Patent Application
20130020661
The invention relates to a detector, method for manufacturing said detector, and imaging apparatus. In particular, but not exclusively, the invention relates to a neutron detector, neutron reactive material in connection with the neutron detector and neutron imaging apparatus.
Different kinds of detectors are known for detecting, tracking, and/or identifying ionizing radiation and high-energy particles, such as particles produced by nuclear decay, cosmic radiation, or reactions in a particle accelerator. Some examples of ionizing radiation types and particles producing ionizing radiation via collisions with other particles are: Alpha particles (helium nuclei), beta particles (electrons), neutrons, gamma rays (high frequency electromagnetic waves, X-rays, are generally identical to gamma rays except for their place of origin), and charged hadrons, as an example. Neutrons are not themselves ionizing but their collisions with nuclei lead to the ejection of other charged particles that do cause ionization.
There are dedicated detectors for different type of radiation and particles. To detect radiation, the interaction process with matter is utilized where the interacting medium converts the invisible radiation to detectable signals. If the radiation consists of charged particles, such as alphas, electrons or positrons, the electromagnetic interaction create charges which can be collected and detected. It can also initiate further processes, which can give rise to detectable or registable signals in the detector medium. The radiation or particle (such as neutrons) has to interact with matter and transfer its energy to charged particles (e.g. electrons). For example the electrically neutral gamma radiation interacts with matter with electromagnetic processes and transfer part or all its energy to charge carriers. For the registration of thermal neutrons, neutron capture is needed that results e.g. in a charged particle (such as an alpha particle).
All detectors use the fact that the radiation interacts with matter, mostly via ionization. The detector converts deposited energy of the ionizing radiation to registered signals, usually electric signals. The interaction with the radiation takes place in an interacting medium and creates charges that are collected and detected. A very typical detector nowadays is a semiconductor detector that uses a semiconductor (usually silicon or germanium) to detect traversing charged particles or the absorption of photons. In the semiconductor detectors radiation is measured by means of the number of charge carriers set free in the detector, which is arranged between two electrodes. The number of the free electrons and the holes (electron-hole pairs) produced by the ionizing radiation is proportional to the energy transmitted by the radiation to the semiconductor. As a result, a number of electrons are transferred from the valence band to the conduction band, and an equal number of holes are created in the valence band. Under the influence of an electric field, the electrons and the holes travel to the electrodes, where they result in a pulse that can be measured in an outer circuit. The holes travel into the opposite direction than the electrons and both can be measured. As the amount of energy required to create an electron-hole pair is known, and is independent of the energy of the incident radiation, measuring the number of electron-hole pairs allows the energy of the incident radiation to be measured.
The semiconductor detectors are based on a wafer, which is a thin slice of semiconducting material, such as a silicon crystal, upon which e.g. microcircuits are constructed by doping (for example, diffusion or ion implantation), chemical etching, and deposition of various materials. Most silicon particle detectors work, in principle, by diode structure on silicon, which are then reverse biased. A diode is a component that restricts the directional flow of charge carriers. Essentially, a diode allows an electric current to flow in one direction, but blocks it in the opposite direction. As charged particles pass through these diode structures on, they cause small ionization currents which can be detected and measured. Arranging thousands of these detectors around a collision point in a particle accelerator can give an accurate picture of what paths particles take.
An example of a silicon detector for detecting high-intensity radiation or particles is illustrated by WO 2009/071587, where the detector comprises a silicon wafer having an entrance opening etched through a low-resistivity volume of silicon, a sensitive volume of high-resistivity silicon for converting the radiation particles into detectable charges, and a passivation layer between the low and high-resistivity silicon layers. The detector further comprises electrodes built in the form of vertical channels for collecting the charges, wherein the channels are etched into the sensitive volume, and read-out electronics for generating signals from the collected charges. The detector is constructed to take in the radiation or particles to be detected directly through the passivation layer and in that the thickness of the sensitive layer having been selected as a function of the mean free path of the particles to be detected.
The detector of WO 2009/071587 is manufactured by using a semiconductor-on-insulator (SOI) wafer, which comprises two outmost layer of n-type silicon and an intermediate layer of silicon dioxide. The manufacturing method is mainly characterized by the steps of selecting the thickness of one the silicon layer to be the sensitive layer at the front surface as a function of the mean free path of the particles to be detected, growing or depositing an insulation layer on both surfaces of the wafer by leaving open a window, etching holes into the layer to constitute the sensitive layer to reach the silicon oxide layer, doping the holes to create electrodes, depositing and patterning a metal layer at the front surface of the wafer and routing the metal layer to read-out electronic, and forming a window in the back surface of the wafer to reach the silicon oxide layer.
