This invention relates to copper-platinum nanocomposite electrodes, methods of fabricating the electrodes, and use of the electrodes (e.g., for electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate to ammonia).
Ammonia is a major component in most crop fertilizer formulations that are essential to secure global food supply. Despite the benefits of ammonia production, indirect hazardous effects related to ammonia usage causes serious environmental problems related to the anthropogenic disruption of the natural nitrogen cycle. Ammonia leached into ground and surface waters is easily transformed in the environment via biotic and abiotic processes to nitrate. Nitrate pollution in waters is due to anthropogenic activities including but not limited to fertilizer runoff from crops, animal farming, and industrial wastewater.
This disclosure relates to electrocatalytic copper-platinum nanocomposite electrodes on porous (foam) substrates, methods of fabricating the electrodes, and use of the electrodes (e.g., for electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate to ammonia). These Cu—Pt nanocomposite foam electrodes enhance electrochemical reduction of nitrate (ERN) by the introduction of bimetallic catalytic sites. Growth of platinum nanoparticles on the surface of porous copper substrates (e.g., copper foam) alter the electrocatalytic response of electrodes, e.g., by synergistic effects induced by Cu—Pt nanointerfaces that promote hybridized mechanisms of catalytic electrochemical and hydrogenation reduction processes. These bimetallic active catalytic sites present a higher nitrate conversion than monometallic copper electrodes at least in part by overcoming the limiting step related with nitrate to nitrite initial reduction reaction. While the copper surface facilitates the reduction of nitrate to nitrite, the platinum nanoparticles facilitate the conversion of nitrite to ammonia.
In one example, Cu—Pt composite electrodes were synthesized by electrodeposition with different amounts of Pt controlled by time. Platinum nanoparticle growth on the surface of copper foam changed the electrocatalytic response of electrodes, e.g., by the synergistic effects induced by Cu—Pt nanointerfaces that enable hybridized mechanisms of catalytic electrochemical and hydrogenation reduction processes. These new bimetallic active catalytic sites present a higher nitrate conversion by overcoming the limiting step related with nitrate to nitrite initial reduction reaction. While the copper surface promotes the reduction of nitrate to nitrite, platinum nanoparticles facilitate the conversion of nitrite to ammonia.
A copper foam electrode demonstrates 55% nitrate conversion, while Cu—Pt electrodes show higher nitrate conversion. Cu—Pt 180 s presented almost total nitrate conversion (˜94%), k1=4.03×10−4 s−1, 194.4 mg NH3—N L−1 gcat−1, and SNH
In a first general aspect, a nanocomposite electrode includes a porous copper substrate and platinum nanoparticles electrolytically deposited on the porous copper substrate.
Implementation of the first general aspect can include one or more of the following features.
An average size of the platinum nanoparticles is typically in a range of 50 nm to 500 nm. The platinum nanoparticles can include 0.1 wt % to 1 wt % of the nanocomposite electrode. The porous copper substrate can be a copper foam, and the copper foam can have a porosity in a range of about 5 to about 200 pores per inch (ppi). The platinum nanoparticles typically extend from pore surfaces of the porous substrate. The platinum nanoparticles can be bound to the porous substrate. In some cases, a volume of the nanocomposite electrode is at least 0.1 cm2.
In a second general aspect, a method of making a nanocomposite electrode includes contacting a porous copper substrate with a solution comprising platinum, and electrodepositing the platinum on the porous copper substrate to yield the nanocomposite electrode.
Implementations of the second general aspect can include one or more of the following features.
The porous copper substrate can be a copper foam. In some cases, the solution includes a platinum salt and a strong acid. A concentration of the platinum salt in the solution can be in a range of 1 mmolL−1 to 10 mmolL−1. Electrodepositing the platinum on the porous copper substrate can include forming platinum nanoparticles on surfaces of the porous copper substrate. An average size of the platinum nanoparticles is typically in a range of 50 nm to 500 nm. In certain cases, the platinum nanoparticles include 0.1 wt % to 1 wt % of the nanocomposite electrode.
