Patent Grant
10869920
The present invention relates to attenuated, immunogenic West Nile virus chimeras built on a dengue virus backbone for the production of immunogenic, live, attenuated West Nile virus vaccines.
Beginning with
West Nile virus (WN) belongs to the family Flaviviridae that comprises more than 60 viruses, many of which are important human pathogens. WN is a member of the Japanese encephalitis virus (JE) serocomplex of mosquito-borne flaviviruses that includes St. Louis encephalitis, JE, and Murray Valley encephalitis viruses (Calisher, C. H. et al. 1989 J Gen Virol 70:27-43; Burke, D. S. & Monath, T. P. 2001 in: Fields Virology, eds. Knipe, D. M. & Howley, P. M. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 4-th ed., pp. 1043-1125). Like other members of the JE antigenic complex, WN is maintained in a natural cycle that involves mosquito vectors and birds, while humans and equines are usually incidental hosts. For many years WN has been recognized as one of the most widely distributed flaviviruses with a geographic range including Africa, Australia, Europe, the Middle East and West Asia (Burke, D. S. & Monath, T. P. 2001 in: Fields Virology, eds. Knipe, D. M. & Howley, P. M. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 4-th ed., pp. 1043-1125; Hayes, C. G. 1989 in: The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, ed. Monath T. P. Boca Raton, Fla. CRC Press, Volume V, pp. 59-88). During 1999 WN first established itself in the USA in the Northeast and Mid-Atlantic States and more recently this virus extended its range to include the Southeastern and Western States (Anderson, J. F. et al. 1999 Science 286:2331-2333; Lanciotti, R. S. et al. 1999 Science 286:2333-2337; Campbell, G. L. et al. 2002 Lancet 2:519-529). In endemic regions, most human WN infections are asymptomatic or cause mild illness with symptoms of low-grade fever, headache, body aches, rash, myalgia, and polyarthropathy. However, human epidemics with severe disease have been reported in Israel, France, Romania, and Russia. In acute severe illness, the virus can cause hepatitis, meningitis and encephalitis leading to paralysis, and coma resulting in death. The neuropathologic lesions are similar to those of JE, with diffuse CNS inflammation and neuronal degeneration. Virus is also found in the spleen, liver, lymph nodes, and lungs of infected individuals. During the 1999 outbreak of WN in the USA, more than 60 people became ill and 7 died, while during 2002, morbidity was 3873 cases and there were 246 deaths (CDC Report: West Nile Update Current case Count, Jan. 2, 2003). Because of the recent and unexpected spread of WN from the Northeast to the Southeast and the West of the USA, this virus is considered a significant emerging disease threat that has embedded itself over a considerable region of the country. Currently, a licensed human vaccine is not available for prevention of WN disease. Mosquito control is the only practical strategy to combat the spread of disease, but effective spraying is difficult to perform in urban areas. Clearly, an effective vaccine is needed to protect at-risk populations.
Dengue viruses are mosquito-borne pathogens of the genus Flavivirus (family Flaviviridae). Four scrotypes of dengue virus (DEN) have been identified, including dengue type 1 virus (DEN1), dengue type 2 virus (DEN2), dengue type 3 virus (DEN3) and dengue type 4 virus (DEN4). Live, attenuated dengue viruses of all four serotypes have been developed at Mahidol University in Thailand by passaging the wild-type viruses in primary dog kidney cell culture (Sabchareon, A. et al. 2002 Am J Trop Med Hyg 66:264-272). These are currently the least promising live, attenuated vaccine candidates for immunization against dengue virus infection and/or disease because they are not well characterized as to the relative contributions of attenuation-associated mutations to the actual mechanism of attenuation nor as to the potential for reverse mutations to revert any of the vaccine candidates to the virulent biological phenotype of the wild-type dengue virus. These vaccine candidates have been designated by a combination of their dengue serotype, the cell line through which they were passaged and the number of times they were passaged. Thus, a dengue serotype 1 wild-type virus passaged in primary dog kidney (PDK) cells 13 times is designated as DEN1 PDK13 virus. Other vaccine candidates are DEN2 PDK53, DEN3 PGMK30/FRhL3 (thirty passages in primary green monkey kidney cells, followed by three passages in fetal rhesus lung cells) and DEN4 PDK48. These four candidate vaccine viruses were derived by tissue culture passage of wild-type parental DEN1 16007, DEN2 16681, DEN3 16562 and DEN4 1036 viruses, respectively.
Except for DEN2 PDK53 virus, the number and identity of the genetic mutations that accrued during multiple passages in cell culture and that are associated with the attenuation phenotype of the vaccine candidates are unknown. Neither the relative contributions of such attenuation-associated mutations to the actual mechanism of attenuation, nor the potential for reverse mutations to revert any of the vaccine candidates to the virulent biological phenotype of the wild-type dengue virus are known for any of these four vaccine candidates. An understanding of the characteristics of a vaccine candidate is critical for the prediction of its stability and safety.
Accordingly, there is a need for attenuated, yet immunogenic flaviviruses to be used in the development of flavivirus vaccines to confer protection against flaviviruses. What would be ideal is a vaccine that would simultaneously protect an individual against flavivirus disease and be sufficiently characterized so that stability and safety are predictable.
Chimeric flaviviruses that are attenuated and immunogenic are provided. Chimeric viruses containing the nonstructural protein genes of a dengue virus are used as a backbone into which the structural protein genes of a West Nile virus are substituted. These chimeric viruses exhibit pronounced immunogenicity in the absence of the accompanying clinical symptoms of viral disease. The attenuated chimeric viruses are effective as immunogens or vaccines and may be combined in a pharmaceutical composition to confer immunity against West Nile virus.
), furin or other Golgi-localized protease (♥), or unknown proteases (?) are indicated. Taken from Field's Virology, 2001 Fourth Edition, B. D. Lindenbach and C. M. Rice, page 998, Chapter 32.
*Indicates amino acids in chimeric constructs that vary at the 3+ position downstream of protease cleavage site. **Not applicable. +Two infectious chimeric WN/DEN4 viruses, namely clone 18 and 55 from group 4, were isolated.
Immunogenic WN/DEN flavivirus chimeras and methods for preparing the WN/DEN flavivirus chimeras are provided herein. The immunogenic WN/DEN flavivirus chimeras are useful, alone or in combination, in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier as immunogenic compositions to immunize and protect individuals and animals against infection by West Nile virus.
Chimeras of the present invention comprise nucleotide sequences encoding the immunogenic structural proteins of a West Nile virus and further nucleotide sequences selected from the backbone of a dengue virus. Chimeric viruses derived from the nucleotide sequences can be used to induce an immunogenic response against West Nile virus.
In another embodiment, the preferred chimera is a nucleic acid chimera comprising a first nucleotide sequence encoding at least one structural protein from a West Nile virus, and a second nucleotide sequence encoding nonstructural proteins from a dengue virus. In another embodiment the dengue virus is attenuated. In another embodiment the dengue virus is DEN4. In another embodiment, the structural protein can be the C protein of a West Nile virus, the prM protein of a West Nile virus, the E protein of a West Nile virus, or any combination thereof.
