilled water and stained en bloc for 30 min in 0.5% aqueous uranyl acetate. The cells were then dehydrated in an ethanol series and embedded in Spurr's low viscosity resin. Thin sections were cut with a diamond knife on a Reichert Ultracut E, stained with uranyl acetate and lead citrate and examined with a Hitach H-7000 transmission electron microscope at 75 kV.
Undifferentiated embryonic stem cells are highly susceptible to WT reovirus. Although WT reovirus is known to adversely affect the development of rat and murine embryos by retarding development and inhibiting blastocytst formation (Priscott, 1983; Heggie et al., 1979), the potential reoviral cytopathogenicity on embryonic stem cells (ESCs) has not been fully examined. Thus, the inventors wished to examine reoviral cytopathogenicity on ESCs by detection of typical viral cytopathic effects upon reoviral infection in vitro. Murine ESCs were infected with wt reovirus at MOI of 20 to examine viral cytopathic effects and viral protein synthesis. As shown in
AV reovirus exerts significantly reduced viral cytopathogenicity on embryonic stem cells in vitro. The inventors have previously shown that AV reovirus exerts a significantly reduced viral pathogenesis without compromising oncolytic activity in vivo (
AV reovirus does not affect the developmental potential of ESCs in teratoma model. Because wt reovirus is known to adversely affect the development of rat and murine embryos by retarding development and inhibiting blastocytst formation (Priscott, 1983; Heggie et al., 1979) and AV reovirus exerts a significantly reduced viral cytopathogenicity on ESCs in vitro, the inventors wished to further compare wt and AV reoviral pathogenesis in vivo. For an in vivo viral pathogenesis study, the inventors adopted a murine teratoma model since pluripotent ESCs have a capacity to develop mature teratomas with a high level of differentiation upon xenograft implantation in vivo (Sasaki et al., 2005). Thus, the inventors used SCID mice xenografted with murine ESCs to develop teratomas. Once palpable teratomas were formed following implantation of ESCs (12 days post-implantation), wt and AV reoviruses were administrated intratumorally and teratoma growth was monitored (
Histological analysis of the wt or AV infected teratomas revealed that AV reovirus-treated teratomas showed a high level of differentiation with various mature tissues, whereas wt reovirus treated teratomas showed extensive necrotic damage near the various mature tissues (
Because teratomas were widely infected by wt reovirus, the inventors further examined susceptible primitive tissues affected by wt reovirus. As shown in
All of the methods disclosed and claimed herein can be made and executed without undue experimentation in light of the present disclosure. While the compositions and methods of this invention have been described in terms of preferred embodiments, it will be apparent to those of skill in the art that variations may be applied to the methods and in the steps or in the sequence of steps of the method described herein without departing from the concept, spirit and scope of the invention. More specifically, it will be apparent that certain agents which are both chemically and physiologically related may be substituted for the agents described herein while the same or similar results would be achieved. All such similar substitutes and modifications apparent to those skilled in the art are deemed to be within the spirit, scope and concept of the invention as defined by the appended claims.
The following references, to the extent that they provide exemplary procedural or other details supplementary to those set forth herein, are specifically incorporated herein by reference.
This application claims benefit of priority to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/906,710, filed Mar. 13, 2007, the entire contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference. This application is related to International Patent Application No. PCT/US2006/029881, filed Jul. 31, 2006, U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/704,604, filed Aug. 5, 2006, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/906,706, filed Mar. 13, 2007, the entire contents of which are incorporated herein by reference.
The government may own rights in the present invention pursuant to grant numbers 73-0520 (CIHR) and 73-2965 (ACB) from The Canadian Institutes of Health Research and The Alberta Cancer Board.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60906710 | Mar 2007 | US |
