Patent Grant
9073896
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Despite many years of research, there still exists a compelling need to develop novel and more effective therapeutic strategies for human cancer. The use of many agents used in cancer treatment is limited because of their cytotoxic effects on normal tissues and cells. This is a particular concern for agents that kill cells by damaging DNA and/or inhibiting DNA replication. Moreover, it is becoming more and more evident that the simultaneous or sequential attack on different aspects of cancer cell metabolism by combinations of agents is more effective than the use of a single agent. This highlights the need to develop a wider variety of therapeutic agents that hit different molecular targets in cancer cells.
As mentioned above, therapeutic agents such as ionizing radiation and temozolomide, which damage DNA, have cytotoxic effects on normal tissues and cells as well as cancer cells. Despite the frequent use of agents that either damage DNA or inhibit DNA replication, there are relatively few available compounds that specifically target DNA repair and/or DNA replication-related proteins (1-3). Topoisomerase-I inhibitors, for example alter the capacity of a key DNA replication enzyme to proceed along an entire chromosome. Although cytotoxic, this class of compounds is currently being used to treat human cancer. There are also inhibitors of DNA damage response proteins, including the checkpoint kinase Chk1, poly(ADP) ribose polymerase, DNA dependent protein kinase, ATM kinase, MGMT and AP endonuclease (1-3) that are in preclinical or early clinical evaluation as cancer therapeutics. Applicants specifically contemplate that certain types of inhibitors of DNA repair pathways will have therapeutic utility because they will potentiate the cytotoxic effects of other treatments of cancer, for example, ionizing radiation and chemotherapeutic agents that damage DNA. This may permit specific targeting of tumors and/or the use of lower doses of DNA damaging agent, thereby reducing toxicity to normal tissues and cells. In addition, there is evidence that the DNA repair capabilities of cancer cells may be different than those of normal cells. For example, BRCA2-deficient cells established from individuals with an inherited predisposition to breast cancer are extremely sensitive to inhibitors of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase because they are defective in homologous recombination (4,5). Thus, inhibitors of DNA repair proteins may specifically target cancer cells as compared to normal cell populations.
Under normal circumstances, the genome is propagated and maintained by the combination of a highly accurate DNA replication machinery and a network of DNA repair pathways. The increased incidence of cancer associated with DNA repair-deficient human syndromes illustrates the role of these pathways in protecting against deleterious genetic changes that contribute to cancer formation. There is growing interest in the identification of DNA repair inhibitors that will enhance the cytotoxicity of DNA-damaging agents because combinations of DNA-damaging agents and DNA repair inhibitors have the potential to concomitantly increase the killing of cancer cells and reduce damage to normal tissues and cells if either the damaging agent or the inhibitor could be selectively delivered to the cancer cells (2). Because DNA ligation is required during replication and is the last step of almost all DNA repair pathways, DNA ligase-deficient cell lines exhibit sensitivity to a wide range of DNA-damaging agents (6). Thus, DNA ligase inhibitors may have pleiotropic effects on cell proliferation and sensitivity to DNA damage.
DNA ligases catalyze the joining of interruptions in the phosphodiester backbone of double-stranded DNA, making them essential enzymes for DNA repair and replication. In addition, they are an indispensable reagent in molecular biology research for generating recombinant DNA. DNA ligases are members of the larger nucleotidyl transferase family that also includes RNA ligases and mRNA capping enzymes. In the first step of the ligation reaction, DNA ligases react with a nucleotide co-factor, either NAD+ or ATP, to form the covalent enzyme-AMP intermediate. Next the AMP moiety is transferred to the 5′ phosphate termini in duplex DNA, forming the DNA adenylate intermediate. Finally, the non-adenylated enzyme catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation between the 3′ hydroxyl and 5′ phosphate termini.
Because of their involvement in DNA replication and DNA repair, DNA ligase inhibitors are likely to be anti-proliferative and to potentiate the cytotoxicity of DNA damaging agents, properties that may have clinical utility in the treatment of cancer, in particular malignancies with an altered DNA damage response. DNA joining by a DNA ligase is required to link together Okazaki fragments during DNA replication and to complete almost all DNA repair pathways (6). Applicants' invention involves inhibitors of DNA ligases that: (i) inhibit cell growth and/or kill cells; (ii) potentiate the cytotoxic effects of many DNA damaging agents that introduce a wide variety of different types of DNA lesions, including agents such as ionizing radiation, topoisomerase inhibitors (irinotecan and topotecan), PARP inhibitors, 5-fluorouracil, mitomycin C, bleomycin, melphalan, cyclosphosphamide, platinum compounds, cis-platinum and BCNU (Carmustine) and temozolomide that are currently being used to treat human cancer; and/or (iii) potentiate the cytotoxic effects of pro-apoptotic agents and inhibitors of signaling pathways that promote proliferation, for example a bcr-abl kinase inhibitor (imatinib (GLEEVAC)) that may be used to treat human cancer.
The combination therapy methods of the present invention are contemplated to be administered at the same time or at separate times to a subject in need thereof.
Applicants' invention includes methods for screening of individual chemical compounds, a synthetic chemical collection and/or a natural product library to identify compounds that inhibit human DNA ligase.
The human genome contains three genes, LIG1, LIG3 and LIG4, which encode ATP-dependent DNA ligases (6). These enzymes have unique cellular functions, but they also appear to have some functional redundancy. Although these enzymes have a conserved catalytic domain and use the same reaction mechanism, they are directed to participate in different DNA transactions by specific protein-protein interactions (6). DNA ligase I (hLigI) has a major role in the joining of Okazaki fragments during DNA replication and also in DNA excision repair. Based on the cellular phenotype of human DNA ligase I-deficient cells (7-9), specific inhibitors of DNA ligase I should inhibit cell growth and/or kill cells. Since cancer cells in general tend to be more proliferative than normal cells, it is conceivable that they will be more susceptible to the effects of DNA ligase I inhibitors. In support of this, it has been shown that human cancer lines grown either in vitro or as tumors in nude mice and human tumor specimens have elevated levels of DNA ligase I (10). In addition, human DNA ligase I-deficient cells are hypersensitive to DNA alkylating agents and an inhibitor of poly (ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP), 3 aminobenzamide. (8-10). Applicants' invention involves DNA ligase I specific inhibitors that will preferentially kill rapidly proliferating cancer cells and potentiate the cytotoxic effects of DNA alkylating agents such as temozolomide and 1,3-bis(2-chloroethyl)-1-nitrosourea (BCNU) that are used clinically, and, when used in combination with PARP inhibitors (several of which are in clinical trials), will synergistically enhance cytotoxicity.