The term “residue” is used herein to refer to an amino acid (D or L) or an amino acid mimetic that is incorporated into a peptide by an amide bond. As such, the amino acid may be a naturally occurring amino acid or, unless otherwise limited, may encompass known analogs of natural amino acids that function in a manner similar to the naturally occurring amino acids (i.e., amino acid mimetics). Moreover, an amide bond mimetic includes peptide backbone modifications well known to those skilled in the art.
Furthermore, one of skill in the art will recognize that individual substitutions, deletions or additions in the amino acid sequence, or in the nucleotide sequence encoding for the amino acids, which alter, add or delete a single amino acid or a small percentage of amino acids (typically less than 5%, more typically less than 1%) in an encoded sequence are conservatively modified variations, wherein the alterations result in the substitution of an amino acid with a chemically similar amino acid. Conservative substitution tables providing functionally similar amino acids are well known in the art. The following six groups each contain amino acids that are conservative substitutions for one another:
1) Alanine (A), Serine (S), Threonine (T);
2) Aspartic acid (D), Glutamic acid (E);
3) Asparagine (N), Glutamine (Q);
4) Arginine (R), Lysine (K);
5) Isoleucine (1), Leucine (L), Methionine (M), Valine (V); and
6) Phenylalanine (F), Tyrosine (Y), Tryptophan (W).
As used herein, the terms “virus chimera,” “chimeric virus,” “flavivirus chimera” and “chimeric flavivirus” means an infectious construct of the invention comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the immunogenicity of a West Nile virus and further nucleotide sequences derived from the backbone of a dengue virus.
As used herein, “infectious construct” indicates a virus, a viral construct, a viral chimera, a nucleic acid derived from a virus or any portion thereof, which may be used to infect a cell.
As used herein, “nucleic acid chimera” means a construct of the invention comprising nucleic acid comprising nucleotide sequences encoding the immunogenicity of a West Nile virus and further nucleotide sequences derived from the backbone of a dengue virus. Correspondingly, any chimeric flavivirus or flavivirus chimera of the invention is to be recognized as an example of a nucleic acid chimera.
The structural and nonstructural proteins of the invention are to be understood to include any protein comprising or any gene encoding the sequence of the complete protein, an epitope of the protein, or any fragment comprising, for example, three or more amino acid residues thereof.
Flavivirus Chimeras
West Nile virus and dengue virus are mosquito-borne flavivirus pathogens. The flavivirus genome contains a 5′ untranslated region (5′ UTR), followed by a capsid protein (C) encoding region, followed by a premembrane/membrane protein (prM) encoding region, followed by an envelope protein (E) encoding region, followed by the region encoding the nonstructural proteins (NS1-NS2A-NS2B-NS3-NS4A-NS4B-NS5) and finally a 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR). The viral structural proteins are C, prM and E, and the nonstructural proteins are NS1-NS5. The structural and nonstructural proteins are translated as a single polyprotein and processed by cellular and viral proteases.
The flavivirus chimeras of the invention are constructs formed by fusing structural protein genes from a West Nile virus with non-structural protein genes from a dengue virus, e.g., DEN1, DEN2, DEN3, or DEN4.
The attenuated, immunogenic flavivirus chimeras provided herein contain one or more of the structural protein genes, or antigenic portions thereof, of the West Nile virus against which immunogenicity is to be conferred, and the nonstructural protein genes of a dengue virus.
The chimera of the invention contains a dengue virus genome as the backbone, in which the structural protein gene(s) encoding C, prM, or E protein(s) of the dengue genome, or combinations thereof, are replaced with the corresponding structural protein gene(s) from a West Nile virus that is to be protected against. The resulting chimeric virus has the properties, by virtue of being chimerized with the dengue virus, of attenuation and is therefore reduced in virulence, but expresses antigenic epitopes of the WN structural gene products and is therefore immunogenic.
The genome of any dengue virus can be used as the backbone in the attenuated chimeras described herein. The backbone can contain mutations that contribute to the attenuation phenotype of the dengue virus or that facilitate replication in the cell substrate used for manufacture, e.g., Vero cells. The mutations can be in the nucleotide sequence encoding nonstructural proteins, the 5′ untranslated region or the 3′ untranslated region. The backbone can also contain further mutations to maintain the stability of the attenuation phenotype and to reduce the possibility that the attenuated virus or chimera might revert back to the virulent wild-type virus. For example, a first mutation in the 3′ untranslated region and a second mutation in the 5′ untranslated region will provide additional attenuation phenotype stability, if desired. In particular, a mutation that is a deletion of 30 nts from the 3′ untranslated region of the DEN4 genome between nts 10478-10507 results in attenuation of the DEN4 virus (Men et al. 1996 J Virol 70:3930-3933; Durbin et al. 2001 Am J Trop Med 65:405-413). Therefore, the genome of any dengue type 4 virus containing such a mutation at this locus can be used as the backbone in the attenuated chimeras described herein. Furthermore, other dengue virus genomes containing an analogous deletion mutation in the 3′ untranslated region of the genomes of other dengue virus serotypes may also be used as the backbone structure of this invention.
Such mutations may be achieved by site-directed mutagenesis using techniques known to those skilled in the art. It will be understood by those skilled in the art that the virulence screening assays, as described herein and as are well known in the art, can be used to distinguish between virulent and attenuated backbone structures.
Construction of Flavivirus Chimeras
The flavivirus chimeras described herein can be produced by substituting at least one of the structural protein genes of the West Nile virus against which immunity is desired into a dengue virus genome backbone, using recombinant engineering techniques well known to those skilled in the art, namely, removing a designated dengue virus gene and replacing it with the desired corresponding gene of West Nile virus. Alternatively, using the sequences provided in GenBank, the nucleic acid molecules encoding the flavivirus proteins may be synthesized using known nucleic acid synthesis techniques and inserted into an appropriate vector. Attenuated, immunogenic virus is therefore produced using recombinant engineering techniques known to those skilled in the art.
As mentioned above, the gene to be inserted into the backbone encodes a West Nile virus structural protein. Preferably the West Nile virus gene to be inserted is a gene encoding a C protein, a prM protein and/or an E protein. The sequence inserted into the dengue virus backbone can encode both the prM and E structural proteins. The sequence inserted into the dengue virus backbone can encode the C, prM and E structural proteins. The dengue virus backbone is the DEN1, DEN2, DEN3, or DEN4 virus genome, or an attenuated dengue virus genome of any of these serotypes, and includes the substituted gene(s) that encode the C, prM and/or E structural protein(s) of a West Nile virus or the substituted gene(s) that encode the prM and/or E structural protein(s) of a West Nile virus. In a particular embodiment of this invention, the substituted gene that encodes the structural protein of a West Nile virus directs the synthesis of a prM protein that contains Asp and Thr, respectively, at a position 3 and 6 amino acids downstream of the cleavage site that separates the capsid protein of DEN and the premembrane protein of West Nile virus.
Suitable chimeric viruses or nucleic acid chimeras containing nucleotide sequences encoding structural proteins of West Nile virus can be evaluated for usefulness as vaccines by screening them for phenotypic markers of attenuation that indicate reduction in virulence with retention of immunogenicity. Antigenicity and immunogenicity can be evaluated using in vitro or in vivo reactivity with West Nile antibodies or immunoreactive serum using routine screening procedures known to those skilled in the art.
