Effects of alteration of expression of the MtfA gene and its homologs on the production of fungal secondary metabolites

Abstract

Many fungal secondary metabolites are of industrial interest, such as antibiotics, while others are undesirable compounds such as mycotoxins. Overexpression of mtfA enhances production of fungal compounds with applications in the medical field, and overexpression or impaired mtfA expression decreases the production of compounds that negatively affect health/agriculture/economy such as mycotoxins.

Description

SEQUENCE LISTING

The instant application contains a Sequence Listing which has been submitted in ASCII format via EFS-Web and is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety. Said ASCII copy, created on Oct. 25, 2013, is named 702040_SEQ_ST25.txt and is 130,139 bytes in size.

BACKGROUND

Many fungal secondary metabolites such as antibiotics, are of industrial interest. Numerous fungal secondary metabolites have beneficial biological activities that can be used in the medical field, including antibiotics and antitumor drugs. Other fungal products, such as mycotoxin, are detrimental for human and animal health and negatively impact agriculture causing economic losses. Overexpression of the gene mtfA enhances production of fungal compounds with applications in the medical field, and overexpression or impaired mtfA expression decreases the production of compounds such as mycotoxins that negatively affect health/agriculture/economy.

Species of the genus Aspergillus produce numerous secondary metabolites, including compounds with beneficial effects, such as antibiotics and other molecules with application in the medical field. Aspergillus nidulans, a model filamentous fungus studied for more than fifty years, produces the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin (ST). ST and the carcinogenic compounds called aflatoxins (AF), produced by related species such as A. flavus, A. parasiticus, and A. nomiusi are both synthesized through a conserved metabolic pathway where ST is the penultimate precursor. The genes responsible for ST/AF biosynthesis are clustered. Within the clusters, the regulatory gene aflR encodes a transcription factor that acts as a specific cluster activator.

Aspergillus nidulans also produces the beta-lactam antibiotic penicillin and the antitumoral compound terraquinone.

In fungi secondary metabolism, regulation is often found to be governed by genetic mechanisms also controlling asexual and sexual development. One of the main common regulatory links is the global regulatory gene veA, described to be a developmental regulator in A. nidulans. The connection between veA and the synthesis of numerous secondary metabolites, including ST was described. Absence of the veA gene in A. nidulans prevents OR expression and ST biosynthesis. VeA also regulates the production of other metabolites, including penicillin. In other fungi, veA homologs also regulate the synthesis of penicillin in Penicillium chrysogenum as well as cephalosporin C in Acremonium chrysogenum. Furthermore, veA also regulates the biosynthesis of other mycotoxins, for example AF, cyclopiazonic acid and aflatrem in Aspergillus flavus, trichothecenes in F. graminerum, and fumonisins and fusarins in Fusarium spp, including F. verticillioides and F. fujikuroi.

veA is extensively conserved in Ascomycetes. Most of the studies on the veA regulatory mechanism of action have been carried out using the model fungus A. nidulans. It is known that KapA α-importin transports the VeA protein to the nucleus, particularly in the dark, a condition that favors ST production. In the nucleus, VeA interacts with several proteins such as the light-responsive protein FphA, which interacts with the LreA-LreB. FphA, LreA and LreB also have influence fungal development and mycotoxin production. While FphA negatively regulates sexual development and the synthesis of ST, the LreA and LreB proteins play the opposite role. In the nucleus VeA also interacts with VelB and LaeA. LaeA, a chromatin-modifying protein is also required for the synthesis of ST and other secondary metabolites. Deletion of velB decreased and delayed ST production, indicating a positive role in ST biosynthesis.

In addition to its role as global regulator of development and secondary metabolism, VeA is also required for normal plant pathogenicity by several mycotoxigenic species, such as A. flavus, F. verticillioides F. fujikuroi, and F. graminearum. Deletion of veA homologs in these organisms results in a decrease in virulence with a reduction in mycotoxin biosynthesis.

SUMMARY

Manipulation of a gene encoding MtfA (Master Transcription Factor) is disclosed.

A gene replacement construct designated ΔmtfA and a ΔmtfA mutant are disclosed.

A method is disclosed to regulate expression of fungal secondary metabolites such as mycotoxin or sterigmatocystin, and synthesis of penicillin by fungal genes including

• • (a) obtaining a fungal transcription factor gene, mtfA and a regulatory gene; and
  • (b) overexpressing or eliminating the mtfA gene (or parts of the gene) or interrupting the gene with an insertion or deletion.

A method to increase production of penicillin from a fungus includes

• • (a) obtaining a fungus capable of producing penicillin; and
  • (b) causing the fungus to overexpress the mtfA gene.

A method to reduce sexual and asexual development of a fungus, includes

• • (a) obtaining the fungus; and
  • (b) deleting mtfA (or parts of the gene) or interrupting the gene with an insertion, in the fungus.

Orthologs of mtfA are also described.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1. Revertant mutant 7 (RM7) produces NOR. Mycelia growth and production of NOR compound. (A) Approximately 500 conidia of RM7 and RDAE206 were inoculated on top of OMM and incubated for six days at 37° C. under dark conditions. Pinkish or orange color was observed at the bottom of the plates. TLC analysis of NOR production was done. Fungal strains were top-agar inoculated at 10⁶ conidia/ml on top of OMM and GMM and incubated at light and dark conditions for six days. (B) Mycelial cores were taken, toxin were extracted and analyzed as described in methods and materials.

FIG. 2 RM7 mutant has single gene mutation at locus AN8741.2 Map of mtfA gene. (A) Two solid horizontal arrows indicate the two coding regions in the genome fragment of the genomic library plasmid pRG3-AMA-NOT1 that complement the RM7-R2: The coding regions are locus AN8741.2 encoding a putative C₂H₂ zinc finger domain transcription factor and locus AN8741.2 encoding a hypothetical proteins. Sequencing of the corresponding region in the RM7 revealed that mutation occurred at Locus AN8741.2 designated as mtfA gene. Vertical arrow indicates mutated amino acid in putative C₂H₂ zinc finger domain containing protein as result of point mutation at start codon (ATG to ATT resulting change of methonine to isoleucine). The protein sequence (SEQ ID NO: 74) contains two zinc finger domains represented in lines. (B) Sequence alignment. The amino acid alignment of mtfA gene of A. nidulans (Ani) (SEQ ID NO: 74) with putative homologues of A. terreus (Ate) (SEQ ID NO: 75), A. flavus (Afl) (SEQ ID NO: 76), A. clavatus (Acl) (SEQ ID NO: 77) and A. fumigates (Afu) (SEQ ID NO: 78) were analyzed using ClusterW (http://www.ebi.ac.uk/Tools/clustalw2/index.htm) land boxshade (http://www.ch.embnet.org/software/BOX_form.html) multiple sequence alignment software programs. WA of A. nidulans and its homologs having C₂H₂ zinc finger domain are underlined. Upward arrow indicates the amino acid metheonine at the position first amino acid of MtfA is converted to isoleucine and protein synthesis could have started using the next methonine as a start codon.

FIG. 3 Targeted mtfA deletion. (A) Diagram showing PstI sites (P) in the wild-type mtfA locus, and the same locus after gene replacement of mtfA by the A. fumigatus pyrG gene (AfpyrG), used as selection marker for fungal transformation. Recombination events between the flanking regions are indicated with crosses (X). Primers used for the construction of the deletion cassette are indicated by small arrows as described by FGSC. Fragments used as probe templates for Southern blot analyses are also shown. (B) Southern blot analyses. The ΔmtfA deletion construct was transformed in RDAE206 and RJMP 1.49 strains (Table 4). PstI digested genomic DNA of FGSC4 wild type (WT) and transformants, TDAEΔmtfA (ΔveA, ΔmtfA) and TRVΔmtfA (veA+ΔmtfA), was hybridized with probe P1, containing 5′ flanking sequence of mtfA, and probe P2, containing AfpyrG coding fragment. TDAEΔmtfA transformants #1, 2 and 4 present the correct band pattern. TRVΔmtfA transformants #1, 2 and 3 present the correct band pattern.

FIG. 4 ΔmtfA mutant is defective in growth. (A) Mycelial growth: Approximately 500 conidia of each strain were inoculated in the center of the GMM plates and incubated at 37° C. in dark and light conditions for 6 days. (B) Quantification of colony diameter of ΔmtfA strains and control strains on GMM.

FIG. 5 ΔmtfA mutant is defective in asexual and sexual development. Conidiogenesis: strains grown in dark as described in 4(A) were observed for overall development of conidial head formation. Pictures of conidial masses were taken at 2 cm away from the point of inoculation using dissecting microscope. Quantitative analysis of asexual reproduction in ΔmtfA mutant. A 7-mm-diameter core was removed at 2 cm away from the point of inoculation from culture grown as described in FIG. 4(A) and homogenized in water. Conidia were counted using a hemacytometer (B) Values are means of three replications. Error bar indicates standard errors. (C) & (D). Quantitative analysis of sexual reproduction: Strains grown as described in FIG. 4(A) were used for the counting Hulle cells (C) and cleistothecia production (D). Hulle cells were counted simultaneously in the same core that was used for conidial counting in FIG. 5(B). Cleistothecia were counted after spraying the mycelial disc of 15 mm diameter (taken at 2 cm away from the point of inoculation from the cultures grown as described in FIG. 4(A) with 70% ethanol under dissecting microscope. Values are means of three replications. Error bar indicates standard errors. Asterisks indicate no Hulle or cleistothecia production.