Several distinct DNA ligase polypeptides that function in nuclear DNA repair, mitochondrial DNA metabolism and germ cell development are encoded by the LIG3 gene (6). It appears that all cells express a single mRNA, DNA ligase IIIα mRNA that encodes mitochondrial and nuclear forms of DNA ligase IIIα. In addition, there is an alternative splicing event in male germ cells that generates DNA ligase IIIβ. Nuclear DNA ligase IIIα participates in the repair of DNA single strand breaks and the short patch subpathway of base excision repair. This appears to underlie the sensitivity of DNA ligase III-deficient cells to DNA alkylating agents and ionizing radiation (11,12). Applicants' invention also involves DNA ligase III inhibitors that will potentiate the cytotoxic effects of DNA alkylating agents such as temozolomide and BCNU, and ionizing radiation, all of which are used to treat human cancer. Furthermore, it has been shown that depletion of human DNA ligase III by RNAi disrupts mitochondrial function (13,14), raising the possibility that DNA ligase III inhibitors may cause cytotoxic effects via effects on mitochondrial function and may potentiate the effects of pro-apoptotic drugs. Since many tumors cells have alterations in energy metabolism, it is possible that they may be more susceptible to agents that target mitochondria. There is emerging evidence that DNA ligase I and DNA ligase IIIα participate in different subpathways of base and nucleotide excision repair and that these subpathways may be, at least in a part, functionally redundant (15,16). Applicants' invention also involves compounds that inhibit both DNA ligase I and DNA ligase III. These compounds will potentiate the cytotoxicity of DNA damaging agents such as 5-fluorouracil, temozolomide, BCNU, platinum compounds and mitomycin C that introduce lesions that are removed by excision repair to a greater extent than compounds that are specific for either DNA ligase I or DNA ligase III.
The LIG4 gene product, hLigIV, completes the repair of DNA double strand breaks (DSBs) by nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) and V(D)J recombination events that generate diversity in immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor loci during immune system development (6). Notably, DSBs are the major cytotoxic lesion introduced by ionizing radiation, which is the most commonly used modality in the treatment of human cancer. Furthermore, NHEJ is the major DSB repair pathway in human cells and inactivation of the LIG4 gene has a more severe effect than inactivation of genes encoding proteins that act earlier in the NHEJ pathway (17), suggesting that, once DSBs are committed to the NHEJ pathway, they cannot be recovered and repaired by pathways utilizing either DNA ligase I or DNA ligase III. Applicants' invention also involves DNA ligase IV inhibitors that will dramatically potentiate cell killing by ionizing radiation and radiomimetic drugs.
In the complex formed by hLigI on DNA with a non-ligatable nick, three hLigI domains encircle and interact with the nicked DNA duplex. (18) Two of these domains, an adenylation domain (AdD) and an OB fold domain (OBD), are present in other DNA ligases and nucleotidyl transferases. In contrast, the DNA binding domain (DBD, residues Asp262 to Ser535) is restricted to eukaryotic ATP-dependent DNA ligases (6). Notably, the DBD is the predominant DNA binding activity within hLigI and stimulates joining in trans by a hLigI fragment containing the adenylation and OB-fold domains (18). Based on these properties, Applicants chose to focus on identifying compounds that bind to the DBD and inhibit hLigI activity by interfering with DNA binding.
Applicants' invention also includes the following.
Methods for using the inhibitors to delineate the molecular mechanisms of the DNA ligation reaction.
Methods for identifying the DNA ligase that completes different DNA repair pathways in cell extracts.
Methods for identifying the pathways involved in the repair of different DNA lesions using the ligase inhibitors in cell extract and cell culture assays.
Methods for treating cancer using compounds that inhibit human DNA ligases by inhibiting cell growth, killing tumorous cells and/or potentiate cell killing by DNA damaging agents.
Methods for treating cancer using compounds that inhibit human DNA ligase including treating epithelial-derived cancers, such as epithelia neoplasms selected from the colon cancer, lung cancer, breast cancer, GI cancer, ovarian cancer and head and neck cancer.
Methods for treating cancer using compounds that inhibit human DNA ligase including treating hematological malignancies, such as hematological malignancy selected from the chronic and acute leukemias.
Methods for treating cancer using compounds that inhibit human DNA ligase including treating hematological malignancies, such as lymphomas.
The methods for treating cancer using compounds that inhibit human DNA ligase including treating skin cancer, melanoma, gliablastoma, neuroblastoma, sarcoma, colon cancer, breast cancer, cervical cancer, prostate cancer, pancreatic cancer, ovarian cancer, esophageal cancer, stomach cancer and lung cancer.
Identification and Characterization of Human DNA Ligase Inhibitors
One research focus has been to determine the cellular functions of the DNA ligases encoded by the human LIG1, LIG3 and LIG4 genes and to define the molecular mechanisms by which these enzymes are directed to participate in specific DNA transactions. Recently the structure of the catalytic domain of human DNA ligase I complexed with nicked DNA was determined (18). This was the first structure of a eukaryotic DNA ligase and the first structure of any DNA ligase complexed with DNA.
Attempts to identify human DNA ligase inhibitors by screening of chemical and natural product libraries have met with limited success. Previous attempts to identify DNA ligase inhibitors have involved in vitro screening of a chemical and a natural product library (19,20). Several compounds that inhibit DNA ligase I have been identified, but these compounds have not been extensively characterized in terms of their specificity and mechanism of action. A problem with screening of random chemical libraries using an in vitro DNA ligation assay is that it yields two classes of non-specific inhibitors; (i) molecules that bind to the DNA substrate; (ii) nucleotide analogs that inhibit not only ATP-dependent DNA ligases but also other nucleotide-dependent cellular enzymes. To circumvent these problems, Applicants used available structural information identifying the interfaces between DNA ligase I and nicked DNA (18) to design an in silico screening method for the identification of small molecules that disrupt the physical and functional interactions between DNA ligase and nicked DNA. In developing the screening methods, Applicants identified a binding pocket between residues His337, Arg449, and Gly453 that are located in the central region of the DBD and make direct contacts with the DNA substrate. Other residues comprising the binding site include Gly448, Arg451 and Ala455. (18, 21, 34-37) Based on amino acid sequence conservation, Applicants determined that it is likely that this binding pocket is relatively well conserved in human DNA ligases III and IV.
Chemicals.
Compounds identified by CADD screening were purchased from ChemBridge, ChemDiv, MayBridge, MDD, Nanosyn, Specs, Timtec, and Tripos. 189 was from Specs, and 82 and 67 were from Chemdiv. Tenmillimolar stocks were prepared in DMSO and stored at −20° C. The molecular masses of three compounds 67, 82 and 189 were confirmed by mass spectrometry in the University of Maryland School of Pharmacy facility.