The detector of WO 2009/071587 can be used e.g. for detecting high-intensity radiation particles by having radiation or particles entering through the entrance window into the detector, ionizing the neutral atoms within the sensitive volume of high-resistivity silicon, applying a voltage between electrodes etched into the sensitive volume, and detecting the signals caused as a result of the contact with the electrodes by means of read-out electronics. The detector can also have a polyethylene moderator at the entrance window for detection of neutrons.
Also some other neutron detectors are known from prior art, such as a detector of WO 2007/030156 A2, where semiconductor-based elements as an electrical signal generation media are utilized for the detection of neutrons. Such elements can be synthesized and used in the form of, for example, semiconductor dots, wires or pillars on or in a semiconductor substrate embedded with matrixes of high cross-section neutron converter materials that can emit charged particles as reaction products upon interaction with neutrons. These charged particles in turn can generate electron-hole pairs and thus detectable electrical current and voltage in the semiconductor elements.
Especially WO 2007/030156 A2 discloses an apparatus for detecting neutrons, comprising: a substrate capable of producing electron-hole pairs upon interaction with one or more reaction-produced particles; a plurality of embedded converter materials extending into said substrate from only a single predetermined surface of said substrate, wherein said embedded converter materials are configured to release said reaction-produced particles upon interaction with one or more received neutrons to be detected, and wherein said embedded converter materials are adapted to have at least one dimension that is less than about a mean free path of said one or more reaction-produced particles to efficiently result in creating said electron-hole pairs; and at least one pair of non-embedded electrodes coupled to predetermined surfaces of said substrate, wherein each electrode of said at least one pair of electrodes comprises a substantially linear arrangement, and wherein signals from resulting electron-hole pairs as received from a predetermined said at least one pair of electrodes are indicative of said received neutrons. The pillars are individually coupled to signal collection electronics so as to indicate the direction of said received neutrons.
In addition WO 2004/040332 discloses neutron detector, which utilizes a semiconductor wafer with a matrix of spaced cavities filled with one or more types of neutron reactive material such as 10B or 6LiF for releasing radiation reaction products in relation to the interactions with neutrons. The cavities are etched into both the front and back surfaces of the device such that the cavities from one side surround the cavities from the other side. The cavities may be etched via holes or etched slots or trenches. In another embodiment, the cavities are different-sized and the smaller cavities extend into the wafer from the lower surfaces of the larger cavities. In a third embodiment, multiple layers of different neutron-responsive material are formed on one or more sides of the wafer. The new devices operate at room temperature, are compact, rugged, and reliable in design.
There are however some problems related to the known solutions, namely only minimal portion of the reaction products generated by the interaction between the neutrons and neutron reactive material will cause any interaction with the semiconductor. At least partly this is because the directions of the travelling reaction products are arbitrary.
In addition, since most of the neutron sources or reactions are accompanied by a gamma or X-ray background and because the neutral gamma or X-ray radiation interacts with the semiconductor matter of the detectors, the gamma or X-ray background will disturb the accurate measuring, which is an undesired effect especially in connection with neutron imaging apparatuses.
An object of the invention is to alleviate the drawbacks related to the known detectors. Especially an aim of the invention is to provide a detector, which enables effective detection of the generated neutron reactive products and thus also provides an effective neutron detector. An additional goal of an embodiment of the invention is to provide a detector, which is in addition sensitive for detecting neutrons but at the same time “transparent” for the background gammas and/or X-rays. In addition an object of the invention is to provide a detector with fast charge collection and with excellent radiation hardness.
An embodiment of the invention relates to a detector according to claim 1, another embodiment relates to a neutron detecting device according to claim 19, a further embodiment relates to an arrangement according to claim 20, a yet further embodiment relates to an neutron imaging apparatus according to claim 23 and a still yet further embodiment relates to an method of manufacturing the detector according to claim 24.
According to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment of the invention the detector comprises a neutron reactive material functioning as a neutron sensitive converter adapted to interact with neutrons to be detected and release ionizing radiation reaction products or recoil nucleus in relation to said interactions with neutrons, such as 7Li, 3H, 155Gd, 158Gd, 114Cd, proton, alpha particle, triton particles, fission fragments, electrons of internal conversion and/or gamma photons depending of the neutron reactive material used in the detector.
In addition the detector, possibly advantageously, comprises first semiconductor element being coupled with said neutron reactive material and adapted to interact with said ionizing radiation reaction products and provide electrical charges (electron-hole pairs) proportional to the energy of said ionizing radiation reaction products. The first semiconductor element is, possibly advantageously, silicon wafer, but also other semiconducting material can be used, such as e.g. gallium arsenide (GaAs) or cadmium telluride (CdTe).