FIG. 6 Analysis of asexual and sexual reproduction of ΔmtfA mutant by top agar inoculation. Quantitative analysis of asexual reproduction in ΔmtfA mutant. Strains were spread-inoculated with 5 ml of top agar containing 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹ on GMM and incubated at 37° C. in dark or light conditions. (A) Culture discs were taken randomly from the plates and the total number of conidia was counted as described in FIG. 5(B). Values are means of three replications. Error bar indicates standard errors. Quantitative analysis of sexual reproduction: Strains grown as described above were used for assessing Hulle cells (B) and cleistothecia production (C). Culture discs were taken randomly from the plates and the total number of Hulle cells and cleistothecia were counted as described in FIGS. 5(C) and 5(D). Values are means of three replications. Error bar indicates standard errors. Asterisks indicate no hulla or cleistothecia production.

FIG. 7 Effects of mtfA deletion on ST production in A. nidulans strains with a veA+ allele. (A) TLC analysis showing ST production in GMM cultures. Wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation strain (TRVΔmtfA−com) were spread-inoculated with 5 mL of top agar containing 10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹ and incubated at 37° C. in the dark or in the light for 48 h and 72 h. ST was extracted and analyzed by TLC as described in the Material and Methods section. White arrows indicate unknown compounds whose synthesis is also affected by the presence or absence of mtfA. (B) Effect of the mftA deletion on aflR and stcU expression. Wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmftA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation strain (TRVΔmtfA−com) were inoculated in liquid GMM. Mycelia were collected 24 h and 48 h after inoculation. Cultures were grown in a shaker incubator at 37° C. at 250 rpm. Expression of aflR and stcU was analyzed by Northern blot. 18S rRNA serves as loading control. Asterisk indicates not detected. (C) TLC showing accumulation of ST in the cultures described in (B). Densitometries were carried out with the Scion Image Beta 4.03 software. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0074122.g003 (D, E, F).

FIG. 8 Overexpression of mtfA suppresses the ST production on GMM medium. TLC analysis of ST production. (A) Strains were inoculated in GMM liquid medium at 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹ and grown for 16 hrs. Mycelia were collected and equal amounts of mycelia were inoculated in TMM agar medium. The cultures were further incubated for 24 and 48 hours. Mycelia were collected and toxin analysis was carried out as described in the experimental procedure. Analysis of aflR (B) and stcU (C) expression by Northern blot. The cultures (A) were used for the expression of aflR and stcU analysis. Mycelia were collected at 0 hrs, shifting time-from liquid GMM to solid TMM, 24 and 48 hours of incubation on TMM. Total RNAs were extracted and expression of aflR and stcU were analyzed. rRNA serves as a loading control.

FIG. 9 MtfA regulates penicillin biosynthesis. Deletion of mtfA reduces penicillin production (upper photo) while overexpression of mtfA increases penicillin production (lower photo). The experiment was repeated several times with the same results.

FIG. 10 mtfA controls the expression of genes involved in the synthesis of other secondary metabolites. Deletion or over-expression of mtfA decreases the expression of terraquinone gene tdiA and tdiB. Left panels, strains (WT, deletion mtfA and complementation strain) were grown in GMM liquid shaken cultures (inoculum: 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹) and incubated at 37° C. for 48 and 72 h. Right panels, stains (WT and overexpression mtfA) were inoculated in GMM liquid medium at 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹ and grown for 16 hrs. At that time, mycelia were collected and equal amounts of mycelia were inoculated in TMM liquid medium. The cultures were grown for additional 24 and 48 hours after the shift. Total RNAs were extracted and expression of tdiA and tdiB were analyzed. rRNA serves as a loading control.

FIG. 11 Alignment of MtfA-like proteins in filamentous fungi. Aspergillus nidulans (A.nidulans) (SEQ ID NO: 74), Aspergillus oryzae (A. oryzae) (SEQ ID NO: 79), Aspergillus niger (A.niger) (SEQ ID NO: 80), Aspergillus kawachii (A.kawachii) (SEQ ID NO: 81), Neosartorya fischeri (N.fischeri) (SEQ ID NO: 82), Penicillium chrysogenum (P.chrysogenum) (SEQ ID NO: 83), Coccidioides immitis (C. immitis) (SEQ ID NO: 84), Ajellomyces capsulatus (A.capsulatus) (SEQ ID NO: 85), Uncinocarpus reesii (U.reesii) (SEQ ID NO: 86), Penicillium marneffei (P.marneffei) (SEQ ID NO: 87), Botryotinia fuckeliana (B.fuckeliana) (SEQ ID NO: 88), Neurospora tetrasperma (N.tetrasperma) (SEQ ID NO: 89), Neurospora. crassa (N.crassa) (SEQ ID NO: 90), Magnaporthe oryzae (M.oryzae) (SEQ ID NO: 91), Chaetomium globosum (C.globosum) (SEQ ID NO: 92) and Fusarium oxysporum (F.oxysporum) (SEQ ID NO: 93). Accession ID's and source of these sequences are as mentioned in. MAFFT version 6.0 (http://mafft.cbrc.jp/alignment/server/index.html) and BoxShade version 3.2.1 (http://www.ch.embnet.org/software/BOX_form.html) were utilized for alignment and presentation.

FIG. 12 Maximum-Likelihood (ML) phylogenetic tree inferred from ortholog sequences of MtfA (A.nidulans) across genomes from several fungal species. Protein alignment was done with MUSCLE; aLRT (approximate Likelihood Ratio Test) branch support values were calculated with PhyML v3.0 and the tree was plotted using FigTree v1.4.0. Only alRT branch support values >80% are indicated. The protein sequences used are as follows: Aspergillus oryzae (A.oryzae), Aspergillus flavus (A. flavus), Aspergillus kawachii (A.kawachii), Aspergillus niger (A.niger), Aspergillus terreus (A. terreus), Neosartorya fischeri (N.fischeri), Aspergillus fumigatus (A.fumigatus), Aspergillus clavatus (A.clavatus), Aspergillus nidulans (A.nidulans), Penicillium chrysogenum (P.chrysogenum), Penicillium marneffei (P.marneffei), Ajellomyces capsulatus (A. capsulatus), Uncinocarpus reesii (U.reesii), Coccidioides immitis (C. immitis), Fusarium oxysporum (F.oxysporum), Magnaporthe oryzae (M.oryzae), Neurospora tetrasperma (N.tetrasperma), Neurospora crassa (N.crassa), Chaetomium globosum (C.globosum) and Botryotinia fuckeliana (B.fuckeliana). NCBI (National center for Biotechnology Information) accession numbers for all sequences utilized in these analyses are shown in (Table 7).

FIG. 13 Effects of mtfA deletion on ST production and aflR expression at late time points. (A) TLC analysis showing ST production in GMM cultures. Wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation strain (TRVΔmtfA−com) were spread-inoculated with 5 mL of top agar containing 10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹ and incubated at 37° C. in the dark or in the light for 96 h and 120 h. ST was extracted and analyzed by TLC. (B) Effect of the mftA deletion on aflR expression. Wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmftA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation strain (TRVΔmtfA−com) were inoculated in liquid GMM. Mycelia were collected 72 h and 96 h after inoculation. Cultures were grown in a shaker incubator at 37° C. at 250 rpm. Expression of aflR was analyzed by qRT-PCR. (C) A TLC showing accumulation of ST in these cultures and corresponding densitometry is also shown.

FIG. 14 Deletion of mtfA does not rescue mycotoxin production in ΔlaeA strains. TLC analysis of ST produced by the wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔlaeA veA+(RJW41.A), ΔmtfA veA+(TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA ΔlaeA veA+ strains (RSD11.2), veA1 (RDIT2.3), ΔmtfA veA1 (RJW46.4), ΔmtfA ΔlaeA veA1 (RSD10.1) grown on GMM at 37° C. for 5 days.

FIG. 15 Expression of mtfA in the wild-type strain. qRT-PCR analysis showing mtfA expression in the wild-type strain (TRV50.2) at the times indicated under conditions promoting asexual (light) or sexual development (dark). The strains were topagar inoculated on GMM and incubated at 37° C.

FIG. 16 Micrographs of asexual and sexual structures. (A) Conidiophores forming in wild type (WT) veA+(TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation (TRVΔmtfA−com) strains in top agar-inoculated solid GMM cultures incubated for 5 days in the light at 37° C. Bar represent 20 micrometers. CP, conidiophores. (B) Micrographs showing the presence of cleistothecia (CL) in wild type (WT) veA+(TRV50.2), and ΔmtfA−com complementation (TRVΔmtfA−com) cultures growing in the dark for 5 days. Magnification 50×. (C) Micrographs showing details of sexual structures. Bar represents 15 micrometers. CL, portion of an open cleistothecium; AS, ascospores; HC, Mille cells.

FIG. 17 Over-expression of mtfA suppresses aflR and stcU expression and ST production. (A) Northern blot analysis of OR and stcU expression. Wild-type isogenic control (WT) veA+(TRV50.1) and over-expression (OE) mtfA strain (TRV60) were inoculated in GMM liquid medium (10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹) and grown for 16 hours in a shaker incubator at 37° C. and 250 rpm. Then, equal amounts of mycelium were transferred and spread onto TMM agar medium. The cultures were further grown for 48 hours and 72 hours. Mycelial samples were collected at 0 hour (shift time), and 24 and 48 hours of incubation after shifto onto TMM. 18S rRNA serves as loading control. (B) qRT-PCR expression analysis of mftA from mycelial samples collected after 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation after transfer onto TMM agar medium. (C) TLC analysis of ST production from cultures described in (A-B).

FIG. 18 Deletion of mtfA results in a reduction of penicillin biosynthesis. (A) Extracts from wild-type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation strain (TRVΔmtfA−com) were analyzed for penicillin content as described in Materials and Methods, (B), D), (E)) qRT-PCR expression analysis of acvA, ipnA and aatA from mycelial samples collected after 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation in PN inducing medium. (C) Northern blot analysis of ipnA and aatA from samples collected after 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation in PN inducing medium. Densitometries were carried out with the Scion Image Beta 4.03 software.