Proteins.
Recombinant human DNA ligase I was purified as described previously (22, 29). T4 DNA ligase was purchased from NEB.
DNA Joining Assays.
Candidate ligase inhibitors identified by CADD were assayed for their ability to inhibit hLigI and T4 DNA ligase using a high-throughput, fluorescence energy transfer-based DNA joining assay (22). Duplicate reactions (30 μL) containing 10 pmol of nicked DNA substrate and either 0.25 pmol of hLigI or 10 units of T4 DNA ligase were incubated in the presence or absence of 100 μmol/L, of the putative inhibitor. DNA binding by the candidate DNA ligase inhibitors was measured by displacement of ethidium bromide from DNA as previously described (30).
A radioactive gel-based DNA ligation assay was performed as previously described (22). A 25-mer (5′-CGC CAG GGT TTT CCC AGT CAC GAC C-3′), and a 5′-[32P] end-labeled 18-mer (5′-GTA AAA CGA CGG CCA GTG-3′) were annealed to a complementary 44-mer oligonucleotide, generating a linear duplex with a central nick. DNA joining reactions (30 μL) containing 0.5 pmol of labeled DNA substrate, and hLigI (0.02 pmol), hLigIIIβ (0.02 pmol), hLigIV/XRCC4 (0.1 pmol), or T4 DNA ligase (0.02 pmol) in ligation buffer were incubated in the absence or presence of ligase inhibitors at 25° C. for 30 min.
Assays for Steps 2 and 3 of the Ligation Reaction.
To analyze step 2 of the ligation reaction, labeled ligase-AMP intermediates (10 pmol (22)) were incubated overnight at 25° C. with an unlabeled nonligatable version (dideoxy residue at the 3′-terminus of the nick) of the DNA oligonucleotide substrate (10 pmol), either in the presence or absence of the ligase inhibitors (100 μmol/L).
To analyze step 3 of the ligation reaction, an adenylated labeled version of the 18-mer was prepared as described (24). The DNA substrate containing a preadenylated nick (0.5 pmol) and hLigI (0.05 pmol), hLigIIIβ (0.05 pmol), hLigIV/XRCC4 (0.1 pmol), or T4 DNA ligase (0.05 pmol) were incubated in ligation buffer without ATP, either in the presence or absence of the ligase inhibitors (100 μmol/L). Reactions were stopped by the addition of an equal volume of gel loading dye (95% formamide, 0.05% bromophenol blue, and 0.05% xylene cyanol). After heating at 95° C. for 5 min, DNA was separated by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis. Labeled oligonucleotides were detected and quantitated in the dried gel by phosphorImager analysis (Molecular Dynamics).
Kinetic Analysis of Ligase Inhibitors.
To measure the initial rates of ligation, hLigI (0.05 pmol) was incubated with 0.5 to 100 pmol of the fluorescent, nicked DNA substrate and various concentrations of the ligase inhibitors. Ki values were obtained from Lineweaver-Burk double reciprocal plots and curve-fitting using PRISM v3.03 (GraphPad).
Electrophoretic Mobility Shift Assay.
A labeled linear duplex with a nonligatable nick was incubated with hLig1 in ligation buffer (30 μL total volume) with or without ligase inhibitors for 120 min at 25° C. After the addition of an equal volume of native gel buffer [160 mmol/L Tris-HCl (pH 6.8), 20% glycerol, 1.4 mol/L 2-mercaptoethanol, and 0.05% bromophenol blue], samples were separated by electrophoresis through a 12% native polyacrylamide gel and detected in the dried gel by phosphorImager analysis.
Cell Extract Assay of DNA Replication and Repair.
Extracts were prepared from human cervical cancer HeLa cells as described previously (27, 31). For base excision repair (BER) assays, the extraction buffer contained 100 mmol/L of KCl, whereas for nonhomologous end joining (NHEJ) assays, extraction buffer contained 400 mmol/L of KCl. Where indicated, DNA ligases were immunodepleted from the extracts as described (32) using protein A or G Sepharose beads (GE Healthcare) and anti-Lig1, anti-LigIII (GeneTex), or anti-LigIV (ABCAM) antibodies. Depletion was confirmed by immunoblotting.
A labeled 5′-flap substrate (0.1 pmol; (31)) was incubated with 20 μg of extract in the absence or presence of ligase inhibitors (100 μmol/L) at 25° C. for 5 min in ligation buffer (final volume, 50 μL). For short patch BER, a linear duplex containing a single uracil residue was preincised by treatment with uracil DNA glycosylase and APE1 (both from NEB) to generate a strand break with 3′ hydroxyl and 5′ deoxyribose phosphate termini. Reactions (50 μL) containing 0.3 pmol of the incised DNA substrate, 10 μCi of [α32P]dTTP, and 20 μg of extract either in the absence or presence of ligase inhibitors (100 μmol/L) were incubated at 25° C. for 2 min in ligation buffer. After separation by denaturing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis, labeled oligonucleotides were detected in the dried gel by phosphorImager analysis (Molecular Dynamics).
To assay NHEJ (24), a 1 kb end-labeled BamHI fragment (0.1 pmol; (33)). and 20 μg of extract were incubated in ligation buffer (final volume, 20 μL), for 120 min at 25° C. either in the presence or absence of ligase inhibitors (100 μmol/L). DNA fragments were resolved by separation through a 0.8% agarose gel. Labeled DNA fragments were detected in the dried gel by phosphorImager analysis (Molecular Dynamics).
Cell culture assays. Normal human breast epithelial MCF10A cells were grown in DMEM/F-12 media (Gibco) with 20 μg/ml of EGF, 0.5 ug/ml of Hydrocortisone, 0.1 μg/ml of Cholera Toxin, 10 μg/ml of Insulin, 5% horse serum and 1% Pen/Strep. Human colon cancer HCT116 cells were grown in McCoy media (Gibco) with 10% FBS and 1% Pen/Strep. Human cervical cancer HeLa and breast cancer MCF7 cells were grown in low glucose medium (Gibco) containing 10% FBS and 1% Pen/Strep.
For survival assays, cells were plated in 6 well plates and grown either in the absence or presence of ligase inhibitors. Where indicated, either MMS (0-50 μM) was added to the medium or the cells were irradiated in a Cs-137 irradiator (0-2.5 Gy). After two weeks, colonies were stained with crystal violet (Sigma) and then counted.
FACS Analysis.
