Patent Application
20120205103
As wells are drilled to greater lengths and depths, it becomes necessary to provide a liner (“casing”) to avoid undesirable fluid inflows or outflows and to prevent borehole collapse. The annular space between the borehole wall and the liner is usually filled with cement to reinforce structural integrity and to prevent fluid flows along the outside of the liner. If such fluid flows are not prevented, there is a loss of zonal isolation. Fluids from high-pressured formations can enter the borehole and travel along the outside of the casing to invade lower-pressured formations, or possibly to exit the borehole in a mixture that dilutes the desired production fluid. Results may include contamination of aquifers, damage to the hydrocarbon reservoir, and loss of well profitability.
The job of cementing the casing in place has several potential pitfalls. For example, as the borehole wall can be quite irregular, the volume of the annular space between the casing and the borehole wall is somewhat unpredictable. Moreover, there may be voids, fractures, and/or porous formations that allow cement slurry to escape from the borehole. Conversely, fluids (including gasses) can become trapped and unable to quickly escape from the annular space, thereby preventing the cement slurry from fully displacing such materials from the annular space. (Any such undisplaced fluids provide potential fluid flow paths that can lead to a loss of zonal isolation). Accordingly, the cementing crew may have difficulty predicting how much of the well will be successfully cemented by a given volume of cement slurry.
Further, the chemical composition of the cement slurry may be altered for various reasons including slowing the setting time (i.e., the slurry's transition time from liquid to solid state). Depending on the downhole conditions, the expected setting time can be very different from the actual setting time. For example, temperature is a key factor for the setting time. Although temperature modeling software is available, there are many drivers that affect the downhole temperature during the cement curing process including: temperature of the injected cement slurry; temperature profile and heat conductivity of the formation; and heat of hydration. Consequently the actual temperature regime in the borehole may be different from the estimated profile and therefore the setting time may be different. Currently well operators and regulatory authorities rely upon “rules of thumb” and cement slurry tests undertaken with estimated parameters to govern how and when well operations may commence after cement placement. As incompletely set cement is more susceptible to damage, the uncertainty regarding setting time often requires a balancing of risks, e.g., balancing the risk of fractured cement with undesirable delays in completing the well. Moreover, unexpectedly lengthened setting times increase the risks of fluid influx from the formation, which can create undesired fluid flow paths.
The terms “including” and “comprising” are used in an open-ended fashion, and thus should be interpreted to mean “including, but not limited to . . . ”. The term “couple” or “couples” is intended to mean either an indirect or direct electrical, mechanical, or thermal connection. Thus, if a first device couples to a second device, that connection may be through a direct connection, or through an indirect connection via other devices and connections. Conversely, the term “connected” when unqualified should be interpreted to mean a direct connection. The term “fluid” as used herein includes materials having a liquid or gaseous state.
The issues identified in the background are at least partly addressed by the various cement slurry monitoring systems and methods disclosed herein. At least some method embodiments include monitoring one or more parameter of the cement slurry at various positions along the borehole during the curing process and responsively identifying a span over which the slurry extends and whether there are any gaps or voids in that span. At least some system embodiments include a distributed sensing arrangement to provide parameter measurements as a function of position and time during the curing process. A data processing system analyzes the measurements to determine the span of the cement slurry and whether any gaps exist.
Contemplated measurement parameters include temperature, pressure, strain, acoustic spectrum, acoustic coupling, and chemical concentration. Individually or in combination, these measurements can reveal in real time the state of the cement slurry and can enable remedial actions to be taken during or after the curing process if needed to address deficiencies in the annular seal being provided by the cement. Distributed sensing of these contemplated parameters is available via optical fiber systems or spaced arrays of sensors mounted to the exterior of the well casing.