The detector also comprises electrodes, which are arranged in connection with said first semiconductor element for providing charge collecting areas and for collecting the electrical charges generated by the ionizing radiation reaction products upon interacting with said first semiconductor. The detector also comprises read-out electronics electrically connected with said electrodes to provide electrically readable signal proportional to said collected electrical charges.
According to the embodiment the neutron reactive material is arranged in the detector essentially on the same side of the first semiconducting element than the electrodes so that the ionizing radiation reaction products, possibly advantageously, generate the electrical charges in the portion of said first semiconductor element, where the portion is, possibly advantageously, in the proximity or around the charge collecting areas provided by the electrodes in or on said first semiconductor element. According to an embodiment the neutron reactive material may be arranged in the detector so that the incident neutrons to be detected interact with the neutron reactive material essentially in the portion nearest to said charge collecting areas provided by the electrodes in or on said first semiconductor element to which said neutron reactive material is connected or coupled with. Possibly, advantageously the neutron reactive material is arranged so that the surface area of the neutron converter is maximized. The embodiment offers clear advantage, namely increased portion of the electrical charges (electron-hole pairs) generated by the reaction products in the first semiconductor can be caught by the electrodes.
According to a,possibly advantageous, embodiment the neutron reactive material is arranged at least partially between the electrodes of the first semiconductor.
According to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment the thickness of the first semiconductor element is, possibly advantageously, adapted to be electrically (depletion layer) and/or physically so thin that it is essentially and practically transparent for incident photons, such as background gamma photons. According to an illustrative embodiment said thickness of said first semiconductor element is about 10 μm. According to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment of the invention the thickness of said first semiconductor element is between 10-30 μm.
The thinness of the first semiconductor element can be achieved e.g. either by physically removing the semiconductor material (mechanically back thinning) or by appropriately doping the semiconductor so as to create only a thin active layer or i.e. electronically by arranging the electrodes to collect charges within a certain depth only (in the back side).
The ultra thin detector may offer additional advantages over the known detectors, because when the thickness of the first semiconducting layer is at the range of 10-30 μm, the incoming photons, such as background gammas or X-rays do not essentially interact with the semiconducting layer. For example, when the thickness of the semiconducting layer is about 10 μm, much less than 0.1% of background gammas will interact with it, which is clearly negligible. Thus a thin layer of e.g. silicon or equivalently a thin charge collection region within a silicon detector represents negligible conversion probability for incoming photons. For soft X-rays the conversion probability is highest, but still remains below fractions of a percent for an effective Si-detector thickness of 10 micrometers. The ultra thin detector (especially ultra thin first semiconductor and converter material) enables e.g. imaging, because of the transparency for gamma and X-ray photons. In addition, when the detector is ultra thin the charge carriers produced can be effectively caught by charge collecting areas, such as electrodes.
The neutron reactive material forms, possibly advantageously, a neutron sensitive converter. According to an embodiment also the thickness of the neutron sensitive converter may be adapted to be physically so thin that it is essentially and practically transparent for incident photons, such as background gamma photons. According to an illustrative embodiment the thickness of the neutron sensitive converter is 10-30 μm at maximum. The thinness of the neutron sensitive converter can be achieved by the manufacturing method, wherein the neutron reactive material is arranged on and/or inside the first semiconductor element by applying a surface deposition method, such as laser ablation, atomic layer deposition (ALD), photolithography or sputtering technique.
According to an embodiment the neutron reactive material may be introduced on the surface of the semiconductor element as a neutron sensitive converter layer. However, according to another embodiment also other forms can be applied. For example, the first semiconductor element may be provided additionally with pores, like pillars, channels, grooves and/or other cavities, which are then filled with the neutron reactive material. According to an embodiment the neutron reactive material may also be ion-implanted inside the structure of said first semiconductor and, possibly advantageously, in the surface layer in the proximity to the charge collecting areas so that the release ionizing radiation reaction products can effectively reach the first semiconductor and that the generated electron-hole pairs can be effectively caught by said charge collecting areas.
According to an embodiment the neutron reactive material is arranged in the detector so that the incident neutrons to be detected penetrate at least one portion of the first semiconductor element first before reaching the neutron reactive material. This may have an advantage that the thickness of the converting material is not so accurate, since the incident neutrons follow the exponential attenuation law when interacting with the converting material as is demonstrated elsewhere in this document.
According to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment the neutron reactive material may be arranged also between the first semiconductor element and the read-out electronics coupled with said first semiconductor element. In addition the neutron reactive material may be applied also on the surface of said first semiconductor element and/or on the surface of said read-out electronics. In addition according to an embodiment the neutron reactive material may be adapted to form a neutron sensitive converter, which has at least one surface the shape of which is complex, convoluted or rugged, such as sawtooth-like. Furthermore according to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment neutron reactive material may be arranged as clusters on and/or in the surface of the first semiconductor element, between the read-out electronics and the first semiconductor element, and/or on the surface of the first semiconductor element. This can be achieved for example by the laser ablation illustrated elsewhere in this document.