Reducing nitrate to ammonia can include contacting the nanocomposite electrode of the first general aspect with an aqueous solution containing nitrate, and electrocatalytically reducing the nitrate to yield ammonia. In some cases, reducing nitrate to ammonia includes electrocatalytically reducing the nitrate to yield nitrite, and electrocatalytically reducing the nitrite to yield ammonia. Electrocatalytically reducing the nitrate to yield nitrite can be facilitated by copper in a porous copper substrate or platinum in the platinum nanoparticles. Electrocatalytically reducing the nitrate to ammonia typically has a selectivity of at least 80%.
The details of one or more embodiments of the subject matter of this disclosure are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description. Other features, aspects, and advantages of the subject matter will become apparent from the description, the drawings, and the claims.
This disclosure relates to electrocatalytic copper-platinum nanocomposite electrodes on porous (foam) substrates, methods of fabricating the electrodes, and use of the electrodes (e.g., for electrocatalytic reduction of nitrate to ammonia). These Cu—Pt nanocomposite porous electrodes facilitate electrochemical reduction of nitrate (ERN) by the introduction of bimetallic catalytic sites, enhancing activity, selectivity, and stability of the electrode due at least in part to synergistic interactions between the platinum and the copper.
The electrochemical reduction of nitrate (ERN) can selectively reduce nitrate to ammonia (Eq. 1). Sustainable ERN from polluted water sources holds the potential to enable fossil-free ammonia production through N-recycling approaches when operated with renewable energy sources.
NO3−+9H++8e−→NH3+3H2O (1)
The nanocomposite electrodes, due at least in part to the porous structure of the copper foam substrate, have a high specific surface area, allowing a higher catalytic reduction of pollutants. Copper (Cu) foam provides favorable kinetics for the nitrate reduction limiting step (Eq. 2), which is associated with the first charge transfer from nitrate to nitrite. The initial reduction of nitrate towards nitrite is a three-step electrochemical-chemical-electrochemical (ECE) mechanism as described in Eqs. 2-4.
NO3(ads)−+e−→NO3(ads)2−limiting step (2)
NO3(ads)2−+H2O→NO2(ads)•+2OH− (3)
NO2(ads)•+e−→NO2(ads)− (4)
Copper, being a metal with highly occupied d-orbitals and due to the similarity between its energy level and the lowest unoccupied molecular π* orbital of nitrate, enables a fast reduction of nitrate to nitrite. However, copper-based catalysts by themselves may decrease contaminant removal efficiency over time, since they can be deactivated or corroded.
During the ERN in aqueous media, water reduction to stable adsorbed hydrogen (H(ads), Eq. 5) may be a competitive coexisting reaction, being especially relevant on noble metals such as Pt and Pd. However, the stabilization of H(ads) as a strong reductant on certain metallic surfaces can facilitate indirect electrochemical reduction processes. Contribution of hydrogenation mechanisms to ERN cannot be disregarded due to the strong reducing environment created by the presence of H(ads). Consecutive reactions between the formed nitrogen intermediate species and H(ads) potentially lead to ammonia production in catalytic hydrogenation (Eqs. 6-11).
H2O+e−→H(ads)+OH− (5)
NO3(ads)−+2H(ads)→NO2(ads)−+H2O (6)
NO2(ads)−+H(ads)→NO(ads)+OH− (7)
NO(ads)+2H(ads)→N(ads)H2O (8)
N(ads)+H(ads)→NH(ads) (9)
NH(ads)+H(ads)→NH2(ads) (10)
NH2(ads)+H(ads)→NH3(ads) (11)
The nanocomposite electrodes described herein were formed by electrodepositing small loads of Pt (<0.50 wt %) nanoparticles on the surface of a copper foam substrate. Under identical initial pH and nitrate concentration conditions, Cu and Cu—Pt foam electrodes were benchmarked in terms of nitrate conversion figures of merit and product selectivity. Electrical energy per order (EE/O) and the Faradaic efficiency (FE) were calculated to demonstrate the competitiveness of the new synthesized electrodes for ammonia generation and to evaluate the prospective opportunities for the translation of the ERN system to a higher technology readiness level.