The disclosed systems and methods are best understood in terms of the context in which they are employed. Accordingly,
To provide a more permanent solution, the driller inserts a casing string 104 into the borehole. The casing string 104 is normally formed from lengths of tubing joined by threaded tubing joints 106. The driller connects the tubing lengths together as the casing string is lowered into the borehole. During this process, the drilling crew can also attach a fiber optic cable 108 and/or an array of sensors to the exterior of the casing with straps 110 or other mounting mechanisms such as those discussed further below. Because the tubing joints 106 have raised profiles, cable protectors 112 may be employed to guide the cable over the joints and protect the cable from getting pinched between the joint and the borehole wall. The drillers can pause the lowering of the casing at intervals to unreel more cable and attach it to the casing with straps and protectors. In many cases it may be desirable to provide small diameter tubing to encase and protect the optical fiber cable. The cable can be provided on the reel with flexible (but crush-resistant) small diameter tubing as armor, or can be seated within inflexible support tubing (e.g., via a slot) before being attached to the casing. Multiple fiber optic cables can be deployed within the small diameter tubing for sensing different parameters and/or redundancy.
Once the casing has been placed in the desired position the cable(s) can be trimmed and attached to a measurement unit 114. The measurement unit 114 supplies laser light pulses to the cable(s) and analyzes the returned signal(s) to perform distributed sensing of one or more parameters along the length of the casing. Contemplated measurement parameters include temperature, pressure, strain, acoustic (noise) spectra, acoustic coupling, and chemical (e.g., hydrogen or hydroxyl) concentration. Fiber optic cables that are specially configured to sense these parameters and which are suitable for use in harsh environments are commercially available. The light pulses from the measurement unit pass through the fiber and encounter one or more parameter-dependent phenomena. Such phenomena may include spontaneous and/or stimulated Brillouin (gain/loss) backscatter. Typical silica-based optical fibers are sensitive to density changes which, for appropriately configured fibers, are indicative of strain or temperature. Parameter variations modulate inelastic optical collisions within the fiber, giving a detectable Brillouin subcarrier optical frequency shift in the 9-11 GHz range. Typical strain and temperature coefficients are 50 kHz/microstrain and about 1 MHz/° C., respectively.
Other phenomena useful for parameter measurement include incoherent and coherent Raleigh backscatter. Physical microbending/macrobending of the fiber and infrared atomic and molecular specie absorption in the optical fiber produce optical intensity loss. In the case of coherent (optical laser source having a spectrum less than a few kHz wide) reflected signals via “virtual mirrors” cause detectable interferometric optical carrier phase change as a function of dynamic strain (acoustic pressure and shear vibration) via elastic optical collisions with glass fiber media.
Still other phenomena useful for parameter measurement include spontaneous and/or stimulated Raman backscatter (temperature variations produce inelastic Stokes and Anti-Stokes wavelength bands above and below the laser probe wavelength. Inelastically-generated Anti-Stokes light intensity level is a function of absolute temperature while inelastically generated Stokes light intensity is not as sensitive to temperature. The intensity ratio of Anti-Stokes to Stokes optical power/intensity is directly proportional to absolute temperature.
To collect such measurements the measurement unit 114 may feed tens of thousands of laser pulses each second into the optical fiber and apply time gating to the reflected signals to collect measurements at different points along the length of the cable. The measurement unit can process each measurement and combine it with other measurements for that point to obtain a high-resolution measurement of that parameter. Though
The software further responds to user input via a keyboard or other input mechanism 122 to display the measurement data as an image or movie on a monitor or other output mechanism 120. As explained further below, certain patterns in the measurement data are indicative of certain material properties in the environment around the cable or measurement array. The user may visually identify these patterns and determine the span 124 over which injected cement slurry 125 extends. Alternatively, or in addition, the software can process the data to identify these patterns and responsively determine the span 124. Any gaps 126 that exist or form in the cement slurry 125 can be similarly determined. (Such gaps 126 can, for example, be the result of trapped fluids or be the result of fluid inflow from the formation). Some software embodiments may provide an audible and/or visual alert to the user if patterns indicate the presence or formation of gaps in the cement slurry.
To cement the casing 104, the drilling crew injects a cement slurry 125 into the annular space (typically by pumping the slurry through the casing 104 to the bottom of the borehole, which then forces the slurry to flow back up through the annular space around the casing 104). It is expected that the software and/or the crew will be able to monitor the measurement data in real time or near real time to observe the profile of the selected parameter (i.e., the value of the parameter as a function of depth) and to observe the evolution of the profile (i.e., the manner in which the profile changes as a function of time). From the evolution of the profile, it is expected that the software and/or the user will be able to verify whether the desired span has been achieved without gaps quickly enough to take corrective action if necessary.