The above embodiments, where the neutron reactive material is applied in different places and has complex, convoluted or rugged shapes in the detector maximize the surface area of the neutron reactive material in the detector so that more neutrons will interact with the neutron reactive material. This may offer clear advantages, such as increases the efficiency for converting incident neutrons to reaction products. In addition neutrons may also interact with the neutron reactive material near the read-out electronics, the first semiconductor element and especially the charge collecting areas (electrodes) which makes the detector very effective for detecting neutrons. In addition the distances for the generated reaction products from the origin to the semiconductor and electrodes can be effectively minimized which further improve the effectiveness of the detector.
According to an embodiment of the invention the detector may also comprise in addition a second semiconductor element, which is typically much thicker than the first semiconductor element coupled with the neutron reactive material. According to an example the second semiconductor element is several hundred times thicker than the first one, possibly advantageously several millimeters, and according to an example of the order of 5 mm. The second semiconductor element is, possibly advantageously, so thick that it is sensitive for the gamma photons generated by the neutrons when interacting with the neutron reactive material. In addition the second semiconductor element is adapted to provide electrical charges (electron-hole pairs) proportional to the energy of said gamma photons. According to an embodiment the second semiconductor element may be used e.g. to determine the kinematic of the detected neutrons, such as e.g. a path of the gamma photon generated by the neutron in the neutron reactive material or reaction place of the neutron in the neutron reactive material, as well as also energy of the incident neutron. Thus, when the kinematic (momentum or energy and direction) of the gamma photon and the energy of the reaction product is determined, the source or origin of said incident neutron can be identified.
According to an embodiment the detector comprises or is coupled with additional coincidence means for providing a time window during which the gamma photons are detected by the second semiconductor element. The starting point of the time window may be triggered by the interaction of the neutron with the neutron reactive material generating said gamma photon, or practically by the electrical signal generated by the electrodes of the first semiconductor element due to detecting generated electron-hole pair as discussed elsewhere in this document. This ensures that the gamma photon, for example, detected by the second semiconducting element is produced by the neutron interacting with the neutron reactive material thus excluding for example undesired background gamma or X-ray photons. Also energy discrimination can be applied to exclude undesired background gamma or X-ray photons the energy of which clearly differs from that of the gamma photons generated by the detected neutrons in the neutron converting material.
It should be noted that the first and/or second semiconductor elements illustrated in the above embodiment can be electrically divided into plurality of areas or pixels, whereupon the accurate location of the neutrons hit the detector or at least the reaction products generated by the neutrons can be determined. The dividing can be achieved e.g. by plurality of electrodes applied in and/or on the semiconducting material so that the electrical charges generated in the semiconductor element is adapted to be collected by the nearest electrode. Thus the location of the generated electrical charge is determined based on the location of the electrode collecting said electrical charge.
The read-out electronics may be implemented e.g. by an ASIC or similar chip, which may be flip-chip bonded with the electrodes of the semiconductor element e.g. via bump bond elements. The read-out electronics are advantageously adapted to detect the charges collected by the electrodes and generate electric signals proportional to the collected charges either sensitive for the location or not. According to an embodiment the read-out electronics may be implemented only for detecting counts (whereupon the electrodes may be short-circuited, because the location information is not needed), but according to another embodiment also for determining dose or even for providing information for neutron imaging, especially when the location information is also provided.
According to an embodiment the first semiconductor element is bump-bonded on read-out electronics via plurality of bump-pad areas and bump-bonding elements, such as bump-balls. The neutron reactive material is, possibly advantageously, arranged between said bump-pad areas, as well as also between the read-out electronics and bump-bonding elements (underfill material). In addition, according to an embodiment the bump-bonding elements may also comprise said neutron reactive material.
Possible nuclei for the neutron converter materials are for example:
The neutron capture cross section: σ=3842 b (0.0253 eV). The natural boron has abundance of 10B 19.8%.
The neutron capture cross section: σ=942 b (0.0253 eV). The natural lithium has abundance of 6Li 7.40%.
The neutron capture cross section: σ=5320 b (0.0253 eV) It is commercially available, but expensive material.
155Gd
155Gd+n→155Gd+γ(0.09, 0.20, 0.30 keV)+conversion electrons
The neutron capture cross section: σ=60791 b (0.0253 eV)
157Gd
157Gd+n→158Gd+γ(0.08, 0.18, 0.28 keV)+conversion electrons
The neutron capture cross section: σ=255011 b (0.0253 eV). Natural gadolinium has abundance of 15.70% of 157Gd, it emits gamma photons. In 39% of captures conversion electrons with energy mainly of 72 keV are emitted (electrons with higher energies are also emitted). The conversion efficiency can reach up to 30%.