Flavivirus Vaccines
The preferred chimeric viruses and nucleic acid chimeras provide live, attenuated viruses useful as immunogens or vaccines. In a preferred embodiment, the chimeras exhibit high immunogenicity while at the same time not producing dangerous pathogenic or lethal effects.
The chimeric viruses or nucleic acid chimeras of this invention can comprise the structural genes of a West Nile virus in a wild-type or an attenuated dengue virus backbone. For example, the chimera may express the structural protein genes of a West Nile virus in either of a dengue virus or an attenuated dengue virus background.
The strategy described herein of using a genetic background that contains nonstructural regions of a dengue virus genome, and, by chimerization, the properties of attenuation, to express the structural protein genes of a West Nile virus has lead to the development of live, attenuated flavivirus vaccine candidates that express structural protein genes of desired immunogenicity. Thus, vaccine candidates for control of West Nile virus pathogens can be designed.
Viruses used in the chimeras described herein are typically grown using techniques known in the art. Virus plaque or focus forming unit (FFU) titrations are then performed and plaques or FFU are counted in order to assess the viability, titer and phenotypic characteristics of the virus grown in cell culture. Wild type viruses are mutagenized to derive attenuated candidate starting materials.
Chimeric infectious clones are constructed from various flavivirus strains. The cloning of virus-specific cDNA fragments can also be accomplished, if desired. The cDNA fragments containing the structural protein or nonstructural protein genes are amplified by reverse transcriptase-polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR) from flavivirus RNA with various primers. Amplified fragments are cloned into the cleavage sites of other intermediate clones. Intermediate, chimeric flavivirus clones are then sequenced to verify the sequence of the inserted flavivirus-specific cDNA.
Full genome-length chimeric plasmids constructed by inserting the structural or nonstructural protein gene region of flaviviruses into vectors are obtainable using recombinant techniques well known to those skilled in the art.
Method of Administration
The viral chimeras described herein are individually or jointly combined with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or vehicle for administration as an immunogen or vaccine to humans or animals. The terms “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” or “pharmaceutically acceptable vehicle” are used herein to mean any composition or compound including, but not limited to, water or saline, a gel, salve, solvent, diluent, fluid ointment base, liposome, micelle, giant micelle, and the like, which is suitable for use in contact with living animal or human tissue without causing adverse physiological responses, and which does not interact with the other components of the composition in a deleterious manner.
The immunogenic or vaccine formulations may be conveniently presented in viral plaque forming unit (PFU) unit or focus forming unit (FFU) dosage form and prepared by using conventional pharmaceutical techniques. Such techniques include the step of bringing into association the active ingredient and the pharmaceutical carrier(s) or excipient(s). In general, the formulations are prepared by uniformly and intimately bringing into association the active ingredient with liquid carriers. Formulations suitable for parenteral administration include aqueous and non-aqueous sterile injection solutions which may contain anti-oxidants, buffers, bacteriostats and solutes which render the formulation isotonic with the blood of the intended recipient, and aqueous and non-aqueous sterile suspensions which may include suspending agents and thickening agents. The formulations may be presented in unit-dose or multi-dose containers, for example, sealed ampoules and vials, and may be stored in a freeze-dried (lyophilized) condition requiring only the addition of the sterile liquid carrier, for example, water for injections, immediately prior to use. Extemporaneous injection solutions and suspensions may be prepared from sterile powders, granules and tablets commonly used by one of ordinary skill in the art.
Preferred unit dosage formulations are those containing a dose or unit, or an appropriate fraction thereof, of the administered ingredient. It should be understood that in addition to the ingredients particularly mentioned above, the formulations of the present invention may include other agents commonly used by one of ordinary skill in the art.
The immunogenic or vaccine composition may be administered through different routes, such as oral or parenteral, including, but not limited to, buccal and sublingual, rectal, aerosol, nasal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intradermal, and topical. The composition may be administered in different forms, including, but not limited to, solutions, emulsions and suspensions, microspheres, particles, microparticles, nanoparticles and liposomes. It is expected that from about 1 to about 5 doses may be required per immunization schedule. Initial doses may range from about 100 to about 100,000 PFU or FFU, with a preferred dosage range of about 500 to about 20,000 PFU or FFU, a more preferred dosage range of from about 1000 to about 12,000 PFU or FFU and a most preferred dosage range of about 1000 to about 4000 PFU or FFU. Booster injections may range in dosage from about 100 to about 20,000 PFU or FFU, with a preferred dosage range of about 500 to about 15,000, a more preferred dosage range of about 500 to about 10,000 PFU or FFU, and a most preferred dosage range of about 1000 to about 5000 PFU or FFU. For example, the volume of administration will vary depending on the route of administration. Intramuscular injections may range in volume from about 0.1 ml to 1.0 ml.
The composition may be stored at temperatures of from about −100° C. to about 4° C. The composition may also be stored in a lyophilized state at different temperatures including room temperature. The composition may be sterilized through conventional means known to one of ordinary skill in the art. Such means include, but are not limited to, filtration. The composition may also be combined with bacteriostatic agents to inhibit bacterial growth.
Administration Schedule
The immunogenic or vaccine composition described herein may be administered to humans or domestic animals, such as horses or birds, especially individuals travelling to regions where West Nile virus infection is present, and also to inhabitants of those regions. The optimal time for administration of the composition is about one to three months before the initial exposure to the West Nile virus. However, the composition may also be administered after initial infection to ameliorate disease progression, or after initial infection to treat the disease.
Adjuvants
A variety of adjuvants known to one of ordinary skill in the art may be administered in conjunction with the chimeric virus in the immunogen or vaccine composition of this invention. Such adjuvants include, but are not limited to, the following: polymers, co-polymers such as polyoxyethylene-polyoxypropylene copolymers, including block co-polymers, polymer p 1005, Freund's complete adjuvant (for animals), Freund's incomplete adjuvant; sorbitan monooleate, squalene, CRL-8300 adjuvant, alum, QS 21, muramyl dipeptide, CpG oligonucleotide motifs and combinations of CpG oligonucleotide motifs, trehalose, bacterial extracts, including mycobacterial extracts, detoxified endotoxins, membrane lipids, or combinations thereof.
Nucleic Acid Sequences
Nucleic acid sequences of West Nile virus and dengue virus are useful for designing nucleic acid probes and primers for the detection of West Nile virus and dengue virus chimeras in a sample or specimen with high sensitivity and specificity. Probes or primers corresponding to West Nile virus and dengue virus can be used to detect the presence of a vaccine virus. The nucleic acid and corresponding amino acid sequences are useful as laboratory tools to study the organisms and diseases and to develop therapies and treatments for the diseases.
