The invention relates to the field of software engineering, and more particularly to methods, apparatus, and computer program products for determining software complexity.
Software has become increasingly complex as processor capability, memory density, and users' expectations have grown. As a result, methods and tools for managing software development projects have become increasingly important, including methods for determining software complexity to be used in estimating, for example, how many defects are expected to occur in a software component, how many hours of development time are expected to be needed for the completion of a project, and so forth.
Today, such estimates are normally based on counts of lines of code, together with some simple rules for determining what, roughly, constitutes a line of code. For example, a certain development time and a specified number of defects may be expected per thousand lines of code. This method may be called generically the KLOC method.
The KLOC method, while certainly useful, has significant drawbacks. These drawbacks are a product of the highly variable nature of software components. Some components are rich in unique code, whereas other components include substantial repetitions, spaces, blank lines, comments, and so forth. Thus, when two software components are compared using the KLOC method, where one component is rich in unique code while the other is highly repetitive and full of comments, the resulting estimates will be inconsistent. The two estimates might be numerically the same, for example, whereas in reality the software that is rich in unique code is rationally expected to be more difficult to develop, and therefore to require more development time and be more susceptible to defects. Furthermore, the KLOC method is strongly tied to the properties of the particular programming language in question, as some languages are inherently more dense than others.
Thus, there is a need for a language-independent way to determine software complexity consistently, so that software project estimates such as expected development time, expected numbers of defects, and so forth, may be determined more accurately than is possible today.
Embodiments of the invention include methods, apparatus, and computer program products for determining software complexity. A plurality of versions of a software module whose complexity is to be determined are compressed. Lengths of the compressed versions are compared, one with another, to provide complexity metrics.
The present invention includes language-independent methods, apparatus, and computer program products for determining software complexity more accurately and consistently than is possible using the KLOC method.
Measures are taken of a plurality of different forms of a software component whose complexity is to be determined, and the measures are then compared with one another to reveal characteristics of the software component that are otherwise obscured. More particularly, a plurality of versions of the software are determined, each of the versions is compressed, and the lengths of the compressed versions are compared with each other to provide software complexity metrics.
As an aid to understanding the invention, let an exemplary software module M be constructed from three strings, which are called here p, p′, and p″. Let K(x) be the KLOC measure of the complexity of string x. The complexity of the module M would then be the sum of the lengths of the three strings, i.e., K(M)=K(p)+K(p′)+K(p′).
Suppose, however, that the strings are not independent, but rather that p′ is dependent upon p, i.e., p′=f(p), and p″ is dependent upon p and p″, i.e., p″=g(p, f(p)). When f(.) and g(.) are relatively simple functions, for example substitutions of identifiers, it is more reasonable and more useful for purposes such as estimating the number of defects in the module, to take into account conditional dependencies to represent the incremental contributions of p′ and p″. Thus, a complexity measure according to the present invention, which is called here C(M), may be described in terms of the complexity of p, of p′ given p, and of p″ given p and p′, i.e., C(M)−C(p)+C(p′|p)+C(p″|p, p′).
Turning now to a preferred embodiment of the invention, which may be understood in the theoretical context just described and with reference to
Operations of a corresponding method are shown in
Texts P0, P1, and P2 are then compressed (step 130). In a preferred embodiment of the invention, compression is provided by application of the open source bzip2 program, for example version 1.0.1 of bzip2. The use of this particular compression algorithm is merely illustrative of the invention rather than limiting. The bzip2 compression method, which relies on a block sorting algorithm and numeric coding, is well known to those skilled in the art, and therefore will not be described in detail here. Further information regarding bzip2 may be found on the World Wide Web at, for example, Uniform Resource Locator digistar.com/bzip2/.
Measures C0, C1, and C2 are then found from the compressed versions of P0, P1, and P2, respectively (steps 140, 150, 160). Measure C0 is the length of the compressed version of P0. Measure C1 is the length of the compressed version of P1. Measure C2 is the length of the compressed version of P2. The resulting measures C0, C1, and C2 are compared by computing the ratios C0/C1 and C1/C2 (step 170).
Measure C0, which results from compression of the raw program text, may be used rather than a KLOC count in estimates of expected development times and expected numbers of defects. Measures C1 and C2 address the question of incremental contributions. Thus, the ratios C0/C1 and C1/C2 are proportional to the redundancy of the implementation of P and the propagation of defects, respectively, and may be used as metrics of these attributes.