113Cd
113Cd+n→114Cd+γ(558 keV)+conversion electrons
The neutron capture cross section: σ=20743 b (0.0253 eV).
Next embodiments of the invention will be described, by way of non-limiting example only in greater detail with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
I Detector Structure—Neutron Converter
The semiconductor detectors (e.g. illustrated in FIGS. 1 and 10-18) are typically adapted for the thermal neutron detection and imaging, and are supplemented with a material (neutron reactive material) which “converts” neutrons into reaction products. The reaction products advantageously transfer its energy to charge carriers, which can be electrically detected directly in the semiconductor detector. Silicon is very commonly used in the detectors but there are besides silicon also other types of semiconductor materials which can be used, such as silicon carbide, germanium, gallium arsenide (GaAs), gallium phosphide, gallium nitride, indium phosphide, cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium zinctelluride (CdZnTe), mercuric iodide, lead iodide, and composite materials based on boron nitride (BN) or lithium fluoride (LiF). A possible advantage is that the neutron converting material can be presented directly in their volume. For example silicon walls of even 10 μm thick or less can detect heavy charged particles which are products of neutron capture e.g. on 6Li or 10B.
The semiconductor neutron (imaging) detectors according to an embodiment of the invention can have high spatial resolution, high dynamic range and can suppress gamma and electron background efficiently. Both can be achieved while having high detection efficiency for thermal neutrons.
The semiconductor neutron detectors can be divided into groups determined by how the converter, i.e. the neutron reactive material, is implemented in the detector:
Converter Materials:
Most of the semiconductor detectors are not able to detect neutrons directly. A material which “converts” neutrons into particles detectable by the semiconductor is necessary. Such material is called the “neutron converter” or neutron reactive material. The converter materials which produce e.g. heavy charged particles have two significant advantages. The first advantage is that the heavy charged particles detected in the detector sensitive volume deposit a large amount of energy and therefore create a high signal, which allows an easy discrimination of the background other than neutrons. It is an important feature because most of the neutron sources are accompanied by a gamma background. The, possibly second advantage, applies mainly to neutron imaging detectors. The relatively short range of heavy charged particles in the semiconductor material allows a design of neutron imagers with a higher spatial resolution, since the ranges of the heavy charged particles are short.
One parameter to be noticed when selecting the material is a range of neutron capture products in the matter and the range of conversion electrons and gammas versus a pixel size of the imaging detector. Moreover it should be noticed that the eventually detected electron can be generated by Compton scattering or photo effect at a different place than where the neutron was captured. This will deteriorate the imaging detector spatial resolution as well. These are reasons why the selection of the neutron converter material is important.
The used neutron reactive material may be same or different in different places of the detector and comprises according to an embodiment at least one predetermined converter material comprising: 10B, 6Li, 3He, 155Gd, 157Gd, 113Cd, cadmium telluride (CdTe), cadmium zinc telluride (CdZnTe), or composite materials based on boron nitride (BN) or lithium fluoride (LiF, which is essentially transparent for incident photons, such as gammas). Typically the neutron reactive material is selected so that it's Z-number is as high as possible.
However, the planar converter has its limitations. The probability of neutron capture in the converter is increasing with the increasing thickness of the converter layer. On the other hand, with the growing converter thickness the chance that the neutron capture products from the most distant converter levels will reach the detector sensitive volume also decreases. For a particular converter type an optimal converter thickness has to be found. Unfortunately, this limited effective thickness also limits the overall neutron detection efficiency (the detector sensitivity). Important parameters which determine the design of the neutron converter are ranges of neutron capture products in matter.
The range of tritons in silicon crystal is 44.1 μm and the range of alpha particles is 8.6 μm.
The curves in
Neutron Detection Efficiency
Neutrons follow the exponential attenuation law when passing through the material.
The heavy charged particles created close to the outer surface must fly through a thicker layer of the converter to reach the sensitive volume.
Therefore, a chance that such particles will be detected in the sensitive volume is lower. Apparently, this effect becomes even more significant for thick converters (i.e. with a thickness comparable or higher than ranges of charged particles in the matter of converter).
Since the semiconductor materials are in most cases transparent for neutrons it is possible to irradiate the whole detector structure from the backside. Neutrons pass through the semiconductor first and are then captured in the converter. Indeed, a higher number of neutrons are captured closer to the boundary between the semiconductor and the converter. The probability that products of the neutron capture will reach the sensitive volume is higher and the overall detection efficiency is higher. Moreover, the converter thickness does not have to be optimized and can be even thicker than the range of the heavy charged particles.