Nucleic acid probes and primers selectively hybridize with nucleic acid molecules encoding West Nile virus and dengue virus or complementary sequences thereof. By “selective” or “selectively” is meant a sequence which does not hybridize with other nucleic acids to prevent adequate detection of the West Nile virus sequence and dengue virus sequence. Therefore, in the design of hybridizing nucleic acids, selectivity will depend upon the other components present in the sample. The hybridizing nucleic acid should have at least 70% complementarity with the segment of the nucleic acid to which it hybridizes. As used herein to describe nucleic acids, the term “selectively hybridizes” excludes the occasional randomly hybridizing nucleic acids, and thus has the same meaning as “specifically hybridizing.” The selectively hybridizing nucleic acid probes and primers of this invention can have at least 70%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, 97%, 98% and 99% complementarity with the segment of the sequence to which it hybridizes, preferably 85% or more.
The present invention also contemplates sequences, probes and primers that selectively hybridize to the encoding nucleic acid or the complementary, or opposite, strand of the nucleic acid. Specific hybridization with nucleic acid can occur with minor modifications or substitutions in the nucleic acid, so long as functional species-species hybridization capability is maintained. By “probe” or “primer” is meant nucleic acid sequences that can be used as probes or primers for selective hybridization with complementary nucleic acid sequences for their detection or amplification, which probes or primers can vary in length from about 5 to 100 nucleotides, or preferably from about 10 to 50 nucleotides, or most preferably about 18-24 nucleotides. Isolated nucleic acids are provided herein that selectively hybridize with the species-specific nucleic acids under stringent conditions and should have at least five nucleotides complementary to the sequence of interest as described in Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd ed., Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y., 1989.
If used as primers, the composition preferably includes at least two nucleic acid molecules which hybridize to different regions of the target molecule so as to amplify a desired region. Depending on the length of the probe or primer, the target region can range between 70% complementary bases and full complementarity and still hybridize under stringent conditions. For example, for the purpose of detecting the presence of West Nile virus and dengue virus, the degree of complementarity between the hybridizing nucleic acid (probe or primer) and the sequence to which it hybridizes is at least enough to distinguish hybridization with a nucleic acid from other organisms.
The nucleic acid sequences encoding West Nile virus and dengue virus can be inserted into a vector, such as a plasmid, and recombinantly expressed in a living organism to produce recombinant West Nile virus and dengue virus peptide and/or polypeptides.
The nucleic acid sequences of the invention include a diagnostic probe that serves to report the detection of a cDNA amplicon amplified from the viral genomic RNA template by using a reverse-transcription/polymerase chain reaction (RT-PCR), as well as forward and reverse amplimers that are designed to amplify the cDNA amplicon. In certain instances, one of the amplimers is designed to contain a vaccine virus-specific mutation at the 3′-terminal end of the amplimer, which effectively makes the test even more specific for the vaccine strain because extension of the primer at the target site, and consequently amplification, will occur only if the viral RNA template contains that specific mutation.
Automated PCR-based nucleic acid sequence detection systems have been recently developed. TaqMan assay (Applied Biosystems) is widely used. A more recently developed strategy for diagnostic genetic testing makes use of molecular beacons (Tyagi and Kramer 1996 Nature Biotechnology 14:303-308). Molecular beacon assays employ quencher and reporter dyes that differ from those used in the TaqMan assay. These and other detection systems may used by one skilled in the art.
A candidate live attenuated vaccine strain was constructed for West Nile virus (WN), a neurotropic flavivirus that has recently emerged in the U.S. Considerable attenuation for mice was achieved by chimerization with dengue virus type 4 (DEN4). The genes for the structural premembrane (prM) and envelope (E) proteins of DEN4 present in a full-length infectious cDNA clone were replaced by the corresponding genes of WN strain NY99. Two of 18 full-length cDNA clones of a WN/DEN4 chimera yielded full-length RNA transcripts that were infectious when transfected into susceptible cells. The two infectious clones shared a motif in the transmembrane signal domain located immediately downstream of the NS2B-NS3 protease cleavage site that separates the DEN4 capsid protein and the WN premembrane protein of the chimera. This motif, Asp and Thr at a position 3 and 6 amino acids downstream of the cleavage site, respectively, was not present in the 16 non-infectious cDNA clones. The WN/DEN4 chimera was highly attenuated in mice compared to its WN parent; the chimera was at least 28,500 times less neurovirulent in suckling mice inoculated intracerebrally and at least 10,000 times less virulent in adult mice inoculated intraperitoneally. Nonetheless, the WN/DEN4 chimera and a deletion mutant derived from it, were immunogenic and provided complete protection against lethal WN challenge. These observations provide the basis for pursuing the development of a live attenuated WN vaccine.
Recent advances in recombinant DNA technology have allowed us to develop a novel approach for constructing live attenuated flavivirus vaccines (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA. 95:1746-1751; Pletnev, A. G. et al. 2000 Virology 274:26-31; Pletnev, A. G. et al. 2001 J Virol 75:8259-8267). Our approach was made possible by the conservation among flaviviruses of genome organization, number of viral proteins, replicative strategy, gene expression, virion structure and morphogenesis (Lindenbach, B. D. & Rice, C. M. 2001 in: Fields Virology, eds. Knipe, D. M. & Howley, P. M. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 4-th ed., pp. 1043-1125). All flaviviruses have a positive sense non-segmented RNA genome that encodes a single long polyprotein that is processed to yield capsid (C), premembrane (prM) and envelope glycoprotein (E) structural proteins followed by nonstructural proteins NS1, NS2A, NS2B, NS3, NS4A, NS4B, and NS5 in that order. These shared properties suggested that viable chimeric viruses could be produced by replacing the genes for the viral structural proteins in a full-length infectious cDNA clone of a flavivirus with the corresponding viral genes (in cDNA form) of another flavivirus. When tested, this strategy was successful for chimeras that contained the sequence for viral structural proteins prM and E of tick-borne encephalitis virus (TBEV) or tick-borne Langat virus (LGT), while all other sequences were derived from the full-length infectious cDNA of mosquito-borne dengue type 4 virus (DEN4). This indicated that viral structural proteins of a disparate flavivirus, TBEV or LGT, could function in the context of cis-acting 5′ and 3′ sequences and nonstructural proteins of DEN4. Significantly, both chimeras proved to be highly attenuated in mice with respect to peripheral virulence, namely, the ability of a virus to spread to the CNS from a peripheral site of inoculation and cause encephalitis. Nonetheless, the chimeras proved to be immunogenic and able to induce resistance in mice against challenge with TBEV or LGT (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA 95:1746-1751; Pletnev, A. G. et al. 2000 Virology 274:26-31). It appeared that a favorable balance between reduction in virus replication in vivo (attenuation) and induction of protective immunity had been achieved. We interpret this to mean that tick-borne flavivirus prM and E can interact in the context of DEN4 nonstructural proteins and cis-acting 5′ and 3′ sequences at a level sufficient for infectivity and induction of immunity but not sufficient for full expression of virulence that requires a high level of replication in vivo and ability to spread into the CNS.