Cells (1×106) were serum starved for 4 days prior stimulation with serum containing medium either with or without ligase inhibitors. At various time intervals, cells were trypsinized, washed with PBS and then fixed in 95% ethanol overnight at −20° C. After RNAse treatment and propidium iodide (Sigma) staining, the cell cycle distribution was determined by FACS in the Flow Cytometry Shared Service of the Marlene and Stewart Greenebaum Cancer Center.
Cell Proliferation Assays.
The ability of the compounds identified by CADD to inhibit proliferation of normal mammary epithelial MCF10A cells and colon carcinoma HCT1116 cells was determined using a Biomek FX Laboratory Automation Workstation (Beckman Coulter, Inc., Fullerton, Calif.). On day 0, 20 μl of complete medium containing the appropriate number of cells (150-300) was plated per well of a 384-well tissue plate (Fisher Scientific, Hampton, N.H.) and incubated overnight at 37° C. with 5% CO2 and 90% humidity. Next day, day 1, compounds were prepared by serial dilution with complete medium to yield the concentration 100 μM, and 20 was added to each well containing 20 μl of medium and cells yielding the final concentration 50 μM in 40 μl volume. Plates were incubated for additional 3 days (days-2-5) until control cells (0.5% DMSO) reached ˜70-80% confluency. On day 6, 40 μl of lysis/detection solution containing 1.2% Igepal CA-630 (Sigma) and a 1:1000 dilution of SYBR Green I nucleic acid stain (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.) was added to each well. Following an overnight incubation at 37° C., total fluorescence was measured using a Fluorostar Galaxy plate reader with a 485 nm excitation filter and 520 nm emission filter set (BMG Labtech, Inc., Durham, N.C.). Data was exported to a custom program that determined growth inhibition by dividing each individual fluorescence value by the average of fluorescence values obtained with cells treated with DMSO alone. Compounds that showed at least 40% growth inhibition compared with the DMSO-only controls inhibition of one or both of the cell lines were scored as “hits”.
The activity of hits from the initial screen was further validated using the MTT assay. Briefly, MCF10A and HCT116 cells were seeded in 96 well plates at 300 and 1200 cells per well, respectively, and allowed to adhere overnight. The following day, serial dilutions of compounds in media were added to the cells in a final volume 200 μl. After incubation for 5 days, MTT reagent (3-(4,5-dimthylthiazol-2-yl)-2,5-diphenyltatrazolium) was added and incubation was continued for 4 h. Formazan crystals generated by reduction of the MTT reagent in mitochondria were solubilized with isopropanol prior to the measurement of absorbance at 560 nm wavelength in a plate reader.
Immunocytochemistry.
The effect of ligase inhibitors on the subcellular distribution of tubulin was examined by fluorescence microscopy. Cells grown on the chamber slides were washed with PBS, fixed and then permeabilized on ice for 10 min in 2% formaldehyde and 0.1% Triton X-100. After washing with PBS, cells were incubated for 15 min with 1% BSA (Sigma-Aldrich) and then incubated with tubulin antibody (Invitrogen) for 2 h. Cells were washed with PBS prior to incubation with the AF488 conjugated secondary antibody (Invitrogen) for 1 h. After washing with PBS, cover slips were mounted on the slides with mounting media containing DAPI (Invitrogen). Cells were observed under a fluorescence microscope (Nikon Eclipse 80i) using 60× oil immersion lenses. Images were processed using NIS-Elements BR2.30 software. Methods
CADD Screening.
The in silico identification of compounds with a high probability of binding to and inhibiting DNA ligase involved the following steps:
Identification of a putative ligand binding site on the interface between the DBD and bound DNA (
molecular dynamics (MD) simulations for the generation of multiple protein conformations to address the flexibility of the binding site in the screening process;
preliminary screening of compound set,
secondary docking of compounds from the preliminary screen against the crystal structure and the MD generated structures, and
final selection of compounds for experimental assay.
Protein Structure Preparation.
The crystal structure of hLig1, obtained from the protein database bank (38) (PDB, http://www.rcsb.org/) (PDB identifier 1×9n)6 was truncated, keeping only the DBD. Hydrogen atoms were then added followed by local energy minimization with the program CHARMM (39). The minimization involved 100 conjugate gradient (CONJ) steps with the positions of atoms identified in the crystallographic structure fixed at their experimental values. Calculations were performed using the CHARMM all-atom protein force field including the CMAP modification (40, 41) with default cutoffs for the non-bond interactions. The resulting DBD structure was used in the preliminary docking (see below).
To obtain multiple conformations of the protein for secondary docking, an MD simulation was performed for 5 ns on the DBD using stochastic boundary conditions (42). First, the structure was minimized for 200 Steepest Descent (43) (SD) steps in vacuum. The binding region was then solvated by overlaying the protein with a 35 Å water sphere centered on the geometric center of the three residues, His337, Arg449, and Gly453, defining the binding pocket (see below). Water molecules within 2.8 Å to any protein non-hydrogen atom were removed. A test equilibration MD simulation showed a tendency for the water to move towards the protein and away from the surface of the sphere associated with the deletion of water overlapping the protein. Therefore, the water ball was assigned a boundary potential of 30 Å for all remaining calculations. All atoms were divided into three radial shells, i.e. the central region, an edge region from 26 to 30 Å, and an outer region beyond 30 Å, which was comprised of only protein atoms. Atoms in the outer region were constrained to their energy-minimized positions, atoms in the edge region were harmonically restrained with a force constant of 5 kcal/mol/Å and the central region was not subject to any type of restraints. The density of the water sphere was maintained using a quartic potential via the Miscellaneous Mean Field Potential (MMFP) module (44, 45) in CHARMM. Parameters defining the potential were force 0.25, droff 28.5, and p1 2.25, which yields a local well of −0.31 kcal/mol at the edge of the sphere. Non-bond interaction lists were heuristically updated out to 14 Å with the electrostatic and Lennard Jones (LJ) interactions truncated at the range of 10 to 12 Å using force switching (46). Following a 500 step SD minimization the protein was subjected to a 5 ns MD simulation at 300 K using the velocity Verlet (VVER) (47) integrator, an integration time step of 2 fs, and SHAKE to constrain all covalent bonds involving hydrogen atoms (48). Coordinates were saved every 5 ps, yielding a total of 1000 conformations from which additional structures were selected for the secondary docking. Selection of conformations for docking was performed via clustering based on pairwise root-mean square differences of the position of residues defining the binding site, i.e. the residues Glu300-Arg305 on the loop between helixes 3 and 4 according to the helix order in 1×9n.pdb, Ser334-His337 at the end of helix 5, Pro341-Asp351 on the loop following the short helix 6, and residues Gly448-Glu456 on the loop between helixes 12 and 13. Clustering was performed with NMRCLUST (49) with representative structures from the four biggest clusters chosen and used in the secondary docking.