Reagent grade acetone, hydrochloric acid, potassium tetrachlroroplatinate, sodium nitrate, sodium nitrite, and ammonia sulfate (>99%) were purchased from Sigma-Aldrich. Analytical-grade sodium sulfate (99%, Sigma-Aldrich) was used as the supporting electrolyte. Copper foam of 99.99% purity with 110 pore per inch supplied by Futt was used as an electrode substrate. All solutions were prepared with ultrapure water with resistivity >18.2 MΩ cm at 25° C. (Millipore Milli-Q system).
The electrodeposition of Pt on Cu material was performed using a potentiostat (PGSTAT302N, Metrohm. USA). A three-electrode system was set up using an Ag/AgCl as the reference electrode, a 5 cm2 stainless-steel plate as auxiliary electrode, and copper foam with a 2.25 cm2 geometrical area as the working electrode. Before use, the copper foam was washed in acetone using ultrasonic bath during 30 min, rinsed with 0.1 mol L−1 HCl, then thoroughly cleaned with ultrapure water and dried at room temperature. The electrodeposition of platinum on copper was conducted using chronoamperometry under continuous cathodic potential of −0.15 V vs Ag/AgCl (3 mol L−1 KCl) for different times 60 s, 120 s, 180 s, and 360 s. The different nano-composite electrodes were identified by the time of electrodeposition as Cu—Pt 60 s, Cu—Pt 120 s, Cu—Pt 180 s, and Cu—Pt 360 s. The electrodeposition bath consisted of a solution of 3 mmol L−1 K2PtCl4 dissolved in 0.5 mol L−1 H2SO4. Electrosynthesized nanocomposite Cu—Pt electrodes were rinsed with ultrapure water and dried at room temperature. Dried Cu-foam electrodes were weighed prior and after electrodeposition.
The morphology difference of Cu foam and Cu—Pt electrodes was characterized by field emission scanning electron microscope (FE-SEM) using an ESEM-FEG XL30 at 10 kV. The FE-SEM microscope was coupled to an energy dispersive X-ray spectroscopy (EDX) for in situ elemental mapping of the Cu—Pt electrodes. Crystallographic composition of the electrodes was evaluated by X-ray diffraction (XRD) using a PANanalytical Aeris Powder by applying Cu Kα1+2 radiation (λ(α1)=0.154060 nm) at 40 kV and 20 mA current. The oxidation states of copper were evaluated by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) was measured by VG 220i-XL with X-Ray source monochromate Al K-alpha with a line width of 0.7 eV.
Electroanalytical characterization of Cu and Cu—Pt electrodes was carried out by cyclic voltammetry (CV) and linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) in a conventional three electrode system. The electrochemical cell employed the foam (with or without Pt electrodeposition) as working electrode, a stainless-steel plate as auxiliary electrode, and an Ag/AgCl as the reference electrode. The volume of Cu foam electrodes was 1.5 cm×1.5 cm×0.2 cm, and all electrochemical measurements were normalized using the electrode geometrical area (cm2). The electrocatalytic response for direct charge transfer ERN was studied by CV at 10 mV s−1 in solutions of 0.1 mol L−1 Na2SO4 as support electrolyte in presence or absence of nitrate ion (10 mmol NaNO3). The solutions were initially purged with N2. Additional voltametric analyses were conducted in presence of nitrite ion (10 mmol NaNO2) allowing reduction peaks identification. The electrochemical active surface (EAS) of the electrodes was evaluated using double layer capacitance in 0.1 mol L−1 Na2SO4.