Although a logical extension of this strategy was to construct WN/DEN4 chimeras, we realized that viability could not be predicted in advance because some flavivirus combinations such as some Langat virus (prM and E)/dengue virus chimeras, as well as dengue virus (prM and E)/Langat dengue virus chimeras, have not proven to be viable. Nevertheless, we were surprisingly successful in constructing viable WN/DEN4 chimeras in which the structural prM and E protein genes of the distantly related mosquito-borne WN were substituted for the corresponding genes of DEN4. We also generated a WN/DEN4 chimera with a 30 nucleotide deletion in the 3′ untranslated region (3′ UTR) that had previously been shown to render DEN4 safe but still immunogenic in adult volunteers (Durbin, A. P. et al. 2001 Am J Trop Med Hyg 65:405-413). Studies in mice were first performed to evaluate neurovirulence, peripheral virulence, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of the newly constructed WN/DEN4 chimeric viruses.
Materials and Methods.
Cells and Viruses
Simian Vero cells (WHO seed passage 143) and mosquito C6/36 cells were obtained from Dr. L. Potash (Novavax Inc., Rockville, Md.). These Vero cells are qualified for use in production of candidate human vaccines. Simian LLCMK2 cells were purchased from the American Type Culture Collection (Manassas, Va.). Starting with West Nile virus, the WN wild-type strain NY99-35262 used in this study was kindly provided by Dr. R. Lanciotti (Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, Fort Collins, Colo.). It was originally isolated from a Chilean flamingo at the Bronx Zoo (New York) in 1999 (Lanciotti, R. S. et al. 1999 Science 286:2333-2337). The sequence of WN NY99 genome is available as GenBank accession number AF196835, per Table 1, and other strains of WN may substitute for the sequence of WN NY99 genome. A virus suspension prepared in Vero cells had a titer of 2.6×107 focus-forming units per milliliter (FFU/ml) as determined with Vero cells using an immunostaining focus-forming assay (Pletnev, A. G. 2001 Virology 282:288-300) and WN-specific mouse antibodies. Turning to dengue virus, wild-type DEN4 Caribbean strain 814669 (GenBank accession number AF326573) was used, which replicated in Vero cells with a titer of 1.1×108 FFU/ml. The sequence of recombinant DEN4 genome is available as GenBank accession number AF326825, per Table 1, and other strains of DEN4 may substitute for the sequence of DEN4 genome. The sequence of DEN1 genome is available as GenBank accession number U88536, the sequence of DEN2 genome is available as GenBank accession number M19197, and the sequence of DEN3 genome is available as GenBank accession number M93130, and any of these sequences may substitute for the sequence of DEN4 genome.
Chimeric WN/DEN4 cDNA and Recovery of Infectious Virus.
Plasmid p2A(XhoI) (Bray, M. & Lai, C.-J. 1991 PNAS USA 88:10342-10346) containing the DEN4 full-length infectious cDNA, previously employed for recovery of chimeric TBEV/DEN4 and LGT/DEN4 viruses (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS. USA 95:1746-1751), was used for construction of WN/DEN4 cDNA. This was achieved by substituting cDNA of the WN prM and E protein genes for those of the corresponding DEN4 genes (
Prior experience with construction and analysis of tick-borne/DEN4 chimeras indicated that we could not predict a priori the sequence of the DEN4 C protein/tick-borne flavivirus prM protein junction required for viability (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS. USA 95:1746-1751). For this reason, we adopted an empirical approach and tested several different C/prM junction sequences (
Plasmid DNA containing full-length WN/DEN4 cDNA was linearized with Asp718. In vitro RNA synthesis and transfection of cells with its RNA transcripts were performed as described previously (Pletnev, A. G. 2001 Virology 282:288-300). Briefly, RNA transcripts of full-length WN/DEN4 constructs listed in
To introduce a deletion into the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of WN/DEN4 genome, the DNA fragment between the XhoI site (nt 2345 of DEN4 genome; GenBank accession number AF326827) and the Asp718 site at the 3′ end of plasmid WN/DEN4-18 DNA was replaced by the corresponding XhoI-Asp718-fragment derived from full-length cDNA of a DEN4 mutant, clone p4Δ30 (Durbin et al. 2001 Am. J Trop Med. Hyg 65:405-413). This mutant had 30 nts deleted from the 3′ untranslated region (UTR) of the genome between nts 10478-10507. Full-length RNA generated by SP6 polymerase from 10 different plasmids was tested for infectivity by transfection of simian Vero cells. Two individual WN/DEN4-3′A30 cDNA clones were infectious. The rescued deletion mutants, WN/DEN4-3′A30 clone 1 and 78, were purified twice by terminal end-point dilution and amplified in Vero cells to a titer of 1.4×104 and 6×104 FFU/ml, respectively. Viral RNA was isolated, and complete sequence of the 3′ deletion mutant genome was determined (Table 1).
Evaluation of Parental and Chimeric Viruses in Mice
Neurovirulence of Vero cell culture-propagated parental WN (strain NY99), parental DEN4 (strain 814669), chimeric WN/DEN4 (clone 18) and its deletion mutant (clone 1) was evaluated in a BSL-3 facility. Three-day-old Swiss Webster mice (Taconic Farms) in groups of 9 to 12 were inoculated by the intracerebral (IC) route with decimal dilutions ranging from 0.1 to 105 FFU of virus in 0.03 ml of MEM/0.25% human serum albumin. Mice were observed for 21 days for development of fatal encephalitis. The 50% lethal dose (LD50) of each virus was determined by the method of Reed and Muench (Reed, L. J. & Muench, H. 1938 Am. J Hyg 27:493-497). Parental and chimeric viruses were also analyzed for peripheral virulence by intraperitoneal (IP) inoculation of 3-week-old Swiss female mice in groups of 10. Mice were inoculated with decimal dilutions of virus ranging from 0.1 to 105 FFU and observed for 28 days for fatal encephalitis. Moribund mice were humanely euthanized.
Mice that survived IP inoculation were bled on day 28 to evaluate the WN-specific neutralizing antibody response. Serum from mice in each group was pooled and the WN virus-neutralizing antibody titer of the serum pool was determined by FFU reduction assay in Vero cells as described previously (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 2001 J Virol 75:8259-8267; Pletnev, A. G. 2001 Virology 282:288-300). Briefly, a 1:10 dilution of pooled sera was prepared in MEM containing 2% fetal bovine serum (FBS) and then heat inactivated for 30 min at 56° C. Serial twofold dilutions of inactivated pooled sera were mixed with an equal volume of a virus suspension containing approximately 50 FFU of WN. The mixture was incubated for 30 min at 37° C., and 0.4 ml was then added to duplicate wells of Vero cells in a 6-well plate. After 1 h of absorption at 37° C., the inoculum was removed and cells were overlaid with MEM containing 2% FBS, 50 μg/ml gentamycin, 0.25 μg/ml fungizone, and 1% tragacanth gum. Antibody titer was determined after 2 days of incubation by an immunostaining focus-forming assay (Pletnev, A. G. 2001 Virology 282:288-300) that used WN-specific HMAF. Neutralizing antibody titer was the highest dilution of pooled sera that reduced focus formation 50% compared to sera collected from non-immunized mice.
The surviving mice were challenged IP on day 29 with 100 IP LD50 (103 FFU) of parental WN virus and observed for fatal encephalitis for a period of 21 days. Moribund mice were humanely euthanized.
Results.