Identification of Putative Binding Site.
A putative DNA binding site within the DBD was identified using the sphere sets used in the program DOCK (36) in combination with residues implicated in DNA binding by x-ray crystallography.
Three residues focused on, His337, Arg449, and Gly453, that are located in the central region of the DBD and make direct contacts with the DNA substrate are shown in
Generation of the sphere set used the minimized crystallographic structure, with the hydrogen atoms deleted, to compute the Connolly solvent accessible surface (50, 51) via the subroutine DMS which is implemented in the program MIDAS (52) (recently updated to Chimera (53). The solvent accessible surface was computed via DMS using the surface points of the probe sphere as required when hydrogen atoms are not present, with the density of points set to 0.5 as suggested for proteins. Second, spheres ranging from radii 1.2 Å to 4 Å, complementary to the protein surface were generated by the subroutine SPHGEN implemented in the package DOCK (36). Each sphere contacts two protein surface points and lies on the normal of one of the two points. This procedure generates a very large number of spheres, which are filtered by selecting only the largest sphere associated with each surface atom. Next, spheres within 8 Å of all three reference residues, His337, Arg449, and Gly453, were selected and selected spheres on the periphery of the putative binding pocket manually deleted. This yielded the final sphere set shown in
In Silico Compound Databases.
An in-house database of more than 4.3 million low-molecular weight compounds has been developed in the University of Maryland Computer-Aided Drug Design Center. This database is comprised of three types of files, i.e. 2D SD format files originally from the commercial vendors, 3D MOL2 format files for docking, and binary MDB format files for use in the program MOE (Chemical Computing Group Inc. Montreal, Canada). Compound preparation included removal of the smaller components in entries containing salts (e.g. counter ions), adding hydrogen atoms, assignment of the protonation state, geometry optimization using the MMFF94 (54, 55) force field level with either the SYBYL (Tripos Associates, St. Louis, Mo.) or MOE (Chemical Computing Group, Canada), and assignment of atomic partial charges based on CM2 charge model computed at the semi-empirical quantum chemical AM1 level using AMSOL (56, 57). Preliminarily screening used approximately 1,500,000 compounds from vendors chosen based on their reliability with respect to availability of compounds. Vendors include Chembridge (371,000), Chemdiv (750,000), Maybridge (60,000), MDD (33,000), Nanosyn (47,000), Specs (232,000), Timtec (165,000) and Tripos (80,000), where the values in parentheses represent the approximate number of compounds associated with each company. Recently, the compounds in the collections from these companies have been shown to typically have drug like characteristics (58).
Docking and Final Compound Selection.
Docking computations were performed using DOCK4.0 (34) with parameters previously used in our laboratory (37, 59, 60). Kollman partial atomic charm for the DBD were assigned using the program SYBYL. Database searching in DOCK is performed via a fragment-based build up procedure (61). In this approach one or more anchor fragments (e.g. rigid units, such as rings, with 5 or more atoms) are overlaid on the spheres in 200 orientations. The remainder of the ligand is then built layer by layer, with a rotation about each added bond in 10° increments to identify the most favorable orientation based on the total ligand-protein interaction energy. Thus, the docking procedure accounts for ligand flexibility while the protein is treated as rigid. From the preliminary docking using only a single conformation of the protein, the top 50,000 compounds were selected based on the normalized van der Waals attractive (Va) energy, as described below. These compounds are then subjected to a second round of docking where the crystallographic plus four additional conformations of the protein from the MD simulation (Table 1) were targeted to account for protein flexibility. The ligands were separately docked into each protein conformation, with the most favorable score from all five conformations assigned to rank that ligand. The score used in the second docking run is the total interaction energy including electrostatic and van der Waals interactions. In addition, the ligand was subjected to additional optimization by increasing the maximum anchor fragment orientations from 200 to 500, performing minimization of the anchor at each cycle of ligand buildup and minimizing the 5 inner layers upon addition of each layer of the ligand.
Compound clustering was performed using the Tanimoto similarity index (62, 63) based on BIT_MACCS fingerprints (64) which is implemented in the MOE software package. The BIT_MACCS fingerprints are used to compute the pairwise Tanimoto similarity matrix S which contains the similarity metric between the molecular fingerprints of compounds i and j. The matrix element S(i,j), i.e. the Tanimoto coefficient (Tc) is defined as Tc=c(i,j)/u(i,j), where c(i,j) is the number of common features in the fingerprints of molecule i and j, and u(i,j) is the number of all features in the union of the fingerprints of molecule i and j (65). Two compounds are regarded as similar if S(i,j) is equal to or greater than a predefined similarity threshold. Then, from matrix S, another binary matrix O is created where each matrix element O(i,j) has the value 1 if S(i,j) is equal to or greater than the predefined similarity threshold, or 0 otherwise. Two molecules i and j are then grouped into a cluster if the overlap between the two row vectors O(i) and O(j) is greater than or equal to a predefined overlap threshold. In the present work a similarity threshold of 70% and an overlap threshold of 40% were used.
Results
In silico Database Screening.