There are several corrective actions that the crew might choose to take. If the crew determines that the span 124 is inadequate (e.g., due to an unexpectedly large annular volume), they can arrange to have more cement slurry injected into the annular space. Alternatively, if the span 124 determined to have been achieved more quickly than anticipated, the crew can stop injecting cement slurry into the annulus and employ an inner tubing string 128 to circulate the unneeded slurry out of the casing string. If the crew detects gaps 126 attributable to a bubble of trapped fluid, vibratory energy can be supplied to the casing to decrease the viscosity of the slurry and enable the bubble to escape. One mechanism for supplying vibratory energy is to rotate or swing an inner tubing string 128. Motion imparted to the inner tubing string causes the inner tubing string to “bang around” inside the casing string 104, thereby supplying acoustic energy to the cement slurry.
Separately, or in conjunction with supplying vibratory energy, the crew may increase the pressure in the annulus. (This corrective action may be particularly suitable if gaps 126 are attributable to fluid inflows from the formation). One way to increase the annular pressure is to provide a mechanical seal between the rim of the borehole 102 and the casing string 104, and then force more fluid into the annulus via the casing string or via a port in the seal.
In some cases, the corrective action may be delayed until after the cement slurry has set into a solid cement sheath. With the knowledge of gap locations provided by the sensing fiber(s), the operators can cut or penetrate through the casing at strategic points and inject fluids as needed to clean and prime the voids and fill them with cement slurry, thereby producing an integral cement sheath.
Note that other vibratory energy or sound sources can be employed. In some embodiments, vibrators can be mounted at various points to the exterior of the casing. In other embodiments, fluid sirens or seismic energy sources are deployed inside the casing. Particularly where an extended pumping period is expected, the vibrators or sound sources can be operated throughout the pump-in to maintain the non-gel flow properties of the cement slurry. Such ongoing operation of these noise sources can be used to measure acoustic coupling between the sensing fiber and the casing, as well as other ringing or attenuation properties of the annular fluid that would reveal the type of fluid and the presence or absence of bubbles.
Fiber sensor cable 108 may be attached to the casing string 104 via straight linear, helical, or zig-zag strapping mechanisms.
Some embodiments of the straight strapping mechanism can contain multiple cables within the guide tube 310, and some embodiments include additional guide tubes along other ribs 304.
Each of the illustrated cables has one or more optical fiber cores 502 within cladding layers 504 having a higher refraction index to contain light within the core. A buffer layer 506, barrier layer 508, armor layer 510, inner jacket layer 512, and an outer jacket 514 may surround the core and cladding to provide strength and protection against damage from various dangers including moisture, hydrogen (or other chemical) invasion, and the physical abuse that may be expected to occur in a downhole environment. Illustrative cable 520 has a circular profile that provides the smallest cross section of the illustrated examples. Illustrative cable 522 has a square profile that may provide better mechanical contact and coupling with the outer surface of casing 104. Illustrative cables 524 and 526 have stranded steel wires 516 to provide increased tensile strength. Cable 526 carries multiple fibers 502 which can be configured for different measurements, redundant measurements, or cooperative operation. (As an example of cooperative operation, one fiber can be configured as a “optical pump” fiber that optically excites the other fiber in preparation for measurements via that other fiber). Inner jacket 512 can be designed to provide rigid mechanical coupling between the fibers or to be compliant to avoid transmitting any strain from one fiber to the other.
To obtain more complete measurements of the cement slurry, the cable can be wound helically on the casing string rather than having it just run axially.
Where a greater degree of protection is desired, the cable can be wound helically around the casing string 104 and the cage mechanism 702 placed over it as illustrated in
Other mounting approaches can be employed to attach the cables to the casing string. For example, casing string manufacturers now offer molded centralizers or standoffs on their casing. These take can the form of broad fins of material that are directly (e.g., covalently) bonded to the surface of the casing. Available materials include carbon fiber epoxy resins. Slots can be cut or formed into these standoffs to receive and secure the fiber optic cable(s). In some applications, the casing string may be composed of a continuous composite tubing string with optical fibers embedded in the casing wall.