Electrochemical reduction experiments were conducted galvanostatically at 0.09 A (TENMA 72-2720 DC power supply) in an open, undivided cylindrical glass batch reactor containing 100 mL of non-deaerated 30 mg NO3−—N L−1 solutions with 12.5 mM Na2SO4 (pH=6.27±0.01 and conductivity=3.04±0.05 mS cm−1) at 25° C. This model solution mimics the nitrate concentration (mg L−1 NO3−—N) typically found in a groundwater containing nitrate over maximum concentration levels. The electrochemical set-up was equipped with two parallel electrodes (geometrical area 1.5 cm×1.5 cm) with an interelectrode gap distance of 1.0 cm. The pristine Cu foam or Pt electrodeposited Cu foams were used as cathode, while a commercial Ti/IrO2 (DeNora—USA) was used as anode. Batch reactor experiments were continuously mixed using magnetic stirring at 500 rpm to ensure transport from/towards the electrode surface. Samples were withdrawn over time and analyzed for nitrogenous species (NO3−—N, NO2−—N and NH3—N), conductivity, and pH. Experiments were run in triplicate, and deviations between them were lower than 5% for all trials.
The pH and conductivity were measured using Thermo Scientific Orion Star A221 meters. Nitrate, nitrite, and ammonia were quantified with a HACH DR6000 UV-vis equipment using TNT 835, TNT 839 and TNT 830 HACH kits, respectively. Nitrate conversion was calculated using Eq. (12).
where Cnitrate,i is the nitrate concentration in mg L−1 NO3−—N before treatment, and Cnitrate,t is the nitrate concentration at time (t). A mass balance on aqueous nitrogen species led to the determination of the N-volatile species (N2, NO, NO2 or N2O). N-volatiles may be primarily associated with innocuous N2 evolution.
The selectivity (SNH3) towards ammonia was calculated using Eq. (13)
where Cammonia represents the concentration of ammonia (mg NH3—N L−1), produced over time.
Faradaic efficiency (FE, Eq. (14)) was used as figure of merit that determines system performance from the number of electrons consumed in an electrochemical reaction relative to the expected theoretical conversion ruled by Faraday's law.
where n is the number of electrons required per mol of ammonia, F is the Faraday constant (96 487 C mol−1), Ni, is the mol of ammonia generated during the electrolysis, I is the applied electric current (A), t is the electrolysis time (h), and 3600 is a unit conversion factor (3600 s h−1).
Electrical energy per order (EE/O), was used as an engineering figure of merit to benchmark the electric energy required to reduce NO3−—N concentration by one order of magnitude in a unit volume calculated from Eq. (15) for batch operation mode
where Ecell is the average of the cell potential (V), I is current intensity (A), t is time (h), Vs is solution volume (L), and C0 and Ct are the initial and final concentration after one order of magnitude reduction of nitrate. Considering the relationship log(C0/Ct)=0.4343·t·k1, the EE/O expression can be simplified assuming first-order kinetics according to Eq. (16) where 6.39×10−4 is a conversion factor:
Characterizing Copper Foams Electrodeposited with Platinum Nanoparticles
The electrodeposition of platinum over copper foam induced in-situ growth of nanoparticles that form bimetallic catalytic sites. The XRD analyses were carried out to identify the crystallographic structure of the nano-composite bimetallic electrode.
The oxidation state of copper in Cu foam and Cu—Pt electrode was studied by using XPS. The XPS spectrum of Cu 2p in Cu foam (
The morphology of Cu foam and Cu—Pt electrodes is illustrated at different magnifications (65×, 3500×12000×) by FE-SEM in
Higher deposition times promoted formation of bigger clusters of platinum that can decrease availability of Cu—Pt bimetallic sites given the increase on the surface of homogeneous Pt domains. The elemental composition of the electrodes was obtained by EDS and is summarized in Table 1. The amount of platinum increased with higher depositions from around 6 to 17 wt %, and the small amount of oxygen (1-6 wt %) might correspond to Cu2O and CuO in agreement with the XRD and XPS analyses.