A putative DNA binding pocket within the DBD of hLigI was chosen as the target for a multi-tiered in silico database screening procedure, based on regions of the DBD in direct contact with the DNA in the X-ray structure of hLigI complexed with nicked DNA (
Distributions of MW using different normalization procedures and the distributions of normalized scores are shown in
Secondary screening of the 50,000 compounds applied additional energy minimization during docking and partially addressed protein flexibility (67, 68) via the inclusion of four additional, structurally diverse conformations obtained from an MD simulation. Overall, the five conformations of the DBD are similar (
Compounds were ranked based on the most favorable normalized total interaction energy of each ligand against the five protein conformations. At this stage the total interaction energy includes electrostatic interactions as well as steric considerations in the selection process. The MW and energy distributions for different powers of N normalization of the 1000 compounds with the most favorable normalized total interaction energies are shown in
Final selection of compounds for in vitro biochemical assays were chosen to maximize chemical diversity and based on their drug or lead-like compound properties (69, 70). Diversity was maximized by clustering the compounds based on chemical fingerprints using the Tanimoto similarity index. This yielded approximately 200 clusters of chemically similar compounds, with 1 or 2 compounds from each cluster selected based on drug- or lead-like compound properties as defined by Lipinski's rule of 5. (71) These rules include molecular weight (MW<500), adequate solubility expressed by the octanol/water partition coefficient (−5<log P(o/w)<5), number of hydrogen bond acceptors (H-bond acceptors <10), number of hydrogen bond donors (H-bond donors <5), number of rotatable single bonds (Rotatable bonds <10), and number of rings (Ring <5). The final compounds typically also satisfy the slightly stricter rules of Oprea (69). However, for clusters in which the criteria were not met, compounds were still selected for experimental assay. From this process, 233 compounds were selected for experimental testing (Table 2). Distributions of the physical and molecular properties of the 233 compounds are presented in
The method for screening compounds comprises testing the compound for the ability to inhibit human DNA ligases I, III and IV with a high throughput fluorescence-based ligation assay. In this assay, phosphodiester bond formation covalently links together two oligonucleotides, one of which is a fluorescent donor AF488 that is 11 nucleotides from the 3′ terminus and the other contains a fluorescence acceptor and quencher, BHQ1 that is 15 nucleotides from the 5′ terminus. When these oligonucleotides are present in separate duplexes and in the same nicked or intact duplex, there is no significant quenching of fluorescence because the donor and acceptor are too far apart. As single-strands neither the AF488 oligonucleotide nor the BHQ1 oligonucleotides have significant secondary structure. However, when these oligonucloetides are ligated together, the resultant single strand forms a stable hairpin structure, in which the AF488 and BHQ1 groups are very close together, resulting in efficient intra-molecular quenching of fluorescence. Thus, in the DNA joining assay, the DNA substrate is denatured after incubation with the DNA ligase and then renatured in the presence of a 20-fold excess of an oligonucleotide that is identical to the ligated strand containing the fluorescent door and acceptor except that it lacks these modifications. Using this assay, DNA joining, which results in reduced fluorescence at 518 nm, can be measured rapidly, quantitatively and with high-throughput using a fluorescence plate reader.
Experimental Assays.
192 out of the 233 compounds were screened for activity in high throughput in vitro DNA ligase assays and cell culture assays (Table 3). The screens, described in detail below, were carried out in parallel.
(i) In Vitro DNA Ligase Assay.
Applicants developed a novel high throughput fluorescence-based ligation assay by modifying the sequence of the oligos to optimize hairpin formation by the single strand ligated product of the high throughput fluorescence-based ligation assay of Chen et al (22). The ability of the 192 compounds to inhibit human DNA ligases was tested. Compound stock solutions, which were 10 mM in 0.5% DMSO, were diluted in 0.5% DMSO. Human DNA ligases I and III were assayed with a nicked DNA substrate whereas as the substrate for human DNA ligase IV was two oligonucleotide duplexes with short complementary single strand ends.
In the fluorescence-based high throughput ligation assay, 15 of the 192 compounds inhibited hLigI by >50%.
In addition, to identify compounds that may be non-specific inhibitors of DNA joining, the 192 compounds were also assayed for their ability to inhibit bacteriophage T4 DNA ligase, an enzyme that utilizes the same reaction mechanism as hLigI, has similar adenylation and OB-fold domains but lacks a DBD domain. (6) Although this is also an ATP-dependent DNA ligase, it lacks the domain containing the binding pocket targeted by the in silico screen. Compounds that inhibited T4 DNA ligase were eliminated as non-specific inhibitors that most likely bind to the DNA. The results of the screen are shown in Tables 4, 5, 5A and 6.
Of the 15 compounds that inhibited hLigI (25, 32, 64, 67, 82, 113, 123, 175, 180, 189, 190, 192, 197, 200 and 202) (Table 4), 6 were active against T4 DNA ligase by >50%. Thus, the in silico screen yielded 9 compounds that specifically inhibit hLigI, a hit rate of about 5%.
One mechanism by which a compound may non-specifically inhibit human DNA ligase is by binding to DNA rather than the ligase thereby interfering with the enzyme-substrate interaction. In accord with this idea, 192, which inhibits both hLigI and T4 DNA ligase (Table 4), reduced DNA binding of the DNA intercalating agent ethidium bromide (
Because the DNA binding domains of human DNA ligases III and IV and closely related to the DNA binding domain of human DNA ligase I that was used for the in silico screening, the 192 compounds identified by the in silico screening were also assayed for activity against human DNA ligases III and IV.
The in vitro screen identified compounds that are specific for each of one the human DNA ligases (DNA ligase I, DNA ligase III and DNA ligase IV) and identified compounds that inhibit two or more of the enzymes. The in vitro screen yielded three compounds that are specific for DNA ligase I (Compounds 1, 43, 82, 151, 184, 190), one compound that is specific for DNA ligase III (Compound 209), three compounds that are specific for DNA ligase IV (Compounds 93, 122, 215), four compounds that specifically inhibit DNA ligases I and III (Compound 25, 67, 200, 213), one compound that specifically inhibits both DNA ligases I and IV (Compound 113) and three compounds that inhibit all three human DNA ligases (Compound 64, 189, 197). See Table 5A for the In Vitro and In Vivo properties of the above grouped human DNA ligase inhibitors.
(ii) In Vivo Cell Culture Assays.
The 192 human DNA ligase inhibitors were screened in parallel for effects on proliferation and the ability to potentiate the effects of several DNA damaging agents using two cell human lines, a colon cancer line HCT116 and a normal breast epithelial cell line MCF10A using a Biomek FX Laboratory Automation Workstation as described (23). The DNA damaging agents used, methyl methanesulfonate (MMS), camptothecin, cis-platinum, 3 aminobenzamide and ionizing radiation, are representatives of classes of agents used to treat cancer. Briefly, HCT116 and MCF10A cells were plated in 96 well plates such that the cultures were about 80% confluent after 5 days incubation. Compounds were added to the cultures at either 15 μM or 50 μM 1 day after plating. After incubation for 3 days, cell lysed in a solution containing 1.2% Igepal CA-630 and SYBR green that stains DNA (1:1000, Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.). Subsequently, fluorescence was measured per well. The studies with DNA damaging agents were performed as follows. Cells were pre-incubated with the compounds at 75 μM for 1 hour prior to the addition of camptothecin (2 nM), cis platinum (1 μM), 3 AB (2 mM) or MMS (100 μM) that resulted in dilution of the compound to a final concentration of 50 μM. For ionizing radiation, cells were pre-incubated with the compounds at 50 μM for 1 hour prior to exposure to 2 gray of ionizing radiation. Cultures were incubated for 3 days and then treated as above. The results of the in vivo cell culture assays are summarized in Table 6.