However, the effect of the back side irradiation is not significant for thin converter layers, which can also be seen from
The neutron detection efficiency depends also as on a function of a pore size and shape, such as whether the shape of pore is square or cylindrical, but also the density of the neutron reactive material. Square (or cylindrical) pores can be relatively easily fabricated and allow a good filling ratio of the detector with a neutron converter.
The detection efficiency typically increases with increasing converter density, such as especially in the case of the LiF filled structure. This is due to the increasing macroscopic cross section for neutron capture. Σ=σ·n, where σ is microscopic neutron capture cross section and n is number of converter nuclei per unit of volume). The range of heavy charged particles remains sufficient to escape the pore even with the increasing density. The situation is opposite in the case of 10B. The highest detection efficiency can be reached with a lower density of the converter. More important is here the effect of the heavy charged particle range extension with the decreasing density. The macroscopic cross section Σ remains sufficiently large with the decreasing density, i.e. the number of converter nuclei per volume unit.
The highest reached detection efficiencies are lower than in the case of square pores. The cylindrical pores do not fill up the volume of the detector as much as the square pores. There is more silicon in between pores and thus this volume is insensitive to neutrons. The ratio of the pore top surface and the surface of surrounding silicon is higher for square pores and therefore the overall efficiency is higher. The cylindrical pores, however, should not be abandoned hence the bigger volume of silicon around pores may allow also better charge collection efficiency.
An illustrative way according to an embodiment of the present invention to provide more efficiency is to introduce a complex, convoluted or rugged, such as e.g. a sawtooth like surface between the neutron converter and the detector sensitive volume (as disclosed in
According to an embodiment the surface between the neutron converter and the detector may be doubled. Contrary to the planar detector case the spectrum now contains events above 2.73 MeV, because both particles (alpha and triton) can be detected simultaneously if the reaction takes place in the region close to the sawtooth tip. Once again the detector can be irradiated from the back side.
According to an embodiment the converter material comprises at least one of the following: 10B, 6Li, 3He, 155Gd, 157Gd, 113Cd or cadmium telluride (CdTe) or composite materials based on boron nitride (BN) or lithium fluoride (LiF), or CdZnTe. According to an embodiment it is desirable that the Z-number of the converter material is as high as possible so that the neutrons would interact efficiently with the converter material producing detectable radiation, such as for example gamma rays, which can be detected by the detector material.
According to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment of the present invention the neutron reactive material is introduced on and/or inside the first semiconductor element or detector, between the first semiconductor element and read-out electronics, on the surface of the read-out electronic and/or even on and/or inside the bump-balls in a new way, namely by applying a laser ablation.
The laser ablation based surface deposition can be divided into four stages:
The manufacturing of the neutron detectors by applying the laser ablation in depositing the conversion layer offers numerous advantages. Basically any material can be used for surface deposition. In addition the low process temperature allows deposition of heat sensitive materials. The laser ablation surface deposition heats also the substrate (semiconducting layer 101) only locally and retains the material properties of the target. Moreover the surface morphology (smoothness or roughness) can be controlled, as well as also the crystallinity of the surface can be controlled from amorphous to microcrystalline. Furthermore the adhesion is superior compared to other PVD (physical vapour deposition) processes. In addition the laser ablation method is applicable also to mass production process, so it suits very well for deposition of the conversion layer overall.
It should be noted that the overall process for manufacturing the neutron detector may be implemented for example applying e.g. lithographic methods, which may comprise e.g. the following steps:
Or alternatively in other order, such as:
According to another embodiment the neutron reactive material may also be coupled on and/or inside the first semiconductor element, between the first semiconductor element and read-out electronics, on the surface of the read-out electronic or on and/or inside the bump-bails by applying another surface deposition method, such as atomic layer deposition (ALD), photolithography or sputtering technique.
The surface deposition methods depicted above (and especially laser ablation method) may have the advantage that the extremely thin detector structures can be made. For example the converter material layer 102 as well as also the first semiconductor detector material layer 101 is, possibly advantageously, about 10 μm, or, possibly more advantageously, 10-30 μm, as is illustrated by
The detectors of
The wafer substrate 113 can alternatively be a high resistivity Si wafer without the conversion layer 102a. If a high resistivity Si wafer is used the thickness of the active region of the first semiconducting element can be made small by tuning the depletion voltage appropriately or by doping a p well (n well if the substrate is p type) around the electrodes 112. The 3D electrodes 112 can alternatively be planar processed 2D electrodes, such as depicted in connection with
According to an embodiment the pixel electrodes can either be shortened together (e.g. by a sputtered metal layer on top of the pixel electrodes) for single channel readout as is depicted in
It should be noted that the detector may comprise an additional detector element 115 (essentially similar than the lower one), where the detector elements are arranged face-to-face to each other and, possibly advantageously, so that the neutron converters 102 of the detector elements are faced to each other. Now the read-out means, such as read-out electronics or even conductive wires, can be applied between the detector elements. The embodiment having two detector elements further enhances neutron conversion efficiency.