As shown in
The logic 200 determines the raw program text P0, the normalized program text P1, and the normalized unique program text P2 as described above. The compressor 210 compresses the texts P0, P1, and P2. In a preferred embodiment, the compressor uses release 1.0.1 of bzip2. The logic 200 determines the measures C0, C1, and C2, which are, respectively, the lengths of the compressed versions of P0, P1, and P2. The divider 220 computes the ratios C0/C1 and C1/C2.
Embodiments of the invention further include program storage devices readable by machines, tangibly embodying programs of instructions suitable for implementing the methods described above and for controlling processor implementations of the apparatus described above.
Thus, as described above, the present invention provides language-independent methods, apparatus, and computer program products for determining software complexity metrics that are more accurate and consistent than measures based upon the KLOC method. The foregoing description of the invention is illustrative rather than limiting, however, and the invention is limited in its scope only by the claims appended here.
This Application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/853,017 filed on Sep. 10, 2007, which is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/801,369 filed on Mar. 16, 2004, and issued as U.S. Pat. No. 7,739,652.
Number | Name | Date | Kind |
---|---|---|---|
4558413 | Schmidt et al. | Dec 1985 | A |
4809170 | Leblang et al. | Feb 1989 | A |
5649200 | Leblang et al. | Jul 1997 | A |
5659735 | Parrish et al. | Aug 1997 | A |
5729746 | Leonard | Mar 1998 | A |
5960196 | Carrier, III et al. | Sep 1999 | A |
6223343 | Hopwood et al. | Apr 2001 | B1 |
6343297 | D'Anjou et al. | Jan 2002 | B1 |
6397202 | Higgins et al. | May 2002 | B1 |
6496974 | Sliger et al. | Dec 2002 | B1 |
6542907 | Cohen | Apr 2003 | B1 |
6658643 | Bera | Dec 2003 | B1 |
6681382 | Kakumani et al. | Jan 2004 | B1 |
6715108 | Badger et al. | Mar 2004 | B1 |
6938109 | Sliger et al. | Aug 2005 | B1 |
6981245 | Schwabe | Dec 2005 | B1 |
6986132 | Schwabe | Jan 2006 | B1 |
7047257 | Fletcher et al. | May 2006 | B2 |
7069541 | Dougherty et al. | Jun 2006 | B2 |
7146608 | Newman et al. | Dec 2006 | B1 |
7739652 | Lake | Jun 2010 | B2 |
8881091 | Lake | Nov 2014 | B2 |
20080005720 | Lake | Jan 2008 | A1 |
Entry |
---|
Curtis et al., “Measuring the Psychological Complexity of Software Maintenance Tasks with the Halstead and McCabe Metrics”, Mar. 1979, IEEE Transactions on Software Engineering, vol. SE-5, No. 2, pp. 96-104. |
Araujo et al., “Code Compression Based on Operand Factorization”, 1998, IEEE , pp. 194-201. |
Chen, “A Code Size Optimization Using Procedural Abstraction” Jul. 2003, Master Thesis, http://whale.csie.ndhu.edu.tw/publications—download/etd-0711103-010132.pdf, pp. 1-74. |
Evans et al., “Kolmogorov Complexity Estimation and Analysis”, Oct. 2002, GE Global Research, pp. 1-6. |
Cardoso et al., “Two Different Views about Software Complexity”, 2000, CiteSeerX, pp. 433-438. |
Chaitin, G., “A Theory of Program Size Formally Identical to Information Theory”, Journal of the ACM 22, pp. 329-340. 1975. |
Campani, C., “Characterizing the Software Development Process: A New Approach Based on Kolmogorov Complexity”, Feb. 2, 2004. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Feb. 14, 2012, 10 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Jul. 17, 2012, 10 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Dec. 31, 2012, 8 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Sep. 12, 2013, 8 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Apr. 8, 2014, 12 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Notice of Allowance Action for U.S. Appl. No. 11/853,017, mailed Jul. 3, 2014, 10 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed May 22, 2007, 12 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Sep. 25, 2007, 9 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Feb. 6, 2008, 7 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Non-Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Aug. 6, 2008, 9 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Final Office Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Jan. 6, 2009, 9 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Ex Parte Quayle Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Sep. 11, 2009, 4 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Notice of Allowance Action for U.S. Appl. No. 10/801,369, mailed Feb. 5, 2010, 4 pages, U.S. Patent and Trademark Office. |
Number | Date | Country | |
---|---|---|---|
20150052495 A1 | Feb 2015 | US |
Number | Date | Country | |
---|---|---|---|
Parent | 11853017 | Sep 2007 | US |
Child | 14529958 | US | |
Parent | 10801369 | Mar 2004 | US |
Child | 11853017 | US |