FIG. 19 Over-expression of mftA increases penicillin production. (A) Extracts from wild-type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.1), and over-epxression (OE) mtfA strain (TRV60) were analyzed for penicillin content as described in Materials and Methods section. (B), (D), (E) qRT-PCR expression analysis of acvA from mycelial samples collected after 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation in PN inducing medium. (C) Northern blot analysis of ipnA and aatA from samples collected after 24 hours and 48 hours of incubation in PN inducing medium. Densitometries were carried out with the Scion Image Beta 4.03 software.

FIG. 20 mtfA is necessary for normal express of terrequinone genes. (A) Wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.2) ΔmtfA and ΔmtfA.com complementation strain (TRV ΔmtfA−com) were inoculated in liquid GMM. Mycelia were collected at 48 hours and 72 hours after inoculation for RNA extraction. Cultures were grown in a shaker incubator at 37° C. at 250 rmp. Expression of tdiA and tdiB was analyzed by Northern blot. 18S rRNA serves as loading control. (B) Isogenic wild type (WT) veA+ control (TRV50.1) and over-expression (OE) mtfA strain (TRV60) were inoculated in liquid GMM and grown from 16 hours. After that, equal amounts of mycelium were transferred to TMM and further incubated for 24 hours and 48 hours. tdiA and tdiB expression was analyzed as (A). Densitometries were carried out with Scion Image Beta 4.03 software for relative expression of tdiA, tdiB and their overexpression (C), (D), (E) and (F). Asterisks indicates not detected.

FIG. 21 mftA localizes in nuclei. A) Diagram of the strategy utilized to fuse GFP to mtfA. The tagged construct was introduced at the mtfA locus by a double-over event. B) Micrographs showing the subcellular localization of the mtfA::GFP in A. nidulans growing in the light or in the dark. Scale bar represent 20 micrometers.

FIG. 22 Deletion of mtfA affects fungal growth and colony pigmentation. (A) Wild type (WT) veA+(TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVp ΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation (TRV ΔmtfA−com) were point-inoculated on GMM plates and incubated at 37° C. in either dark or light for 6 days. (B) Fungal growth was measured as colony diameter. Values are means of four replicates. Standard error is shown.

FIG. 23 Deletion of mftA mutant negatively affects conidiation and sexual development. (A) Micrographs of point-inoculated cultures of wild type (WT) veA+(TRV50.2), ΔmtfA (TRVpΔmtfA) and ΔmtfA−com complementation (ΔmtfA−com) strains grown in the light or in the dark for 6 days. Microscopy samples were collected 2 cm from the point of inoculation. Images were captured using upright Leica MZ7S stereomicroscope, (B) Quantitative analysis of conidial production. Strains were top-agar inoculated (10⁶ conidia mL⁻¹) and grown for 48 hours and 72 hours on GMM. (C) qRT-PCR quantification of brlA expression from the cultures described in (B). (D) Quantitative analysis of Hülle cell production after 48 hours and 72 hours of incubation. (E) Quantitative analysis of cleistothecial production after 10 days of incubation. Cleistothecia were counted after spraying the cultures with 70% ethanol to improve visualization. Core diameter was 16 m. Asterisks in (D) and (E) indicate not detected. Values are means of three replicates Error bar indicates standard errors.

FIG. 24 Amino acid comparison of the predicted gene products of mtfA homologs. SEQ ID NOS 2-17, respectively, in order of appearance. The analysis indicates high conservation of this gene and gene product in different fungal species. Shaded part indicates the domains with highest conservation.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE DISCLOSURE

The fungal transcription factor encoding gene, mtfA (master transcription factor A), and is gene product, MtfA protein, are located in nuclei of fungal cells. For the first time overexpression of mtfA gene is shown to increase penicillin production and decrease mycotoxin production in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans. Variations in the expression of mtfA also affect the synthesis of other secondary metabolites. Deletion of mtfA in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans also decreases or eliminates sterigmatocystin production.

Manipulations to alter the expression of the fungal mtfA gene increases the production of both beneficial fungal secondary metabolites, such as penicillin G, and decrease the production of those secondary metabolites that are detrimental, such as aflatoxin-related mycotoxins.

An application of these manipulations is to increase the production of valuable fungal secondary metabolites and decrease the production of detrimental fungal secondary metabolites in fungal cells.

Secondary metabolism in the model fungus Aspergillus nidulans is controlled by the conserved global regulator VeA, which also governs morphological differentiation. Among the secondary metabolites regulated by VeA is the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin (ST). The presence of VeA is necessary for the biosynthesis of this carcinogenic compound. A revertant mutant was identified that synthesizes ST intermediates in the absence of VeA. The point mutation occurred at the coding region of a gene encoding a novel putative C₂H₂ zinc finger domain transcription factor that is designated mtfA. The A. nidulans mtfA gene product, MtfA, localizes at nuclei independently of the illumination regime. Deletion of the mtfA gene restored mycotoxin biosynthesis in the absence of veA, but drastically reduced mycotoxin production when mtfA gene expression was altered, by deletion or overexpression, in A. nidulans strains with a veA wild-type allele. mtfA regulates ST production by affecting the expression of the specific ST gene cluster activator aflR. Of interest, mtfA is also a regulator of other secondary metabolism gene clusters, such as genes responsible for the synthesis of terrequinone and penicillin. As in the case of ST, deletion or overexpression of mtfA was also detrimental for the expression of terrequinone genes. Deletion of mtfA also decreased the expression of the genes in the penicillin gene cluster, reducing penicillin production. However, over-expression of mtfA enhanced the transcription of penicillin genes, increasing penicillin production more than 5 fold with respect to the control. In addition to its effect on secondary metabolism, mtfA also affects asexual and sexual development in A. nidulans. Deletion of mtfA results in a reduction of conidiation and sexual stage. mtfA putative orthologs were found conserved in other fungal species.

In summary, deletion of mtfA in a deletion veA genetic background increases ST toxin production; deletion or overexpression of mtfA in a wild type (veA+) genetic background results in a reduction of ST. Because mtfA is not found in plants or animals, mtfA could be used as a genetic target to prevent or reduce toxin production and possibly the production of other secondary metabolites; deletion or over-expression of mtfA in a wild type (veA+) genetic background results in a decrease in the expression of terraquinone genes; deletion of mtfA in a wild type (veA+) genetic background results in a decrease in penicillin production; and deletion of mtfA leads to a reduction of sexual and asexual development in fungus.

Overexpression of mtfA in a wild type (veA+) genetic background results in an increase (25% increase to 5 fold) in penicillin production. Other fungi, including the commercially used antibiotic producer Penicillium chrysogenum, contain a mtfA ortholog.

The RM7 gene and MtfA gene are the same gene. RM7's initial name was renamed mtfA based on the Aspergillus nidulans nomenclature, but they have the same sequence. The accession number and the coding region of the Aspergillus nidulans mtfA gene in the disclosure is: accession number ANID_—08741

sequence:
(SEQ ID NO: 1)
ATGGATCTCGCCAACCTCATCTCCCAACCGGGGCCTGAGCCTGCTCTGAC
GGCCAAATCAAGATACAGCCCTCCTGCCTTTGAACCGGGCTCCTTCTACG
CCGCATCTACTTCATTCACGCGGACACAAGCGCCACTATCGCCTCCAGTC
GAGGATAGATCTTCTCGCTGCTCACTGCCATCAATCTCTGCGCTTCTTGA
CAGCGCAGACGGCGCCTCGACACAAGCTCCAAAGCGCCAACGGCTCAGCT
CTCCAATGCACCGTGAACCGCTTGACAAGAACCCATCTGCCGGCGCTGCT
CCCATCCGTCTCCCGCCCACTCCTCCATTGCGCCCCGGCTCCGGCTTCCA
CAGCGCCGGCCACTCGCCCTCGAGCTCCATCTCATCCATCTCGATGATCA
AGTCCGAGTACCCGGCACCACCATCAGCTCCAGTCTCTCTTCCGGGCCTT
CCCAGCCCAACCGACCGCTCGTCCATCTCGAGCCAAGGGTCTGCGCCGCA
GCACCAGCATGGTCCCTACGCCTCGCCAGCTCCCAGCGTGGCGCCCTCTT
ACTCCTCGCCCGTTGAGCCCTCACCCTCATCGGCAATGTACTACCAACAC
CAGCGGCCCGCATCCTCAGGCACATACCAGGCTCCTCCACCCCCGCCGCA
ACACCAGCCCATGATCTCGCCCGTGACACCGGCCTGGCAGCACCACCACT
ACTTCCCTCCTTCCTCAAACACACCCTACCAGCAGAACCACGACCGATAT
ATCTGCCGCACCTGCCACAAGGCGTTCTCGCGGCCCTCGAGTCTGCGCAT
CCACAGCCATAGCCACACCGGCGAGAAGCCATTTCGGTGCACACATGCCG
GATGCGGCAAAGCCTTTAGTGTACGGAGCAACATGAAGCGCCATGAGCGC
GGCTGCCATACCGGGAGGGCTGTCGCGATGGTGTAA

Locus AN8741.2 Encoding C₂H₂ Type Transcription Factor is Mutated in RM7 (mtfA) Mutants

Seven revertant mutants were generated capable of restoring NOR (orange color intermediate used an indicator of toxin biosynthesis) by chemical mutagenesis of RDAE206 strain which does not have veA gene and does not produce NOR. Genetic and linkage group analysis among these mutants indicated that all the mutants belongs to different linkage groups. Mutation in mtfA restored the production of NOR (FIG. 1). In order to identify possible other regulatory elements acting downstream of veA gene in the ST biosynthetic pathway, the mutated gene in RM7 mutant was analyzed. In order to make sure RM7 mutant carries a single nucleotide mutation in particular gene, an RM7 mutant was crossed with RAV-Pyro2 that lacks veA and stcE genes. However, the heterokaryon of this cross did not produce cleistothecia. Thus, an RM7 mutant was crossed with RAV-pyrol which lacks the only stcE gene. Progeny analysis of crosses between RM7 and RAV-pyrol mutants clearly showed that a mutation occurred in a single locus or very closely linked genes in the RM7 mutant.