According to an embodiment of the invention the converter material to be coupled with the detector material may be planar, such as depicted in
According to an embodiment the converter layer most distant from the detector surface may have a complex shape, such as the sawtooth-like surface. Also the surface coupled with the detector material may have a complex shape, such as the sawtooth-like shape. In addition according to an embodiment of the invention also both surfaces may have a complex shape, like the shape of sawtooth, such as illustrated by
The pores may be manufactured by the known technologies applicable for fabrication of 3D structures (pores) in semiconductor materials. The technologies of pore fabrication are for example reactive ion etching and electrochemical etching. In both cases, the etching may be preceded by a photolithographic step which prepares a mask for the etching. The mask protects areas of surface against the etching and opens top of patterns to be etched. Type of the mask depends on the used technology. It can be a metal for DRIE or SiO2 layer for the electrochemical etching.
In Deep Reactive Ion Etching (DRIE) is a highly anisotropic etch process used in microsystem technology. It is used to create deep and high aspect ratio holes and trenches in silicon and other materials. Structures with aspect ratios 20:1 and more can be produced. DRIE etch rates are 5-10 μm/minute.
Another illustrative method for pore creation is the electrochemical etching (EE), which is a low cost alternative to deep reactive ion etching (DRIE). It allows fabrication of structures such as walls, tubes, pillars and pores. In electrochemical etching the applied electric field may be concentrated e.g. on the inverted pyramid tips (for example when the shape is like sawtooth).
The detector with pixelization, as illustrated in
However, in order to read the collisions and location the detector of
According to another embodiment of the invention the neutron imaging device may also be manufactured using 6-metal 0.25 μm CMOS technology, where the pixel size may be e.g. 55×55 μm2 and the pixel array even 256×256 pixels, for example. The sensitive area may be about 2 cm2. According to an embodiment the readout electronics may offer a possibility to use two discriminators to set an energy window for choosing the measured energy of radiation. Each cell may contain e.g. a 13-bit counter and an 8-bit configuration register which allows masking, test-enabling and 3-bit individual threshold adjust for each discriminator, for example. Using the serial or parallel interface, the readout of the whole matrix containing measured data (clock 100 MHz) may take 9 ms or 266 μs, respectively. The fast readout is predestinating this detector also for applications where a fast frame acquisition is needed. Overall the detector illustrated in
The signal created by the heavy charged particles is typically high enough to set the discriminator threshold in each pixel far above the noise and a possible background. Counts of events in each pixel obey a Poisson distribution with a standard deviation determined only by the number of neutrons reacting in the converter. Therefore, the signal to noise ratio can be improved to an arbitrary level only by an exposition time extension. In the case of thermal neutrons the threshold is high and thus the background is neglectable. The signal to noise ratio is then given only √{square root over (n)}, where n is a number of counts per pixel.
In some neutron conversion reactions gamma rays or X-rays are created. These gammas should not be detected by the first semiconducting element 101 but should escape or penetrate the first semiconducting element 101 and be detected by a separate detector, such as the second semiconducting element 108.
A possible advantage of the neutron detector according to
In addition the using of the detector of
The second semiconducting element 108 also, possibly advantageously, comprises own pixelization 106, and it should be provided by own readout chip (such as shown in
It should be noted that according to a, possibly advantageous, embodiment of the invention the bump-balls 110 used for bump bonding the detector (or semiconducting element) 101 to the read-out electronics comprises also neutron reactive material, which still makes the neutron detection much more effective since the neutrons may also interact with the neutron reactive material inside and/or on the surface of the bump-bonding elements, such as bump-balls 110.
Especially it can be seen from the
In addition the interface module 210, possibly advantageously, comprises EEPROM memory means 212, as well as also other memory means 213 for storing data, user interface means 214 for controlling the operation of the device 200, display means 215 for displaying information, such as total counts and/or dose related to counted neutrons or reactions, and data communication means 216, such as wireless communication means, which may be implemented e.g. by Bluetooth or WLAN, for example. The data communication means 216 may also have serial communication bus, such as USB. In addition the interface module 210, possibly advantageously, comprises a microcontroller 217 for controlling the operations and the data communications between the portions 211-216 of the interface module.