Once the casing string has been lowered into the borehole with the suitably mounted fiber optic cables, the drilling crew can let the apparatus rest, without fluid circulation, to determine a baseline parameter profile.
Once the drilling crew is satisfied that the annular space has been adequately flushed and prepared for cementing, a cement slurry is pumped through the casing into the annular space. Because the cement has a high heat capacity it exhibits a strong cooling effect resulting in a temperature profile similar to curve 806. The contrast in heat capacity is evident to a viewer as a “fall” or sharp drop in the temperature profile that moves along the borehole in pace with the front between the cement slurry and the displaced fluid. Once the cement slurry is in place, the pumps can be momentarily halted while the crew observes the evolution of the profile.
Note that the curves of
In block 1006, the parameter profile is measured again. Changes to the profile are tracked as cement slurry is injected in block 1008. These changes are used to determine the boundaries of the cement slurry in block 1010. If temperature is being monitored, the difference between heat capacities of the cement slurry and displaced fluid cause a sudden drop in the temperature profile at the boundaries of the cement slurry. If pressure is being monitored, the difference in densities between the cement slurry and displaced fluid demonstrate a cause a change in pressure gradient which indicates the boundary of the cement slurry. If strain is being monitored, the cement slurry will induce strains as it cures, distinguishing it from the fluid-filled regions of the borehole. If the acoustic spectrum is being monitored, the cement slurry is expected to provide a different flow noise than the displaced fluid, so characterizations of the spectrum will reveal where the boundaries exist. Similarly, the acoustic noise produced by the curing process is expected to be absent where the cement slurry is absent. Active sound sources (e.g., piezoelectric transducers, thumpers, vibrators, air-guns, chemical impulse charges, fizzing or other internal gas evolution) in the casing can transmit broad spectrum noise or frequency sweeps that, when measured by the annular sensors, will indicate acoustic coupling strength and/or resonance of loosely coupled (uncemented) cable sections. If chemical concentrations are being monitored, the curing process is expected to release hydroxl (OH) ions that will serve as indicators of the presence of the cement slurry.
When the crew is satisfied with the location of the cement slurry, they can stop pumping and observe the evolution of the parameter profile in block 1012. Discrepancies in the profiles evolution can be used in block 1014 to identify gaps in the cement slurry sheath. Such gaps can be the result of fluid influx during curing, which can be indicated by the anomalous change in temperature and hydrostatic pressure. If needed, the crew can take corrective actions, such as increasing annular pressure to prevent fluid influx and maintaining it until the temperature profile indicates the required degree of cement slurry hydration. Shakers attached to the casing can be activated to break up gel states and enable the cement slurry to flow better and transfer pressure better.
In block 1016, the profile evolution indicates that the cement slurry has set, i.e., has reached the onset of compressive strength. This indication can come from a predetermined temperature threshold (or a predetermined temperature rate of change), a stabilization of the pressure, a predetermined strain threshold, an acoustic coupling threshold, a predetermined chemical concentration, etc. This time point can then be used to start the clock for further well operations. In block 1018, the recorded parameter profiles and evolution is added to a database to improve modeling for subsequent jobs.
Although the foregoing disclosure describes the sensor cable or sensor array as being mounted on the casing string, alternative system embodiments may employ “pumpable” sensors that are carried into place by the cement slurry itself. Such sensors can be battery powered and communicate wirelessly with each other to establish a peer-to-peer network and thereby communicate with the surface. (The RuBee wireless standard is contemplated for this purpose). Alternatively, or in addition, a wireline tool can be lowered into the casing to interrogate the wireless sensors, whether pumped or mounted to the casing.
The foregoing description has focused on determining the extent of the cement slurry and the presence of any gaps. A more general measure of the cement slurry's health during curing may include components indicative of water influx, gas influx, hydrocarbon influx, stress change, shrinkage or expansion, pressure change, temperature change. Taken individually or in combination, these components indicate potential problems with the integrity of the cement sheath.
Numerous other variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art once the above disclosure is fully appreciated. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such variations and modifications.