The mutated gene in the RM7-R2 progeny strain (sup−,ΔsteE), obtained as a result of a cross between RM7 and Rav-pyrol, not only brought about defective conidiation but also produced pinkish pigmentation instead of orange pigmentation on OMM. This could be due to an unknown effect caused by a suppressor gene mutation. Thus, RM7-R2 progeny were used to identify the mutated gene using genomic DNA library complementation (OSHEROV and MAY 2000). Defective conidiation/normal conidiation phenotype and pink/bright orange pigmentation were used as two selection markers for selection of positive transformants directly on the transformation medium, with assumption that the positively complemented strain would appear as full conidiation and produce orange color pigmentation on OMM medium. Upon transformation of RM7-R2 progeny with the genomic library, several positive transformants were obtained that restored conidiation and bright orange color pigmentation on OMM medium. From the positive transformants, Plasmid DNA were rescued, and sequenced. Sequencing of these rescued plasmids indicated that same kind of plasmids was recovered in independent transformants and the genomic fragment in the plasmid contained two hypothetical proteins: one is putative C₂H₂ finger domain protein, and another one is unknown hypothetical protein. In order to find out where exactly the mutation happened in the RM7 mutant, the corresponding genomic sequences were amplified from RM7 mutant and sequence-analyzed. Sequence analysis indicated that a gene encoding C₂H₂ finger domain containing a gene (designated as mtfA) is mutated and the mutation is G-T transversion at nucleotide 3 of ORF of mtfA, changing start codon from ATG (methionine) to ATT (isoleucine) of MtfA (FIG. 2). The amino acid sequence of A. nidulans MtfA revealed significant identity with orthologous protein from other Aspergillus spp such as A. clavatus (64%), A. oryzae (64% identity), A. niger (62%) A. terreus (61%), A. flavus (61) %, and A. fumigates (59%) (FIG. 2). MtfA is also conserved in other Acomycetes. No MtfA orthologous protein was found in Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Similarly, there are no orthologous proteins of MtfA in the plant and animal kingdoms.

Verification of the Generated mtfA Deletion Mutants by DNA Analysis and Effects of the mtfA Deletion Mutation on NOR Production

To make sure that NOR production in RDAE206 strain is indeed due to point mutation of mtfA, and also to assess the effect of complete deletion of mtfA on ST synthesis, RDAE 206 and wild-type strain (RJMP1.49) with veA+ genetic background for complete deletion of the mtfA gene were used. A mtfA gene replacement construct was transformed into RDAE206 strain (FIG. 3) and RJMP1.49. The gene replacement was confirmed by Southern blot analysis. (FIG. 3).

A RDAE206 ΔmtfA mutant produces NOR as do RM7 mutants (FIG. 1) OMM and GMM medium, indicating mtfA gene functions in connection with veA and regulates mycotoxin synthesis.

Deletion of mtfA Results in a Slight Decrease on Fungal Growth (FIG. 4) and Defects in Sexual and Asexual Development (FIGS. 5 and 6)

mtfA is a positive regulator of both asexual and sexual development in A. nidulans. Deletion of mtfA in A. nidulans results in a reduction of conidiation and cleistothecia (fruiting bodies) formation. Complementation of the deletion mutant with the mtfA wild-type allele rescues wild-type morphogenesis.

mtfA Deletion Decreases ST Production in a Strain with a veA Wild-Type Allele

Mutation of mtfA (RM7 strain) and deletion of mtfA (RDAE206ΔmtfA) was reported to restore NOR synthesis in a ΔveA genetic background. Mutation of mtfA in a veA1 genetic background (RM7-R2 strain) also synthesized the same level of NOR as ΔmtfA did. A question was how does mtfA function in ST synthesis in a veA+(veA wild type) genetic background. So, the production of ST levels was determined in an ΔmtfA mutant, veA+. ST analysis indicated that a ΔmtfA mutant does not produce ST, whereas, wild type (TRV50) and complemented strain (ΔmtfA+com) produced higher levels of ST at 48 hrs of incubation on GMM solid cultures (FIG. 7).

The expression of transcript levels of the aflR and stcU gene involved in the ST biosynthetic pathway were analyzed. Northern blot analysis of aflR and stcU transcripts clearly indicated that these genes expression is not observed in ΔmtfA deletion mutant whereas aflR and stcU expression is clearly noticed in its isogenic wild-type and complemented strains (FIG. 7).

A mtfA over-expressing strain, mtfA-OE, where expression mtfA is under the control of the alcA promoter. Initially, the strains were grown on liquid GMM for 16 hrs. After shifting the mycelium to the induction medium, the mtfA-OE strain produced less amount of ST compared to the isogenic wild-type strain after 24 and 48 hours of induction. Similarly, the expression analysis of aflR and stcU was analyzed for confirmation of the ST synthesis data. Northern blot analysis of aflR and stcU indicated that the expression of aflR and stcU was suppressed at 24 and 48 hours of incubation (FIG. 8) under inducing conditions for mtfA overexpression.

mtfA Positively Regulates Penicillin Biosynthesis.

VeA regulates biosynthesis of penicillin (PN) genes and mtfA is also influenced by VeA with regard to ST production. To see whether mtfA regulates the PN production, the amount of PN production in ΔmtfA strains was compared with isogenic wild-type strains TRV50.2 and its complemented strain ΔmtfA−com. Deletion of mtfA significantly reduced the level of PN production compared to its isogenic wild-type strain TRV50.2 (FIG. 9). Overexpression of mtfA showed enhanced levels of PN compared to its isogenic wild-type stain TRV50. mtfA positively regulates PN production (FIG. 9).

mtfA Regulates the Expression of the Terrequinone Gene.

In order to determine if mtfA is also involved in regulation of terrequinone, anti-tumor compound, biosynthesis, the expression of mRNA levels of tdiA and tdiB in the terrequinone biosynthetic cluster were analyzed. At 48 and 72 h of incubation in GMM, the expression of tdiA and tdiB were noticed in TRV50.2 and ΔmtfA−complementation strains, however, the ΔmtfA did not exhibit expression of tdiA nor tdiB mRNA transcript at 48 or 72 h of incubation on GMM (FIG. 10). The mtfA-OE strain showed lower levels of both tdiA and tdiB transcripts compared to the isogenic wild-type strain, TRV50 at both 24 and 48 hours after induction shift for mtfA overexpression (FIG. 10).

MtfA Subcellular Localization

MtfA is located mainly in nuclei.

EXAMPLES

Examples are provided for illustrative purposes and are not intended to limit the scope of the disclosure.

Example 1

The Putative C₂H₂ Transcription Factor MtfA is a Novel Regulator of Secondary Metabolism and Morphogenesis in Aspergillus nidulans

Locus AN8741.2, mutated in RM7, encodes a putative C₂H₂ type transcription factor. Seven revertant mutants (RMs) were generated capable of restoring normal levels in the production of the orange ST intermediate norsonolinic acid (NOR) in a ΔstcE strain lacking the veA gene (RDAE206). Classical genetics analysis revealed that these RMs belong to different linkage groups. The mutated gene in RM7 that restores toxin production in a deletion veA genetic background (was subsequently identified, see FIG. 1). The mutation in RM7 was recessive and the specific affected locus was found by complementation of RM7-R2 with an A. nidulans genomic library (pRG3-AMA1-NOT1). Several positive transformants showing wild-type phenotype were obtained. Sequencing of the rescued plasmids from these fungal transformants and comparison of these sequences with the A. nidulans genomic database (http://www.aspgd.org) by BLAST analysis indicated that they contained the same genomic insert including two ORFs, one of them encoding a putative C₂H₂ finger domain protein, and another encoding an unknown hypothetical protein (FIG. 2). In order to determine where the mutation was located in RM7, the corresponding genomic DNA fragment was PCR-amplified. Sequencing of this PCR product revealed that the mutation occurred in a gene encoding the novel putative C₂H₂ transcription factor, that we designated mtfA (master transcription factor A). The mutation was a G-T transversion at nucleotide +3 of the mtfA coding region, changing the start codon from ATG to ATT (FIG. 2A).