Among the 192 compounds, seven inhibit proliferation of one or both cell lines with an IC50<20 μM (Compounds 16, 67, 78, 151, 165, 180, 195). At 50 μM 16 compounds inhibited proliferation of one or both cell lines by more than 40%. There was considerable overlap with the compounds identified as in vitro inhibitors of human DNA ligases. Notably, the nine of the in vitro inhibitors (compounds 43, 64, 67, 82, 151, 184, 189, 190, and 213) also inhibited cell proliferation.
In addition, three compounds act as radiosensitizers (Compounds 64, 151, 105), three compounds enhance the cytostatic effect of MMS (Compounds 67, 78, 151) and two compounds act synergistically with PARP inhibitors (Compound 64, 67).
Based on the combined results of the in vitro and in vivo screens, compounds 1, 25, 43, 64, 67, 78, 82, 93, 105, 113, 122, 151, 180, 184, 189, 197, 209, 213 and 215 were chosen for further analysis.
The specificity and inhibitory effects of a subset of these compounds were quantitated using the fluorescence-based ligation assay (22) and in gel-based assays (24).
The effect of Compounds 67, 82 and 189 on DNA joining by human DNA ligases I, III and IV and T4 DNA ligase was determined. The IC50 values determined for Compounds 67, 82 and 189 using the fluorescence-based DNA joining assay (22) are shown for each of the DNA ligases. See
In addition, the mechanism of inhibition was determined. DNA ligases utilize a three step reaction to catalyze phosphodiester bond formation. In the first step, human DNA ligases interact with ATP to form a covalent enzyme-adenylate complex. When this intermediate reacts with a DNA nick, the AMP group is transferred to the 5′ phosphate terminus of the nick, forming a DNA-adenylate intermediate. Finally, non-adenylated DNA ligase catalyzes phosphodiester bond formation in a reaction that is dependent upon the hydroxyl group at the 3′ terminus of the nick and results in release of the AMP group (6).
Human DNA ligases I, III and IV and T4 DNA ligase were incubated with [α32P] ATP in the absence or presence of compounds 67, 82 and 189 (100 μM). After separation by SDS-PAGE, the labeled ligase-AMP complex was detected by phosphorimaging.
Compounds 67, 82 and 189 did not inhibit the first step of the ligation reaction, which is DNA independent (
Since the final two steps of the ligation reaction involve interactions with DNA, we examined the effects of the ligase inhibitors on the second (
Based on these assays, we concluded that Compound 189 inhibits step 2 and Compounds 76 and 82 and inhibit step 3.
Next we used published cell extract assays (16,27,28) that measure different DNA replication and repair transactions to confirm the specificity of the DNA ligase inhibitors.
A natural AP site within a linear DNA molecule (
Linear DNA molecules with short complementary single strand overhangs are repaired by non-homologous end joining that is completed by DNA ligase IV (27). A HeLa extract was incubated with a labeled linear cohesive-ended 1 kb fragment with cohesive ends repair in the absence or presence of Compounds 67, 82 and 189 (25 μM).). Lane 7, DNA ligase I was immunodepleted from the extract prior to the assay. Lane 8, DNA ligase III was immunodepleted from the extract prior to the assay. Lane 8, DNA ligase IV was immunodepleted from the extract prior to the assay. After separation by native agarose gel electrophoresis, the linear DNA substrate, re-circularized substrate and dimers timers etc of the 1 kb substrate were detected by phosphorimaging (27). Accordingly, immunodepletion of DNA ligase IV but not DNA ligase I and III markedly inhibited the repair reaction (
To extend the results of the in vivo cell culture screening assay, a subset of compounds were tested in larger cultures. Different concentrations of Compounds 67 and 151 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116 and MCF10A Asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116 and MCF10A cells were pre-treated with different concentrations of compound 64 prior to the addition of 3 aminobenzamide (2 mM) MMS (100 μM) or cis-platinum (1 μM). After incubation for 5 days, cell growth was measured by the MTT assay (16).
An example of the growth inhibitory effects of Compounds 67 and 151 on the MCF10A and HCT116 cell lines is shown in
To confirm that the DNA ligase inhibitors directly kill cells and potentiate cell killing by DNA damaging agents, we performed colony forming assays.
Different concentrations of Compound 184 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116, MCF7 and MCF10A cells. Colonies were counted after two weeks. (
Different concentrations of Compound 151 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116 and MCF10A cells in the absence or presence of MMS (50 μM). Colonies were counted after two weeks. (
Different concentrations of Compound 189 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116 and MCF10A cells. After 1 hour, cultures were irradiated with 2 gray of ionizing radiation. Colonies were counted after two weeks. (
Different concentrations of Compound 67 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116, MCF7 and MCF10A cells. After 1 hour, cultures were irradiated with 2 gray of ionizing radiation. Different concentrations of Compound 67 were added to asynchronous subconfluent populations of HCT116 and MCF10A cells in the absence or presence of MMS (50 μM). Colonies were counted after two weeks. (
Compound 184 kills normal breast epithelial cells (MCF10A). It is also more effective at killing colon (HCT116) and breast cancer (MCF7) cell lines (
CADD Analysis of Active Compounds.
Structures of the 10 hLigI specific inhibitors are shown in
The importance of the inclusion of multiple conformations of the putative binding site from the MD simulation in the in silico screen may be determined by simply identifying the conformation from which 10 active compounds were selected. Of the 9 hLigI specific inhibitors, one (67) was based on the crystal conformation, none were based on MD conformation C2 (time point 2.015 ns of the simulation), two (82, 113) were based on MD conformation C3 (time point 2.335 ns of the simulation), three (25, 190, 197) were based on MD conformation C4 (time point 2.950 ns of the simulation) and three (64, 189, 200) on conformation CS (time point 3.795 ns of the simulation). Thus, the inclusion of multiple conformations is leading to the identification of additional active compounds, emphasizing the utility of this component of the screening procedure.
The protein conformation is that from the crystallographic study with the orientation of the compounds extracted from the individual conformations following alignment of the protein conformations as shown in
Three of the active compounds, 67, 82, and 189 have been subjected to more extensive biological characterization (73). Although all three compounds are predicted to bind in the putative binding site, they do exhibit some level of variability in the binding orientations. Interestingly, while all three compounds inhibit hLigI but not T4 DNA ligase (Table 4), their activity versus the other human DNA ligases differs significantly. While 82 inhibits only hLigI, 67 inhibits both hLigI and hLigIII and 189 inhibits all three human DNA ligases. Presumably, differences in the specificities of the inhibitors for the three human DNA ligases reflect a combination of differences in the binding modes of the structurally diverse inhibitors and differences in the molecular architecture of the targeted DNA binding pocket between the three human DNA ligases. Importantly, inhibitors with defined specificities for the different human DNA ligases will be invaluable reagents for elucidating the physiological roles of human DNA ligases.