Construction and Recovery of Chimeric WN/DEN4 Viruses
In total we constructed 18 plasmids that contained full-length chimeric WN/DEN4 cDNA which included the structural prM and E protein genes of the WN strain NY99 with all other sequences derived from DEN4 (
Following our success in constructing full-length infectious WN/DEN4 cDNAs, we constructed chimeric virus mutants with a 30 nucleotide deletion in their 3′ untranslated region (UTR). Two mutants, WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 clone 1 and clone 78, were recovered from transfected Vero cells. The complete sequence of both these clones was analyzed (Table 1). Sequence of clone 78 differed from the sequence of plasmid DNA from which its infectious RNA transcripts were derived. A change of C7141→U produced an amino acid substitution Thr105→Ile in the NS4B protein. The WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 clone 1 also exhibited only one nucleotide difference from the plasmid cDNA sequence. This resulted in the same NS4B amino acid change (Leu112→Ser) that was observed in WN/DEN4 clone 18.
The WN/DEN4 chimera replicated more efficiently in Vero cells than did WN/DEN4-3′A30. The unmodified WN/DEN4 chimera reached a titer of 106 FFU/ml on day 6 in cells infected with a multiplicity of infection of 0.01; this was approximately 10-fold higher than the titer attained by the deletion mutant by day 6. The titer of the unmodified chimera was nearly the same as that attained by parental DEN4 under the same conditions.
Mouse Neurovirulence.
Before evaluating chimeric viruses for virulence in mice, the Vero cell-rescued chimeric WN/DEN4 virus and its 3′ deletion mutant were cloned biologically twice by terminal end-point dilution and then amplified in qualified Vero cells. The titer attained by the Vero cell-adapted WN/DEN4 clone 18 and WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 clone 1 was 1.7×106 FFU/ml and 1.4×105 FFU/ml, respectively.
Both chimeric WN/DEN4 virus and the deletion mutant WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 as well as parental WN strain NY99 and DEN4 strain 814669 viruses were evaluated in 3-day-old Swiss mice for neurovirulence by direct IC inoculation (Table 2). Wild-type WN NY99 grown in Vero cells was highly neurovirulent with an intracerebral LD50 of 0.35 FFU in suckling Swiss mice. Wild-type DEN4 also grown in Vero cells was less neurovirulent with an IC LD50 of 407 FFU. Both WN/DEN4 and WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 chimeric viruses exhibited a significant reduction in neurovirulence compared to their WN and DEN4 parents. All of the mice inoculated IC with 103 FFU of WN/DEN4 or its 3′ deletion mutant survived during a 21 day observation period. At a higher dose of 104 FFU, only 4 of 11 mice inoculated with WN/DEN4 died. Thus, in suckling mice the WN/DEN4 chimera was more than 28,571 times less neurovirulent than its WN parent. The chimera with the 30 nt deletion was also significantly less neurovirulent than its WN parent. These observations are consistent with earlier observations that chimerization of TBEV or LGT with DEN4 significantly reduced their neurovirulence for mice (Pletpev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS. USA 95:1746-1751; Pletnev, A. G., Bray, M. & Lai, C.-J. 1993 J Virol 67:4956-4963).
Peripheral Virulence in Mice
Subsequently, we evaluated the chimeric viruses for peripheral virulence, i.e., the ability of virus inoculated by the IP route to spread from a peripheral site to the central nervous system and cause encephalitis. Both chimeras were highly attenuated compared to their WN parent (Table 2 and 3). Notably, IP inoculation of 104 FFU of the deletion mutant chimera or 105 FFU of the unmodified chimera did not induce fatal encephalitis in any of the 3-week-old Swiss mice, whereas the IP LD50 for the WN parent was 10 FFU.
The chimeras were also evaluated in adult SCID mice because previous studies of tick-borne flaviviruses and their DEN4 chimeras indicated that SCID mice were a more sensitive detector of peripheral virulence than immunocompetent mice. Intraperitoneal inoculation of the maximum quantity of chimera, 105 FFU for WN/DEN4 and 104 FFU for WN/DEN4-3′Δ30, did not produce encephalitis in any instance (Table 2). In contrast, the IP LD50 for parental WN was 6 FFU. These observations confirmed that the ablation of peripheral virulence of the WN chimeras had been achieved.
Immunogenicity and Protective Efficacy of Chimeric Viruses in Mice
The two chimeras were immunogenic; a single IP inoculation of 102 FFU of the WN/DEN4 chimera induced a moderate level of serum WN neutralizing antibodies (1:93), while a 10-fold higher concentration (103 FFU) induced a very high titer of WN neutralizing antibodies (1:1189) (Table 3). Also, 10 FFU of the chimeric WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 deletion mutant stimulated a high level of such antibodies (1:292). Intraperitoneal challenge of the immunized mice on day 29 with 100 IP LD50 (103 FFU) of parental WN indicated that the chimeras provided 90 to 100% protection against this high dose WN challenge (Table 3). There was a good correlation between the titer of serum WN neutralizing antibodies that developed in response to immunization and the degree of resistance induced. All unvaccinated control mice developed signs of CNS disease 7 to 13 days after challenge with 100 IP LD50 of WN and these animals died shortly thereafter. To determine whether there was an age-related resistance of mice to WN, another group of 7-week-old mice also served as controls; they were the same age as immunized mice at time of challenge. This group of older control mice was challenged with one IP LD50, determined in 3-week-old mice. Seven of eight mice died during the 21 day observation period. This indicated that age-dependent resistance of mice to WN was not a factor in the observed protective effect of immunization.
+Comparison of the pDNA for the parental cDNA clones used to derive the chimeric viruses are indicated in Durbin, A. et al. 2001 Am J Trop Med Hyg 65: 405-413
It has been established that some non-human primates are readily infected with a number of flaviviruses by the peripheral route (Simmons et al. 1931 Philipp J Sci 44:1-247; Rosen, 1958 Am J Trop Med Hyg 7:406-410). Thus, infection of monkeys represents the closest experimental system to flavivirus infection of humans. The response of monkeys to flavivirus infection is similar to that of humans in that there is a four to six day viremia, although lower primates do not usually develop clinical flavivirus symptoms. The objectives of flavivirus studies in monkeys are: (1) to evaluate the immunogenicity of various candidate vaccines; (2) to evaluate the infectivity and virulence (attenuation phenotype) of candidate vaccines as measured by the duration of viremia in days and the peak virus titer in FFU/ml; and (3) to evaluate the protective efficacy of the candidate vaccines against challenge by wild-type flavivirus.
1) Inoculation: Each monkey is inoculated with a total of 105 or 106 FFU of virus diluted in L15 medium with SPG (Durbin, A. P. et al. 2001 Am J Trop Med Hyg 65:405-413). Normally, virus is inoculated by the subcutaneous route to anesthetized animals.
2) Blood collection: Following inoculation of virus, blood samples of 3.0 ml are taken daily for two weeks and 5.0 ml at 3 weeks, 4 weeks, 5 weeks, and 6 weeks.
3) Challenge with parental wild-type flavivirus: Where virus challenge is deemed appropriate to evaluate the protective efficacy, monkeys are inoculated with wild-type virus at 105 FFU/dose in a 1.0 ml volume subcutaneously in the upper arm area.