MtfA Orthologs are Present in Other Fungal Species

The deduced amino acid sequence of A. nidulans MtfA revealed significant identity with ortholog proteins from other Aspergillus spp., such as A. clavatus (64% identity), A. terreus (61%), A. flavus (61) %, or A. fumigatus (59%). Further analysis of other fungal genomic databases indicated that MtfA is also conserved in other fungal genera in Ascomycetes (Table 7, FIGS. 11 and 12). The C₂H₂ DNA binding domain is highly conserved among these putative orthologs. A MtfA ortholog was not found in the strict-yeast fungus Saccharomyces cerevisiae. Similarly, MtfA putative orthologs were not found in plants or animals. Examples of orthologs from other fungal genera are listed in Table 4. An extensive alignment and phylogenetic tree is shown in FIGS. 11 and 12. MtfA orthologs were particularly conserved among Aspergillus spp. The MtfA tree topology was consistent with established fungal taxonomy. MtfA presents similarity to other A. nidulans C₂H₂ DNA binding domain proteins (Table 8), showing the highest similarity with FlbC (25.3% identity in the full protein comparison and 29% identity when comparing the DNA binding domains).

mtfA Regulates Mycotoxin Biosynthesis

To confirm that NOR production in RM7 (ΔveA, X−) was indeed due to a loss-of-function mutation in mtfA, and to assess the effect of this mutation on ST production in a strain with a wild-type veA allele (veA+), a complete deletion of mtfA was performed in RDAE206 (ΔveA) and RJMP1.49 (veA+), obtaining TDAEΔmtfA and TRVΔmtfA strains, respectively (FIG. 3). Deletion of mtfA in these strains was confirmed by Southern blot analysis, using the 5′ UTR as probe template P1 (FIG. 3(A)). This probe revealed a 7.1 kb PstI fragment in the wild-type control and a 6.3 kb PstI fragment in the deletion mutants as expected. Also, hybridization with the transformation marker gene used for gene replacement, AfpyrG (specific probe template P2), revealed 6.3 kb and 2.2 kb PstI fragments in mtfA deletion mutants, while these bands were absent in the wild-type control, as predicted.

Similarly to RM7p (ΔstcE, ΔveA, mtfA−) (p, indicates prototrophy), the TDAEpΔmtfA (ΔstcE, ΔveA, ΔmftA) strain shows an increase in NOR production with respect to RDAEp206 (ΔstcE, ΔveA), (FIG. 1). The mutation in mtfA also allowed NOR production in a strain with a veA1 allele, RM7-R2p (ΔstcE, veA1, mtfA⁻), a common veA mutant genetic background used in numerous A. nidulans research laboratories that still allows ST production. The levels of NOR production by RM7-R2p were similar to those detected in the isogenic control RAV1p (ΔstcE, veA1).

To elucidate the role of mtfA in mycotoxin biosynthesis in a strain with a veA wild-type genetic background (veA+) ST production was analyzed in the TRV ΔpmtfA strain and compared with that of the isogenic wild-type control strain and the complementation strain. Interestingly, TRVpΔmtfA mutant did not produce ST after 48 h of incubation under both light and dark conditions in the veA wild-type background, whereas the wild type and complementation strain produced clearly detectable levels of ST (FIG. 3(A)). At 72 h only very low levels of ST were detected in the TRVDΔmtfAp culture under these experimental conditions (FIG. 3(A)). In addition, the TLC analysis indicated that deletion of mtfA also resulted in a delay in the synthesis of two additional unknown compounds in cultures growing in the dark (FIG. 3A).

mtfA Controls aflR Expression and Activation of the ST Gene Cluster

Expression of the specific ST regulatory gene aflR, and expression of stcU, gene encoding a ketoreductase that is used as indicator for cluster activation, were analyzed in liquid shaken cultures of wild type, deletion mtfA and complementation strain at 24 h and 48 h after spore inoculation. Neither aflR nor stcU were expressed in the mtfA deletion mutant, while transcripts for both genes accumulated at the 48 h time point analyzed (FIG. 3(B)). The presence of these transcripts coincided with the presence of ST in the control cultures. Mycotoxin was not detected in the mtfA deletion cultures under the experimental conditions assayed (FIG. 3(C)). Analysis of later time points also showed a notable reduction of ST production as well as a reduction in OR expression in the ΔmtfA strain with respect to the controls (FIG. 13), Over-expression of mtfA (alcA(p)::mftA, veA+) also prevented the transcription of aflR and stcU as well as ST production under conditions that allowed the control strains to activate the transcription of ST genes and mycotoxin production (FIG. 13).

Deletion of mtfA does not Recover Mycotoxin Biosynthesis in a Deletion laeA Genetic Background

Since VeA and LaeA proteins can interact in the nucleus and are, at least in part, functionally dependent, whether loss of mtfA results in rescue of ST production in a ΔlaeA strain was investigated. For this purpose, double ΔmtfAΔlaeA mutants were generated in veA1 and veA+ genetic backgrounds by meiotic recombination from crosses between RJW34-1 (pyrG89; wA3; ΔstcE::argB; ΔlaeA:: methG; trpC801; veA1) and TRVΔmtfA (Table 1). TLC analysis showed that deletion of mtfA did not recover ST biosynthesis in the strains with laeA deletion (FIG. 14).

mtfA Positively Regulates PN Biosynthesis by Controlling the Expression of the PN Gene Cluster

Results from chemical analysis indicated that mtfA also affects the synthesis of other metabolites (FIG. 18). Based on this finding, whether mtfA controls PN biosynthesis was investigated. The production of this antibiotic in TRVpΔmtfA was evaluated and compared with PN levels in the isogenic wild-type control and complementation strain. A strain of B. calidolactis was used as the testing organism. Deletion of mtfA decreases penicillin production approximately 7-fold with respect to the wild type (FIG. 18(A)), indicating that mftA is necessary for wild-type levels of penicillin biosynthesis. Gene expression analysis revealed that acvA, ipnA and aatA, genes in the PN gene cluster, are down-regulated in the mftA deletion mutant (FIGS. 18 (B), (C), (D), (E)) particularly at the 24 h time point (24 h after mycelium is transferred to PN induction medium).

Over-expression of mtfA clearly increases production of PN (approximately 5-fold) with respect to the PN production levels obtained in the wild-type strain (FIG. 19(A)). Expression of acvA, ipnA and aatA, was greater in the mtfA over-expression strain than in the control strain (FIGS. 19 (B), (C). The experiment was repeated several times with similar results.

mtfA Regulates the Expression of Terrequinone Genes

Whether mtfA controls the expression of genes involved in terrequinone biosynthesis, a compound known for its anti-tumoral properties was tested. Specifically the expression of tdiA and tdiB was examined. At 24 h and 48 h of incubation, expression of tdiA and tdiB was detected in the wild-type control and complementation strains, while transcripts of these genes were absent in the mtfA deletion mutant (FIG. 20(A)). Similarly to the case of ST production, over-expression of mtfA negatively affected the expression of tdiA and tdiB (FIG. 20(B)); Although transcripts were detected for both genes in the mtfA overexpression strain, tdiA expression levels were drastically reduced compared with the control at both 24 and 48 hours after induction, and tdiB expression was only detected at 24 h in the overexpression mtfA at very low levels, while it was clearly detectable in the control strain at both time points analyzed.

MtfA Subcellular Localization

The function of the A. nidulans mtfA gene product was studied by examining its subcellular localization in both light and dark conditions. Because the predicted MtfA has a C₂H₂ DNA binding domain it could be found in nuclei. A strain containing MtfA fused to GFP was generated. Observations using fluorescence microscopy indicated that indeed MftA localizes in nuclei, as revealed when compared with DAPI staining. Nuclear localization of MtfA was independent of the presence or absence of light (FIG. 21).

mtfA Regulates Asexual and Sexual Development in A. nidulans

Deletion of mtfA results in slightly smaller colonies than the wild-type (FIG. 9), indicating that mtfA positively influences fungal growth in both light and dark conditions. The mtfA deletion colonies presented a brownish pigmentation which is absent in the control strain. mtfA was expressed at similar levels under conditions promoting either asexual or sexual development, increasing transcript accumulation over time (FIG. 15), Conidiophore formation and conidial production was drastically reduced in the mtfA deletion strains with respect to the wild type (FIG. 23). This effect was observed in both light and dark cultures. The differences in conidiation levels were more pronounced in the light, a condition that promotes asexual development in A. nidulans. In addition, the conidiophores produced by the ΔmtfA strain presented fewer metula and phialides than the control strains (FIG. 16(A)). The reduction in conidiation observed in ΔmtfA coincided with alterations in the expression of brlA (FIG. 23(C)), a key transcription factor in the initiation of conidiophore formation. Reduction in brlA expression was observed after 48 h of incubation in the light, condition that promotes conidiophore formation. In the dark brlA levels in the wild type were low, as expected. However, expression of this gene in the mtfA mutant was abnormally high in the dark, a condition that represses conidiation. The increase of brlA expression in ΔmtfA in the dark not only did not result in hyperconidiation, but the conidial production was as low as that observed in ΔmtfA growing in the light.

Sexual development is also influenced by mtfA. Absence of mtfA in A. nidulans results in a more than 2-fold reduction in Hülle cells, nursing cells participating in the formation of cleistothecia (fruiting bodies) (FIG. 23(D)). Cleistothecial production was delayed and decreased in this mutant (FIGS. 23(A), (E) and FIGS. 16 (B), (C)). The cleistothecia present in ΔmtfA were of reduced size. Expression of nsdD and steA, encoding transcription factors necessary for the activation of sexual development in A. nidulans did not significantly change in the absence of mtfA under the experimental conditions assayed. Complementation of the deletion mutant with the mtfA wild-type allele restored wild-type morphogenesis.

Materials and Methods

Novel veA-Dependent Genetic Elements

To identify novel veA-dependent genetic elements involved in the regulation of ST biosynthesis in the model system A. nidulans, a mutagenesis in a deletion veA strain to was performed to obtain revertant mutant that regain the capacity to produce toxin. Several revertant mutants (RM) were obtained. In the present study one of the selected revertants, RM7 is disclosed. This revertant presented a point mutation in a gene that we denominated mtfA (master transcription factor) encoding a novel putative C₂H₂ zinc finger domain type transcription factor. The mtfA effect on ST production is veA-dependent. Additionally, mtfA regulates the production of other secondary metabolites, such as penicillin and terraquinone. Furthermore, mtfA is also important for sexual and asexual development in A. nidulans.

A. Aspergillus nidulans mtfA coding region was fused to the alcA(p) promoter and introduced into Aspergillus nidulans cells. Cells were grown in penicillin inducing medium were antibiotic levels increased approximately 25% to 5-fold.