Consistent with the inclusion of physical properties in the selection process, all the hLigI specific inhibitors fall into the drug-like range according to Lipinski's rule of five (Table 4) (71), while still spanning a range of physical properties.
From the in silico database Applicants have identified compounds of General Formulae I-XVI as also being DNA ligase inhibitor candidates.
General Formulae I and II are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 64. Compounds related to Compound 64 are shown in Table 8.
General Formulae IIA and IIIA are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 67. Compounds related to Compound 67 are shown in Table 9.
General Formulae III is illustrative of compounds related to Compound 78. Compounds related to Compound 78 are shown in Table 10.
General Formulae IV and V are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 113. Compounds related to Compound 113 are shown in Table 11.
General Formulae IX and X are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 151. Compounds related to Compound 151 are shown in Table 12.
General Formulae XI and XII are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 180. Compounds related to Compound 180 are shown in Table 13.
General Formulae XIII and XIV are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 189. Compounds related to Compound 189 are shown in Table 14.
General Formulae XV and XVI are illustrative of compounds related to Compound 197. Compounds related to Compound 197 are shown in Table 15.
where R2 is hydrogen,
R3 is hydrogen, halogen, Cl,
(where R4 is halogen or Cl and n is 0-5), or
(where R5 is halogen or F and n is 0-5), or
(where R6 is halogen or F and n is 0-5)
where R1, R2 and R3 are the same as in formula (I)
where
where each R7 is independently selected from halogen, Cl, Br, F, alkyl, and —CH3, and n7 is 0-5
where R8 and n8 are the same as R7 and n7,
where R9 and n9 am the same as R7 and n7, alkyl-cycloalkyl,
where R10 and n10 the same as R7 and n7,
where
wherein
alkoxy, halogen, Cl, and —O—CH3,
wherein
alkoxy, halogen, Cl, and —O—CH3,
where R6 is selected from alkyl, —CH3, H, alkoxy, —OCH2—CH3,
halogen, Cl, Br
n6 is 0-6;
The DNA ligase inhibitors of the present invention may also be used as research tools in addition to therapeutics. As research tools, the DNA ligase inhibitors may be used to identify the DNA ligase involved in different DNA transactions either in cell culture and/or in cell extract based assays. Including the use of DNA ligase inhibitors to provide novel insights into the reaction mechanisms of human DNA ligases; the use of DNA ligase inhibitors in cell extract assays to identify the human DNA ligase involved in DNA repair pathways; and the use of DNA ligase inhibitors in cell culture assays to identify the human DNA ligase involved in different DNA repair pathways in vivo. For example, delineating DNA ligases participating and determining which of multiple pathways are being used.
The DNA ligase inhibitors of the present invention may be used to facilitate in vitro and in vivo studies delineating the cellular functions of these enzymes.
Most DNA damaging agents introduce more than one type of DNA lesion. In addition, a specific DNA lesion may be removed by more than one DNA repair pathway. Since the DNA ligase inhibitors of the present invention inhibit DNA repair pathways, the use of the inhibitors in a combination of extract and cell culture assays may be used to delineate the DNA repair pathways involved in the repair of DNA lesions introduced by a DNA damaging agent and the DNA repair pathways involved in the repair of a specific DNA lesion.
The DNA ligase inhibitors of the present invention may be used as research tools to promote the understanding of genome stability and DNA repair, such as Lagging strand DNA replication; Telomere replication; Rescue of stalled replication forks; Damage response signaling cascade; DSB repair; BER; polβ-dependent long patch; PCNA-dependent long patch; Short patch; and NER: DNA double strand break repair by homology-dependent pathways and by the major and alternative non-homologous end-joining pathways.
The DNA ligase inhibitors of the present invention may also be used in drug development for clinical cancer treatment, such as anti-cell proliferation and Radio-sensitizers.
As used herein, “treat” means alter, apply, effect, improve, care for or deal with medically or surgically, ameliorate, cure, stop and/or prevent an undesired biological (pathogenic) process. The skilled artisan is aware that a treatment may or may not cure.
As used herein, the effective amount or “therapeutically effective amounts” of the compound of the present invention to be used are those amounts effective to produce beneficial results in the recipient animal or patient. Such amounts may be initially determined by reviewing the published literature, by conducting in vitro tests or by conducting metabolic studies in healthy experimental animals. Before use in a clinical setting, it may be beneficial to conduct confirmatory studies in an animal model, preferably a widely accepted animal model of the particular disease to be treated. Preferred animal models for use in certain embodiments are rodent models, which are preferred because they are economical to use and, particularly, because the results gained are widely accepted as predictive of clinical value.
A therapeutically effective amount of a compound of the present invention as a treatment varies depending upon the host treated and the particular mode of administration. The term “body weight” is applicable when an animal is being treated. When isolated cells are being treated, “body weight” as used herein means “total cell body weight”. The term “total body weight” may be used to apply to both isolated cell and animal treatment. Those of skill in the art will recognize the utility of a variety of dosage range.
All of the cited references are hereby specifically incorporated by reference in their entirety.
While the invention has been described with reference to certain particular embodiments thereof, the invention is not to be limited to the specific embodiments described and those skilled in the art will appreciate that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention.
1.2
1.4
1.7
1
78
88
NI
1.5
1
1
ND
ND
>20
<20
1.8
1.7
ND
ND
25
NI
NI
tindicates compounds that are inhibit cell growth but did not show any activity to inhibit ligases under cell-free conditions.
ttindicates are the most active agents as tested on MCF10A and HCT116 cell lines
25
64
67
82
113
123
189
190
197
200
25
64
67
82
113
123
189
190
197
200
This application is a divisional of and claims priority from U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/576,410 filed Oct. 9, 2009, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,445,537issued May 21, 2013, which is a continuation-in-part application of and claims priority from International Patent Application No. PCT/US2008/059931 filed Apr. 10, 2008, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application 60/911,000, filed Apr. 10, 2007, all applications of which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
This invention was made with the support of the U.S. government under Grant Numbers GM057479, GM047251, ES012512, CA092584 and CA102428 from National Institutes of Health (NIH). The U.S. government has certain rights in this invention.
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| Number | Date | Country | |
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| 20140113891 A1 | Apr 2014 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
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| 60911000 | Apr 2007 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
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| Parent | 12576410 | Oct 2009 | US |
| Child | 13864916 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
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| Parent | PCT/US2008/059931 | Apr 2008 | US |
| Child | 12576410 | US |