4) Laboratory assays: Serum samples are collected to be used to determine: (a) the duration and level of viremia by direct viral plaque or FFU assay, and (b) the titer of neutralizing antibodies induced as measured by FFU reduction neutralization test, all tests well known to those skilled in the art of vaccine development.
Attenuation, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of the West Nile/DEN4 chimeras were studied in 20 rhesus monkeys (Tables 4 and 5). Eight monkeys were inoculated subcutaneously (SC) with WN/DEN4 (clone 18); 4 animals received 105 FFU, while the other 4 received 106 FFU. Four monkeys were inoculated SC with 105 FFU of WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 (clone 1). A group of 4 monkeys was inoculated SC with parental West Nile virus; 2 animals received 105 FFU, while the other received 106 FFU. Finally, another group of 4 monkeys was inoculated SC with 106 of DEN4 (Table 4).
Each of the monkeys inoculated SC with 105 or 106 FFU of West Nile virus developed a viremia that lasted 5 to 6 days and attained a mean peak titer of 2.6 to 2.8 log10 (FFU/ml) (
Although the WN/DEN chimera and its deletion mutant were significantly attenuated for rhesus monkeys, these hybrid viruses induced a moderate to high level of serum WN neutralizing antibodies in each immunized animal (Table 5). The two chimeras also induced complete resistance to SC challenge with 105 FFU of West Nile virus on day 42 post immunization. Viremia of WN was not detected in any of the 12 monkeys immunized with WN/DEN4 or its deletion mutant. The West Nile challenge virus replicated efficiently in monkeys previously infected with DEN4 virus. This indicates that the high level of protection against WN challenge afforded by infection with WN/DEN4 chimeric viruses is specified by the WN protective antigens in the chimera and not by the DEN4 component of the chimera.
The Δ30 mutation was first described and characterized in the DEN4 virus (Men, R. et al. 1996 J Virol 70:3930-7). In DEN4, the mutation consists of the removal of 30 contiguous nucleotides comprising nucleotides 10478-10507 of the 3′ UTR (
These findings specifically identify two candidate WN live attenuated virus vaccines. The first, WN/DEN4, is about 100-fold attenuated in comparison to WN wild-type virus as indicated by the greatly restricted level of viremia. The second virus, WN/DEN4-3′Δ30, is more attenuated than WN/DEN4 as indicated by the absence of viremia in monkey serum and by the moderately decreased serum neutralizing antibody response. Thus, the methods and viruses taught provide live attenuated WN vaccines of differing levels of attenuation, each of which is highly protective against wild-type WN virus challenge. Similar attenuated WN/DEN chimeric viruses on a DEN1, DEN2, or DEN3 background are envisioned.
We contemplate achieving an increase in the level of attenuation of the candidate vaccine WN/DEN4 or WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 chimera if need be by adding one or more attenuation mutations to the DEN4 component of the chimeras. A large set of mutations that attenuate DEN4 in mice (Blaney, et al. 2001 J Virol 75:9731-9740; Blaney, et al. 2002 Virology 300:125-139; Hanley, et al. 2002 J Virol 76:525-31) has been identified in the part of the DEN4 genome included in the WN/DEN4 chimeric viruses. Members from this set of attenuating mutations can be introduced in the WN/DEN4 chimeric virus to further attenuate these viruses. For example, it might be necessary to further attenuate the WN/DEN4 virus, which possesses some residual neurovirulence as indicated above. The feasibility of this approach to achieve further attenuation is exemplified by introducing a viable mutation that specifies a temperature sensitive phenotype as well as a phenotype of growth restriction in suckling mouse brain into the non-structural protein 3 (NS3) of the DEN4 component of the WN/DEN4 chimera. Mutation 4891 (isoleucine→threonine) had previously been identified at nucleotide 4891 of the NS3 gene of DEN4 (Blaney, et al. 2002 Virology 300:125-139). Mutation 4891 specified two desirable phenotypes, i.e., temperature sensitivity and growth restriction in brain tissue. Similarly, mutation 4995 (serine→proline), also in NS3, specified the same two desirable phenotypes (Blaney, et al. 2001 J Virology 75:9731-9740, 2001). The 4891 and 4995 mutations also increase replication fitness of DEN4 in Vero cells, i.e., they are Vero cell adaptation mutations. The wild type amino acid residue at DEN4 4891 (isoleucine) is conserved in DEN2 Tonga/74 and DEN3 Sleman/78, but not DEN1 West Pacific. The wild type amino acid residue at DEN4 4995 (serine) is conserved in DEN1 West Pacific, DEN2 Tonga/74, but not DEN3 Sleman. One or both of these mutations may also be included in a WN/DEN1, 2, or 3 chimera. Thus, their inclusion in WN/DEN4 virus is contemplated as achieving an increase in replication of the virus in Vero cells or the genetic stability of the mutation during manufacture in Vero cells.
Initially, we demonstrated that although prM and E proteins of distantly related tick-borne and mosquito-borne flaviviruses are highly divergent, these proteins could be interchanged in some instances without loss of virus viability (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA 95:1746-1751). This approach has been used to create new chimeric flaviviruses (Bray, M., Men, R. & Lai, C.-J. 1996 J. Virol. 70:4162-4166; Chambers, T. J. et al. 1999 J Virol 73:3095-3101; Guirakhoo, F. et al. 2000 J Virol 74:5477-5485; Huang, C. Y. et al. 2000 J Virol 74:3020-3028; Van Der Most, R. G. et al. 2000 J Virol 74:8094-8101; Caufour, P. S. et al. 2001 Virus Res 79:1-14).
Previously, we succeeded in constructing and recovering viable tick-borne/DEN4 chimeras (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA 95:1746-1751; Pletnev, A. G., Bray, M. & Lai, C.-J. 1993 J Virol 67:4956-4963). In these instances, the tick-borne flavivirus parent was tick-borne encephalitis virus, a highly virulent virus, or Langat virus, a naturally attenuated tick-borne virus. Thus, the two components of these chimeras had disparate vector hosts, namely ticks and in the case of DEN4, mosquitoes. Decreased efficiency of gene product interactions in the chimeras was thought to be the basis for the marked attenuation exhibited by these hybrid viruses. Nonetheless, although highly attenuated in mice, the TBEV/DEN4 and LGT/DEN4 chimeras were immunogenic and provided considerable protection against their parental tick-borne flavivirus. In the present instance, both virus parents of the WN/DEN4 chimeras are transmitted by mosquitoes. However, vector preference differs, Aedes for DEN4 and Culex for WN (Burke, D. S. & Monath, T. P. 2001 in Fields Virology, eds. Knipe, D. M. & Howley, P. M. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 4-th ed., pp. 1043-1125; Hayes, C. G. 1989 in The Arboviruses: Epidemiology and Ecology, ed. Monath T. P. Boca Raton, F. L.: CRC Press, Volume V, pp. 59-88).