B. Aspergillus nidulans mtfA coding region was fused to the alcA(p) promoter and introduced into Aspergillus nidulans cells. Cells were grown under conditions that allow the production of the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin, an aflatoxin-related mycotoxin. Induction of the overexpression promoter under these conditions

C. Deletion of the mtfA coding region results in elimination or reduction of the mycotoxin sterigmatocystin even under conditions that induce toxin production.

Improved yield in penicillin G production has been already achieved by overexpression of mtfA. Over-expression can be also be achieved by using other strong promoters (contitutive or inducible) or by introducing multicopies of all or parts of the mtfA gene in cells.

Fungal Strains and Growth Conditions

Fungal strains used in this study are listed in Table 1. Media used include complete media YGT (0.5% yeast extract, 2% dextrose, trace elements), glucose minimal media (GMM) (1% dextrose, nitrate salts, trace elements pH-6.5) and oat meal media (OMM) (1% oat meal). Nitrate salts, trace elements and vitamins were as described previously (KAFER 1977). Uridine and uracil, amino acids and vitamins were added when necessary to supplement the auxotrophic markers. Uracil and uridine were added to YGT media for pyrG auxotroph. Glucose was replaced with threonine in threonine minimal medium (TMM) for induction of alcA promoter.

Genetic Techniques

Crosses between strains were followed as described (PONTECORVO et al. 1953.). Crossing between RAV-pyrol and RM7 was made and progenies were analyzed for the presence/absence of veA and suppressor mutation based on production of NOR and colony morphology and finally confirmed by PCR. The cross resulted in progenies that falls in four groups based on phenotype such as 1. RM7 Parental type (strongly defective in conidiation, positive for NOR production); 2. RAV-pyrol parental type (normal condiation, positive for NOR production); 3. Recombinant type RM7-R1 (ΔveA and ΔstcE) (appeared as that of RDAE 206 strain. i.e. slightly defective in conidiation and negative for NOR production) and recombinant type RM7-R2 (moderately defective in conidiation and positive for NOR production).

Identification of Mutated Gene in the RM7 Mutant

To find mutated gene in RM7 mutant, it should be complemented with genomic library and positive complemented strain should not produce NOR as that of parental RDAE206 in which mutagenesis was carried out.

RM7-R2 (sup−) producing a brownish-pink pigmentation and moderated defect in conidiation was used for complementation with the Aspergillus nidulans genomic library. Positive transformants that restored wild-type phenotype were selected. Genomic DNA was prepared from these transformants; plasmid DNA was rescued by transforming E. coli cells with total genomic DNA. For each gene, 5-10 ampicillin-resistant colonies were picked and the plasmid DNA was extracted and analyzed by restriction digestion and PCR as described previously (OSHEROV and MAY 2000). Finally, both the ends of insert DNA fragments of the isolated plasmid were sequenced and the total genomic sequences present in the plasmid DNA were acquired from the A. nidulans genome database at broad Institute webpage (http://www.broadinstitute.org/annotation/genome/aspergillus_group/MultiHome.html) by BLAST analysis. The exact location of the mutation in RM7 mutants is identified by PCR amplifying and sequencing the corresponding genomic region.

Fungal Transformation and Genetic Manipulation

Polyethylene glycol-mediated transformation of protoplasts was carried out as described earlier (MILLER et al. 1985; YELTON et al. 1983). DNA and RNA isolation, gel electrophoresis, standard molecular manipulations, and Southern and Northern blot analysis were performed as described previously (MILLER et al. 1987; MILLER et al. 1985; SAMBROOK and RUSSELL 2003; VALLIM et al. 2000).

Creation of the mtfA Deletion Mutant by Gene Replacement and Generation of the Complementation Strain

The entire coding region of mtfA gene (locus AN8741.2) was replaced in RDAE206 and RJMP1.49 strains using the gene deletion cassette obtained from FGSC (http://www.fgsc.net). The deletion cassette was transformed into protoplasts of RDAE206 and RJMP1.49 strains and transformants were selected on appropriate selection medium and finally confirmed by Southern blot analysis. The deletion strains were designated as RDAEΔmtfA and ΔmtfA respectively.

To complement ΔmtfA, the entire mtfA gene with upstream and downstream fragment was amplified with RM7com1 and RM7com2 primer pair, digested with SacII and KpnI and cloned into pSM3 vector as pSM3-rm7com. The complementation vector, pSM3-rm7com was transformed into ΔmtfA strain and transformants selected on appropriate selection medium and complementation was confirmed by PCR and Southern blot analysis. The complemented stain is designated as ΔmtfA-corn.

Strains isogenic with respect to the auxotrophic markers were generated and used in this study, differing only in the presence or absence of mtfA.

Overexpression of mtfA

To over express the mtfA gene, the entire gene of mtfA was amplified starting from start codon to stop codon with RM7-OE1 and RM7-OE2 primer pair, digested with kpnI and PacI and cloned into pmacro having alcA promoter and trpC terminator as pMacroRm7OE vector. The pMacroRm7OE vector was transformed into RJMP1.49 and transformants were selected on appropriate selection medium and confirmed by Southern blot analysis.

For mtfA over-expression analysis, 400 ml of liquid GMM was inoculated with spore suspension to the final concentration of 10⁶ conidia/ml and incubated for 16 hrs at 37° C. and 250 rpm. The mycelium was collected, washed with double distilled water and squeezed in between paper towel. Equal amount of mycelium was then inoculated on the induction medium, threonine minimal medium. The mycelium was collected at 24 and 48 hours after shift to the induction medium and ST and RNA analysis for aflR and stcU were carried out.

The strains used were isogenic with respect to the auxotrophic markers differing only in the modifications at the mtfA locus.

Toxin Analysis

Plates containing 25 ml of solid GMM or OMM with appropriate supplements were inoculated with five milli liter of top agar with spore suspension containing 10⁶ spores/ml. The cultures were incubated in dark. Three cores (16 mm diameter) from each replicate plate were collected in a 50 ml Falcon tube. Alternatively, strains were grown in GMM liquid shaken cultures (inoculum 10⁶ conidia ml⁻¹) and incubated at 37° C., Twenty-four h and 48 h old culture supernatants were analyzed for ST. NOR and ST was also analyzed in TMM overexpression mtfA and control cultures NOR or ST were extracted with CHCl₃. The extracts were dried overnight and then resuspended in 200 μl of CHCl₃. Two micro litre of ST/NOR standard and 25 μl of the samples were fractionated in the silica gel thin-layer chromatography (TLC) plate using benzene and glacial acetic acid [95:5 (v/v)] as a solvent system for ST analysis and chloroform:acetone:n-hexane (85:15:20) as a solvent system for NOR. The plates were then sprayed with aluminum chloride (15% in ethanol) and baked for 10 min at 80° C. ST/NOR bands on TLC plates were viewed by exposing the plates under UV light (375-nm).

Morphological Studies

Asexual and sexual developmental studies were performed in A. nidulans strains TRV50, ΔmtfA, ΔmtfA-COM (Table 1). Plates containing 25 ml of solid GMM with the appropriate supplements were spread-inoculated with 5 ml of top agar containing 10⁶ spores/ml. The cultures were incubated at 37° C. in dark or in light conditions. A 7-mm-diameter core was removed from each spread plate culture and homogenized in water to release the spores. Conidia were counted using a hemacytometer. Identical cores were taken to examine cleistothecial production under a dissecting microscope. To increase visualization of cleistothecia, the cores were sprayed with 70% ethanol to remove conidiphores.

For radial growth analysis, approximately 500 conidia of each strain were point inoculated and incubated for 6 days under light and dark conditions. The radial growth was measured after six days of incubation. Experiments were performed triplicate, and the mean and standard error were calculated.

Penicillin Analysis

The PN bioassay was performed as previously described (Brakhage et al., 1992) with some modifications, using Bacillus. calidolactis C953 as the test organism. Briefly, strains were inoculated with approximately 10⁶ spores ml⁻¹ in 25 ml of seed culture medium, and incubated at 26° C. for 24 h at 250 rpm. Mycelia were then transferred to PN-inducing medium (Brakhage et al., 1992). The experiment was carried out with three replicates. After 96 h, the cultures were filtered using Miracloth (Calbiochem, USA) and the supernatants were collected for analysis. Three hundred millilitres of Tryptone-Soy Agar was supplemented with 20 ml of B. calidolactis C953 culture and plated on three 150-mm-diameter Petri dishes. One hundred microlitres of each culture supernatant was added to 7-mm-diameter wells. Bacteria were allowed to grow at 55° C. for 16 h and inhibition halos were visualized and measured. To confirm that the observed antibacterial activity was due to the presence of PN and not to the presence of different fungal compounds in the supernatant, additional controls containing commercial penicillinase from Bacillus cereus (Sigma, Mo., USA) were used. A standard curve using various concentrations of PN G (Sigma, Mo., USA) was used to determine PN concentration in the samples.

Gene Expression Analysis

Total RNA was extracted from lyophilized mycelial samples using RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen) or Triazol (Invitogen), following the manufacturer's instructions. Northern blots were used to evaluate gene expression levels of aflR, stcU, tdiA and tdiB. For making probe for northern blots were aflR, a 1.3-kb EcoRV-XhoI fragment of pAHK25 (Brown et al., 1996); stcU, a 0.75-kb SstII-SmaI fragment of pRB7 (Yu et al., 1996).

Conservation of MtfA Homologs from Different Fungal Specie

When comparing with other fungal species, the deduced amino acids of the homologs from different fungal species are used. FIG. 24 and Table 2 show a high degree of conservation between MtfA homologs from different fungal species, including species that produce penicillin (Penicillium chrysogenum) or other important secondary metabolites such as lovastatin (Aspergillus terreus) at industrial levels, among others.