The neutron detectors in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention have many applications. Due to their compact size, low cost, high detection efficiency, low power consumption as well as direct real time conversion of neutron signal they can be used for example to real time monitoring. One possible arrangement 300 utilizing the neutron detectors of one or more embodiments of the invention is illustrated in
The arrangement 300 may, possibly advantageously, comprises plurality of sensor nodes 301 each of them utilizing at least one neutron detector of the invention. The sensor nodes 301 are, possibly advantageously, powered e.g. by batteries, solar cell or other way known by the skilled person, and the data communication 302 of the sensor nodes 301 is, possibly advantageously, implemented in a wireless way, such as utilizing WLAN (802.1 b, g or 6LowPan) or other wireless technology known by the skilled person. Therefore the sensor nodes 301 can be located e.g. geographically in very difficult places. However, it should be noted that sensor nodes 301 can also be mains powered and/or the data communication 302 of the sensor nodes 301 can also be implemented by a wire.
The sensor nodes 301 are, possibly advantageously, in a data communication with a backbone node 303, such as mains powered backbone WLAN MESH nodes utilizing WLAN (802.1 b, g or 6LowPan) or other data communication technology known by the skilled person. In addition the backbone nodes 303 may be in data communication 304 with each other, as well as e.g. via base stations with operators 305 for example in 3G or GPRS network, internet or the like. According to an embodiment also users, databases and application servers 306 may gather measuring data e.g. via LAN, and mobile users 307 e.g. via mobile network, such as 3G or GPRS. In addition according to an embodiment also e.g. administrators may be in data communication with the measuring nodes or even with the detectors in the nodes (such as controlling the operation of them) via data communication network illustrated in
In addition the measuring nodes with the detectors may be arranged for example in vehicles, such as airplanes and especially Unmanned Aerial Vehicle 308, the operation of which can be programmed beforehand but also the operation of which can be controlled via the data communication network illustrated in
The neutron detectors in accordance with one or more embodiments of the invention have also other application areas in addition to safety and monitoring of background radiation, such as security (protection against nuclear terrorism) and imaging, as well as non-destructive tests (neutron imaging for industrial applications, complementary to X-rays). In addition the detectors may be used for health purposes, such as personal dosimetry for e.g. personnel exposure at nuclear power plants and soldiers on a field.
One or more embodiments of the present invention offers clear advantages, such as low cost, high detection efficiency, direct real time conversion of neutron signal, compact size, low power consumption, well suitability for high volume production, good discrimination power against background X-rays and/or y-rays, and suitability for neutron imaging. In addition the neutron spectroscopy is also possible according to embodiments of the invention as depicted above in this document. The invention also offers flexible modular architectures, based on a variety of detector substrates and readout ASICs, for example.
As a conclusion the converter materials of the invention, possibly advantageously, have high Z, such as CdTe or CdZnTe converters have a high Z and hence they are well suitable for example for converting neutrons for example into detectable gamma rays. For example the natural Cd contains also 113Cd which has a high cross section for thermal neutron capture. Products of this reaction are gamma photons and conversion electrons. When a neutron is captured for example by a Cd nucleus, a 558 keV photon is emitted and about 3% of photons are converted to electrons of the same energy by the internal conversion mechanism.
The detection efficiency can be increased by introduction of 3D and/or more complex structures into the semiconductor detector and converter material, even if the semiconductor element and/or converting material is ultra thin. The detection efficiency can be increased from less than 5% in the case of the planar devices to more than 30% in the case of the 3D detectors
The invention has been explained above with reference to the aforementioned embodiments, and several possible advantages of the invention have been demonstrated. It is clear that the invention is not only restricted to these embodiments, but comprises all possible embodiments within the spirit and scope of the inventive thought and the following patent claims. For example the presented detectors are being developed especially for neutron detecting, counting and imaging, but can find usage also in other scientific and technical applications.
In addition, even though electrodes for collecting the charges are not described in further details, they may be arranged according to an embodiment of the invention as planar on the surface of the detector (i.e. perpendicularly to the neutron flux). However, also an embodiment where the electrodes are arranged in other way, such as essentially parallel with the neutron flux (e.g. as disclosed in the publication of WO 2009/071587), can be used for collecting the charges produced.
Furthermore it should be noted that read-out means connected to the electrodes may be implemented e.g. by an electrically conductive wire and the separate read-out electronics may be arranged elsewhere than on the surface of the detector or in direct contact with the electrodes. According to an embodiment the read-out electronics may be connected to the electrodes via wires, and/or a conductive means, such as wire or metal plate, may be used to short-circuit the electrodes of the detector, for example when only the counts are detected and the location information is not needed.
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 1003674.7 | Mar 2010 | GB | national |
| 12/719369 | Mar 2010 | US | national |
| 12/783353 | May 2010 | US | national |
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/EP10/66192 | 10/26/2010 | WO | 00 | 10/11/2012 |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 61254828 | Oct 2009 | US |