In the present study, we constructed viable WN/DEN4 chimeras that contained a DEN4 genome whose genes for structural prM and E proteins were replaced by the corresponding genes of WN strain NY99. Among flaviviruses, the hydrophobic domain between C and prM (“transmembrane signal domain”) varies in sequence and also varies in length from 14 to 20 amino acids (Stocks, C. E. & Lobigs, M. 1998 J Virol 72:2141-2149). It acts as a signal sequence for translocation of prM protein into the endoplasmic reticulum lumen where post-translation maturation of this protein occurs (Lindenbach, B. D. & Rice, C. M. 2001 in Fields Virology, eds. Knipe, D. M. & Howley, P. M. Lippincott Williams and Wilkins, Philadelphia, 4-th ed., pp. 1043-1125). This signal peptide is flanked at its NH2-terminal region by the viral protease NS2B-NS3 cleavage site and at its COOH-terminal region by a cellular signalase cleavage site. Four different junctions at the protease cleavage site between DEN4 C and WN prM protein were introduced separately in chimeric constructs (
The +3 and +6 Asp and Thr motif at the capsid protein-preM protein cleavage site that was required for viability of the chimera could not be predicted from the sequence of either parent, i.e., DEN4 and West Nile virus, because neither parent had this +3 and +6 motif. Success was achieved by testing a number of disparate sequences at the cleavage site and this led to the identification of the +3 and +6 Asp and Thr motif that was required for viability. For this reason, we advocate an empirical approach that embraces testing several different C/prM junction sequences for identification of other motifs that produce equally viable chimeric virus.
The WN strain NY99 exhibited considerable virulence in Swiss mice; its IC LD50 was 0.35 FFU for suckling mice and its IP LD50 was 10 FFU for 3-week-old Swiss mice (Table 2). Nearly the same level of neurovirulence was observed for a wild-type strain of WN isolated in Israel that was evaluated in CD-1 (ICR) mice: IC LD50 and IP LD50 were estimated to be 1.1 and 4.3 PFU, respectively (Halevy, M. et al. 1994 Arch Virol 137:355-370). In addition, a high degree of genomic similarity (>99.8%) between the WN NY99 and the WN Israel-1998 was recently confirmed by sequence analysis (Lanciotti, R. S. et al. 1999 Science 286:2333-2337) indicating that both highly pathogenic strains of WN, representing North American and Middle Eastern viruses, are closely related. Wild-type DEN4 Caribbean strain 814669 was moderately neurovirulent for suckling mice with an IC LD50 of 407 FFU, and it was approximately 20 times more virulent than its cDNA cloned virus (Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS USA 95:1746-1751). In contrast, the WN/DEN4 chimera and its 3′ deletion mutant were significantly less neurovirulent than their wild-type DEN4 or WN parent. Only at a high dose of 104 FFU did a minority of mice, inoculated IC with WN/DEN4 chimera, die. Also, the WN/DEN4 chimera inoculated IC at this dose caused death of suckling mice later than parental WN virus: 4-5 days post-infection for wild-type WN compared to 9-13 days post-infection for the chimera. Additional methods and procedures are taught that allow further attenuation of the IC virulence of the WN/DEN4 chimeric virus by the introduction of mutations that are known to attenuate DEN4 virus for the brain of mice. In addition, we also contemplate achieving further attenuation of WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 by the incorporation of additional attenuating mutations.
Despite the high peripheral virulence of wild-type WN strain NY99 (IP LD50 of 10 FFU), chimerization of WN with DEN4 completely ablated this property of its WN parent. Thus, 3-week-old Swiss mice survived IP inoculation of 104 or 105 FFU of chimeric virus. Our observations are consistent with earlier findings that a similar large reduction of peripheral neurovirulence of TBEV or LGT occurs following chimerization with DEN4 (Pletnev, A. G. et al. 1992 PNAS USA 89:10532-10536; Pletnev, A. G. & Men, R. 1998 PNAS. USA 95:1746-1751; Pletnev, A. G., Bray, M. & Lai, C.-J. 1993 J Virol 67:4956-4963). Similar observations were made when the WN/DEN4 chimeras were tested in SCID mice for peripheral virulence (Table 2).
Although highly attenuated, the WN/DEN4 chimeras stimulated a moderate to high level of serum neutralizing antibodies against WN NY99 (Table 3). There was a strong correlation between the level of neutralizing antibodies to WN induced by immunization and resistance to subsequent lethal WN challenge. The immune response of mice inoculated with the chimeras was dose-dependent and indicated that the unmodified WN/DEN4 chimera was slightly more immunogenic than the corresponding 3′ deletion mutant. However, 90 to 100% protection against WN challenge was achieved when a single 103 FFU dose of WN/DEN4 chimera or its 3′ deletion mutant was used for immunization. A higher dose (104 FFU) of either chimera provided complete protection to WN challenge. The WN/DEN4 and WN/DEN4-3′Δ30 were also highly attenuated, immunogenic, and protective against WN virus challenge in non-human primates (rhesus monkeys). Thus, the WN prM and E proteins of the chimeric viruses represent effective antigens able to induce complete protection to challenge with highly virulent WN in both mice and monkeys. Our observations concerning safety, immunogenicity, and protective efficacy of the chimeric WN/DEN4 vaccine candidates in mice and monkeys provide a basis for extending our evaluation of the vaccine candidates to humans and to domestic animals, such as horses or birds, which are at high risk. In this way, the use of the WN/DEN4 chimeras as vaccines is envisioned for humans and domestic animals, such as horses or birds.
While the present invention has been described in some detail for purposes of clarity and understanding, one skilled in the art will appreciate that various changes in form and detail can be made without departing from the true scope of the invention. All figures, tables, appendices, patents, patent applications and publications, referred to above, are hereby incorporated by reference.
This application is a divisional of co-pending U.S. application Ser. No. 16/025,624, filed Jul. 2, 2018, which is a continuation of U.S. application Ser. No. 14/305,572, filed Jun. 16, 2014, now U.S. Pat. No. 10,058,602, issued Aug. 28, 2018, which is a divisional of U.S. application Ser. No. 10/871,775, filed Jun. 18, 2004, now U.S. Pat. No. 8,778,671, issued Jul. 15, 2014, which is a continuation and claims the benefit of priority of International Application No. PCT/US03/00594 filed Jan. 9, 2003, designating the United States of America and published in English on Jul. 24, 2003 as WO 03/059384, which claims the benefit of priority of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/347,281 filed Jan. 10, 2002, all of which are hereby expressly incorporated by reference in their entireties. The Sequence Listing is submitted as an ASCII text file in the form of the file named Sequence_Listing.txt, which was created on Jul. 16, 2020, and is ˜117 kilobytes, which is incorporated by reference herein.
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 7094411 | Kinney | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 8778671 | Pletnev et al. | Jul 2014 | B2 |
| 10058602 | Pletnev et al. | Aug 2018 | B2 |
| Number | Date | Country |
|---|---|---|
| WO 9306214 | Apr 1993 | WO |
| WO 0057910 | Oct 2000 | WO |
| Entry |
|---|
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| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20200030435 A1 | Jan 2020 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60347281 | Jan 2002 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10871775 | Jun 2004 | US |
| Child | 14305572 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 16025624 | Jul 2018 | US |
| Child | 16596175 | US | |
| Parent | 14305572 | Jun 2014 | US |
| Child | 16025624 | US | |
| Parent | PCT/US03/00594 | Jan 2003 | US |
| Child | 10871775 | US |