TABLE 1
Study of mMtfA subcellular localization: mtfA was tagged with GFP
Sl.
No	Strain name	Genotype	Description	Reference
1	FGSC4	Wild-type	Wild-type control	FGSC
2	RDAE206	yA1, pabA1, pyrG89, argB2,	Mutagenesis study
		ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA ::argB
3	RAV1	wA1, yA2, pabA1, pyrG89, argB2,	Positive NOR producer
		ΔstcE::argB, veA1
4	RAV-pyrol	wA1, yA2, pyroA4, argB2,	To cross with RM7 to find	Ramamoorthy
		ΔstcE::argB, veA1	out mutation pattern in RM7	et al., 2011
			mutants
5	RAV-pyrol	wA1, yA2, pyroA4, argB2,	To cross with RM7 to find	Ramamoorthy
		ΔstcE::argB, ΔstcE::argB	out mutation pattern in RM7	et al., 2011
			mutants
6	RM7	yA2, pabA1, pyrG89,	mutants	Ramamoorthy
		argB2, ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA::argB,		et al., 2011
		mtfA−−
7	RM7-R2	wA1, yA2, pyrG89, argB2,	For transformation and	Present
		ΔstcE::argB, mtfA−−, veA1	identification of mutation in
			the genome
8	RM7-R2-com	wA1, yA2, pyrG89, argB2,	Complementation of RM7-	Present
		ΔstcE::argB, mtfA−− pRG3-AMA-	R2 with wild-type mtfA
		NOT1-mtfA::pyr4, veA1
9	RJMP1. 49	pyroA4, pyrG89 argB2,	For generation of mtfA gene	Present
		delnku::argB, veA+	replacement
10	TRV50	pyroA4, pyrG89, pyrG+, argB2,	Wild-type control strain	Present
		delnku::argB, veA+
11	TRVΔmtfA	pyroA4, pyrG89, ΔmtfA::AfpyrG,	To study mtfA functionality	Present
		argB2, delnku::argB, veA+
12	TRVΔmtfA-com	pyroA4, pyrG89, ΔmtfA::AfpyrG,	Complementation strain of	Present
		argB2, delnku::argB, veA+	TRVΔmtfA
		mtfA::pyroA
13	mtfAOE	pyroA4, pyrG89, alcA::mtfA::pyr4,	To over-express mtfA	Present
		argB2, Δnku::argB veA+
14	TRV-Stag	pyroA4, pyrG89	To study interacting proteins	Present
		mtfA::stag::afpyrG, argB2,	by pull down experiments
		delnku::argB, veA+
15	TNO2A7	pyroA4, riboB2, pyrG89, argB2,		Present
		nkuA::argB veA1
16

TABLE 2
Amino acid sequence comparison of MtfA in Aspergillus nidulans with other fungal species. The comparisons
were done using the BLASTp tool provided by NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information) and EMBOSS
Needle - Pairwise Sequence Alignment tool provided by EMBL-EBI (European Bioinformatics Institute).
	NCBI	EMBOSS Needle - Pairwise Sequence
	E-value	Alignment (global alignment)
Name of the species, with the strain information	Accession number	(Blastp)	Length	% Identity	% Similarity
Aspergillus oryzae [RIB40]	XP_001823905.1	0	332	64.2	70.8
Aspergillus clavatus [NRRL 1]	XP_001270264.1	2E−111	347	65.1	71.2
Aspergillus niger [CBS 513.88]	XP_001395874.1	5E−106	336	62.8	71.1
Aspergillus kawachii [IFO 4308]	GAA87693.1	6E−106	336	62.8	70.8
Aspergillus fumigatus [Af293]	XP_747808.1	2E−100	342	62	71.3
Neosartorya fischeri [NRRL 181]	XP_001257459.1	5E−94	353	60.9	68.8
Aspergillus flavus [NRRL3357]	XP_002380969.1	9E−94	332	64.2	70.8
Aspergillus terreus [NIH2624]	XP_001209872.1	6E−93	344	62.5	68.9
Penicillium chrysogenum [Wisconsin 54-1255]	XP_002566301.1	3E−74	351	49.3	58.7
Coccidioides immitis [RS]	XP_001239027.1	1E−64	355	44.5	54.6
Ajellomyces capsulatus [H88]	EGC49893.1	9E−64	364	45.9	58.0
Uncinocarpus reesii [1704]	XP_002585289.1	6E−54	440	34.1	42.0
Penicillium marneffei [ATCC 18224]	XP_002148846.1	1E−52	342	38	43.9
Botryotinia fuckeliana	CCD44702.1	6E−47	347	40.3	51.9
Neurospora tetrasperma [FGSC 2508]	EGO52630.1	2E−44	347	39.8	50.1
Neurospora crassa [OR74A]	XP_964590.1	2E−44	343	39.1	50.1
Magnaporthe oryzae [70-15]	XP_003720663	4E−50	335	38.5%	50.4%
Chaetomium globosum [CBS 148.51]	XP_001222401.1	6E−39	382	34.0	45.8
Fusarium oxysporum [Fo5176]	EGU84033.1	3E−38	350	34.9	43.4

	TABLE 3A
	NCE Forward Blast
	Species	Accession	% Value	@Identity	Length
1	Aspergillus oryzae[RIB40]	XP 001823905.0	0.00E+00	64%	319
2	Aspergillus clavatus [NRRL 1]	XP 001270264.1	2.00E·111	64%	335
3	Aspergillus niger [CBS 513.88]	XP 001395587.1	5.00E·106	62%	325
4	Aspergillus kawachii [IFO 4308]	GAA87693.1	6.00E·106	62%	325
5	Aspergillus fumigatus [Af293]	XP_747808.1	2.00E·100	59%	336
6	Neosartorya fischeri [NRLL 181]	XP_001257459.1	5.00E·94	59%	334
7	Aspergillus flavus [NRRL3357]	XP_002380969.1	9.00E·94	64%	319
8	Aspergillus terreus [NIH2624]	XP_001209872.1	6.00E·93	61%	319
9	Penicillin chrysogenum [Wisconsin 54-1255]	XP_002566301.1	3.00E·74	48%	301
10	Coccidiodes Immitis [RS]	XP_001239027.1	1.00E·64	49%	336
11	Ajellomyces capsulatus [H88]	EGC49893.1	9.00E·64	50%	345
12	Uncinocarpus reesii [1704]	XP 002585289.1	6.00E·54	47%	423
13	Penicillin maneffei [ATCC 18224]	XP 002148846.1	1.00E·52	53%	247
14	Botryotinia Fuckeliana	CCD44702.1	6.00E·47	42%	317
15	Neurospara tetrasperma [FGSC 2508]	EGO52630.1	2.00E·44	43%	305
16	Neurospara crassa [OR74A]	XP_964590.1	2.00E·44	45%	305
17	Magnaporthe oryzae [70-15]	XP_003720663	4.00E·50	43%	309
18	Chaetomium globosum [CBS 148.51]	XP_001222401.1	6.00E·39	38%	342
19	Fusarium oxysporum [Fo 5176]	EGU84033.1	3.00E·38	42%	276

TABLE 3B
	EMBOSS Needle Alignment
	(Global alignment)
	Species	Length	% Identity	% Similarity	Phylum	Class	Genus
1	Aspergillus oryzae[RIB40]	332	64.20%	70.80%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
2	Aspergillus clavatus [NRRL 1]	347	65.10%	71.20%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
3	Aspergillus niger [CBS 513.88]	336	62.80%	71.10%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
4	Aspergillus kawachii [IFO 4308]	336	62.80%	70.80%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
5	Aspergillus fumigatus [Af293]	342	62.00%	71.30%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
6	Neosartorya fischeri [NRLL 181]	353	60.90%	68.80%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Neasartarya
7	Aspergillus flavus [NRRL3357]	332	64.20%	70.80%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
8	Aspergillus terreus [NIH2624]	344	62.50%	68.90%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Aspergillus
9	Penicillin chrysogenum [Wisconsin 54-1255]	351	49.30%	58.70%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Penicillin
10	Coccidiodes Immitis [RS]	355	44.50%	54.60%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Coccidioides
11	Ajellomyces capsulatus [H88]	364	45.90%	58.00%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Ajellomyces
12	Uncinocarpus reesii [1704]	440	34.10%	42.00%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Uncinocarpus
13	Penicillin maneffei [ATCC 18224]	342	38.00%	43.90%	Ascomycota	Eurotiomycetes	Penicillin
14	Botryotinia Fuckeliana	347	40.30%	51.90%	Ascomycota	Leotiomycetes	Botryatinla
15	Neurospara tetrasperma [FGSC 2508]	347	39.80%	50.10%	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Neurospara
16	Neurospara crassa [OR74A]	343	39.10%	50.10%	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Neurospara
17	Magnaporthe oryzae [70-15]	335	38.50%	50.40%	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Magnaporthe
18	Chaetomium globosum [CBS 148.51]	382	34.00%	45.80%	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Chaetomium
19	Fusarium oxysporum [Fo 5176]	350	34.90%	43.40%	Ascomycota	Sordariomycetes	Fusarium
Gap opening penalty · 10.0
Gap extension penalty · 0.5