According to the capacitance analysis, EAS values of 0.66, 1.27, 1.59, and 1.84 F g−1 were obtained for Cu, Cu—Pt 60 s, Cu—Pt 120 s, and Cu—Pt 180 s, respectively. This trend shows that with longer electrodeposition times, the EAS increases. Electrochemical analyses of electrodes were recorded using CV in the potential range from −1.0 V to 0 V vs Ag/AgCl at scan rate of 10 mV s−1.
O1: 2Cu0+H2O→Cu2O+2H++2e−E=−0.22 V vs Ag/AgCl (17)
R1: Cu1++1e−→Cu0 E=−0.17 V vs Ag/AgCl (18)
R2: Cu2++2e−→Cu0 E=−0.57 V vs Ag/AgCl (19)
Linear sweep voltammetry (LSV) was conducted to further test the cathodic process taking place at highly negative potentials to elucidate the different reduction processes taking place. Thus, LSV was recorded from 0 V to −2.0 V vs Ag/AgCl at 10 mV s−1 to obtain a wide range of reduction of copper foam (
RNO
RNO
Electrolytic treatment of nitrate solutions was conducted to benchmark the performance of Cu and Cu—Pt nano-enabled foams under comparable conditions.
2H2O+2e−—H2+2OH− (22)
Hydrogen generation can contribute to the reduction process through catalytic hydrogenation mechanisms. Hydrogen gas (H2) follows dissociative adsorption on platinoid metals (i.e., Pt) yielding reactive adsorbed atoms of H(ad) that have high reduction potential. The H(ad) enables an indirect electrochemical reduction mechanism that can enact nitrate reduction kinetics in the following ways. First, neighboring H(ad) close to copper atoms can reduce oxidized metal (i.e., Cu2O, and CuO) to Cu0 following a hydrogen spill-over reaction. This reaction regenerates the copper catalytic center enabling faster nitrate reduction, as can be deduced from the trends of
Electrogeneration of ammonia (
According to
Another engineering figure of merit is the electric energy per order (EE/O) which evaluates the energy necessary to decrease the concentration of NO3−—N one order of magnitude (kWh M−3 order−1). According to
To analyze the role of N-species re-oxidation back to nitrate, control experiments were performed using initial solutions of 30 mg L−1 NO2−—N or 30 mg L−1 NH3—N solutions with 12.5 mM Na2SO4.
Although this disclosure contains many specific embodiment details, these should not be construed as limitations on the scope of the subject matter or on the scope of what may be claimed, but rather as descriptions of features that may be specific to particular embodiments. Certain features that are described in this disclosure in the context of separate embodiments can also be implemented, in combination, in a single embodiment. Conversely, various features that are described in the context of a single embodiment can also be implemented in multiple embodiments, separately, or in any suitable sub-combination. Moreover, although previously described features may be described as acting in certain combinations and even initially claimed as such, one or more features from a claimed combination can, in some cases, be excised from the combination, and the claimed combination may be directed to a sub-combination or variation of a sub-combination.
Particular embodiments of the subject matter have been described. Other embodiments, alterations, and permutations of the described embodiments are within the scope of the following claims as will be apparent to those skilled in the art. While operations are depicted in the drawings or claims in a particular order, this should not be understood as requiring that such operations be performed in the particular order shown or in sequential order, or that all illustrated operations be performed (some operations may be considered optional), to achieve desirable results.
Accordingly, the previously described example embodiments do not define or constrain this disclosure. Other changes, substitutions, and alterations are also possible without departing from the spirit and scope of this disclosure.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Patent Application No. 63/245,784 filed on Sep. 17, 2021, which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
This invention was made with government support under 1449500 awarded by the National Science Foundation. The government has certain rights in the invention.
Number | Date | Country | |
---|---|---|---|
63245784 | Sep 2021 | US |