TABLE 4
Fungal strains
Strain name	Pertinent genotype	Source
FGSC4	Wild type (veA+)	FGSC
RDAE206	yA2, pabaA1, pyrG89; argB2, ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA::argB	[40]
RDAEp206	yA2, ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA: argB	[40]
RAV1	yA2, pabaA1, pyrG89; wA3; argB2, ΔstcE::argB; veA1	[40]
RAV1p	yA2; wA3; ΔstcE::argB; veA1	[40]
RAV2	yA2; wA3; argB2, ΔstcE::argB; pyroA4; veA1	[40]
RM7	yA2, pabaA1, pyrG89; argB2, ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA ::argB, mtfA−	This study
RM7p	yA2, ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA ::argB, mtfA−	This study
RM7-R2	yA2; pyrG89; wA3; argB2, ΔstcE::argB, mtfA−, veA1	This study
RM7p-R2	yA2; wA3; ΔstcE::argB, mtfA− veA1	This study
RM7-R2-com	yA2, pyrG89; wA3; argB2, ΔstcE::argB, mtfA−, pRG3-AMA-NOT1- mtfA::pyr4; veA1	This study
RJMP1.49	pyrG89; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; pyroA4; veA+	[71]
TRV50.1	argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; pyroA4; veA+	This study
TRV50.2	argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; veA+	This study
TRVΔmtfA	pyrG89; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; mtfA::pyrGA. fum; pyroA4; veA+	This study
TRVpΔmtfA	ΔnkuA::argB; ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; veA+	This study
TRVΔmtfA-com	pyrG89; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB, ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; pyroA::mtfA; pyroA4; veA+	This study
TRV60	pyrG89; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; alcA(p)::mtfA::pyr4; pyroA4; veA+	This study
TDAEΔmtfA	pabaA1, pyrG89; ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA::argB	This study
TDAEpΔmtfA	pyrG89; ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; ΔstcE::argB, ΔveA::argB	This study
RJW41.A	ΔlaeA; veA+	[36]
RDIT2.3	veA1	[39]
RJW46.4	ΔlaeA; veA1	[39]
RSD10.1	pyrG89; wA3; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; ΔlaeA::methG; veA1	This study
RSD11.2	pyrG89; wA3; argB2, ΔnkuA::argB; ΔmtfA::pyrGA. fum; ΔlaeA::methG; veA+	This study
TSD12.1	pyrG89; ΔnkuA::argB; mtfA::gfp::pyrGA. fum; pyroA4	This study
FGSC Fungal Genetics Stock Center
Doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0074122.t001

TABLE 5
Primers (SEQ ID NOS 18-53, respectively, in order of appearance)
Name            Sequence (5′ → 3′)
RM7-F1          TACGGCGATT CACTCACTTGGGC
RM7-R1          TAACTTACGCATGAGAAGCAGCCG
RM7com1         AAAAAACCGC GGGGATCTGC ACTAGGAGATTG
RM7com2         AAAAAAGGTACCGACCGTGATACCTGATCTTC
RM7OE1          AAAAAAGGTACCATGGATCTCGCCAACCTCATC
RM7OE2          AAAAAATTAATTAATTACACCATCGCGACAGCCC
actin-F         ATGGAAGAGGAAGTTGCTGCTCTCGTTATCGACAATGGTTC
actin-R         CAATGGAGGGGAAGACGGCACGGG
aflR-F          GAGCCCCCAGCGATCAGC
aflR-R          CGGGGTTGCTCTCGTGCC
stcU-F          TTATCTAAAGGCCCCCCCATCAA
stcU-R          ATGTCCTCCTCCCCGATAATTACCGTC
rsdD-F          CATCTCACCAGCCACAATTACAGGCGGAACCATCAC
rsdD-R          TTGCGAGCCAGACACAGAGGTCATAACAGTGCTTGC
steA-F          TCCAGCAAATGGAACCGTGGAATCAGGTGCTC
steA-R          GAAGGGATGGGGCAAGAATGAGACTTCTGCGGGTAA
brlA-F          AGCTGCCTGGTGACGGTAGTTGTTGTTGGTGTTGC
brlA-R          CAGGAACGAATGCCTATGCCCGACTTTCTCTCTGGA
acvA_F          GACAAGGACAGACCGTGATGCAGGAGA
acvA_R          CCCGACGCAGCCTTAGCGAACAAGAC
aatA_F          CCATTGACTTCGCAACTGGCCTCATTCATGGCAAA
aatA_R          GCCTTCCGGCCCACATGATCGAAGAC
tdiAF           GCCCCAAGTCCATTGTCCTCGTTCAC
tdiAR           TCTGCGCCTGCTCGAGAGCAGCATC
tdiBF           CATGGACCCTACAGCACTCCITCCT
tdiBR           GCGCTCTCAAAGTTCCGCT
mtfAgfpF_787    CCCCACCTCATCTCCAGCATC
mtfAgfpR_788    CACCATCGCGACAGCCCT
mtfA3′F789      CCAATTGTGTTACTCCACCTCCTCG
mtfA3′R_790     TTGAGATCGCTTGCGCTCCTAG
mtfAlinkerF_791 AGGGCTGTCGCGATGGTGACCGGTCGCCTCAAACAATGCTCT
mtfAlinkerR_792 CGAGGAGGTGGAGTAACACA ATTGGGTCTGAGAGGAGGCA
                CTGATGCG
aflR06038       ATGGAGCCCCCAGCGATCAGCCAG
aflR06039       TTGGTGATGGTGCTGTCTTTGGCTGCTCAAC
mtfA13015       GCCCTCACCCTCATCGGCAATG
mtfA13016       GGTCGTGGTTCTGCTGGTAGGGTGT

TABLE 6
Coding region sequences of some mtfA homologs from other fungal
species
>ANID_08741 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus nidulans)
ATGGATCTCGCCAACCTCATCTCCCAACCGGGGCCTGAGCCTGCTCTGACGGCC
AAATCAAGATACAGCCCTCCTGCCTTTGAACCGGGCTCCTTCTACGCCGCATCT
ACTTCATTCACGCGGACACAAGCGCCACTATCGCCTCCAGTCGAGGATAGATCT
TCTCGCTGCTCACTGCCATCAATCTCTGCGCTTCTTGACAGCGCAGACGGCGCCT
CGACACAAGCTCCAAAGCGCCAACGGCTCAGCTCTCCAATGCACCGTGAACCG
CTTGACAAGAACCCATCTGCCGGCGCTGCTCCCATCCGTCTCCCGCCCACTCCTC
CATTGCGCCCCGGCTCCGGCTTCCACAGCGCCGGCCACTCGCCCTCGAGCTCCA
TCTCATCCATCTCGATGATCAAGTCCGAGTACCCGGCACCACCATCAGCTCCAG
TCTCTCTTCCGGGCCTTCCCAGCCCAACCGACCGCTCGTCCATCTCGAGCCAAG
GGTCTGCGCCGCAGCACCAGCATGGTCCCTACGCCTCGCCAGCTCCCAGCGTGG
CGCCCTCTTACTCCTCGCCCGTTGAGCCCTCACCCTCATCGGCAATGTACTACCA
ACACCAGCGGCCCGCATCCTCAGGCACATACCAGGCTCCTCCACCCCCGCCGCA
ACACCAGCCCATGATCTCGCCCGTGACACCGGCCTGGCAGCACCACCACTACTT
CCCTCCTTCCTCAAACACACCCTACCAGCAGAACCACGACCGATATATCTGCCG
CACCTGCCACAAGGCGTTCTCGCGGCCCTCGAGTCTGCGCATCCACAGCCATAG
CCACACCGGCGAGAAGCCATTTCGGTGCACACATGCCGGATGCGGCAAAGCCT
TTAGTGTACGGAGCAACATGAAGCGCCATGAGCGCGGCTGCCATACCGGGAGG
GCTGTCGCGATGGTGTAA (SEQ ID NO: 54)
>AO090120000155 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus oryzae)
ATGGATCTCGCCAGCCTTATCACTCCGGGTCCTGAACCCATCTACAAGTCTCGG
GCATCCTACAGCCCTCCTCCCAGCTCTGCGGGTTCCTACAAGCGCCCGGCTGAA
CACGACTCTTACTTCTCGTACTCGCGCGCCCCGCAAGCCCCTCTTTCCCCGCCAG
TCGAGGACCAGCCCAAGTGCTCTCTTCCCTCTATCTCGACTCTCTTGGAAGGCG
CCGACAGCGCATCGACATATGCTGCAAAGCGTCAAAGAACCAGCCCACCCCCG
CGCAGGGAGTCTGAGTTCCGTTCACCTTATGACTCAGTCTCAACACCAAATGGC
CCTCCTACTCCACCTTTGCGCCCTGAATCGGGCTTCCACAGCGGCCACCACTCTC
CCTCTGCTTCGTCCGTGACTAGTGGAAAGGCCATCAAGCTCGAGTCGTACTCGC
AAACCCCCATGACACTGCCTAGCCCGTCCGATAGATCCTCGATCTCCAGCCAGG
GCTCTGTCCACCACGTTTCCGCTGCTCCCTACGCTTCTCCTGCCCCCAGTGTGGC
CTCGTACTCTTCGCCGGTTGAATCCTCGGCTCCGTCCGCCATGTACTACCAGAG
ACCTTCCGGCTCCTACCAGACCCCCGCTACTGTGCCTAGCCCCTCCGCTGCTCCT
ATGCCTGCATCTGCCACACACCAGCAGATGATTACTCCCGTCACTCCGGCCTGG
CAGCACCACCACTACTTCCCGCCTTCCAGCTCGGCACCCTACCAACAGAACCAC
GACCGGTATATCTGCCGGACTTGCCACAAGGCCTTCTCCAGACCATCCAGCCTG
CGCATCCACTCTCACAGCCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCATTCCGCTGCACCCACGCC
GGCTGCGGTAAGGCGTTCAGCGTACGAAGCAACATGAAGCGCCACGAGCGCGG
CTGCCACACCGGACGCCCCGTCGCCACCGCCATGGTATAA (SEQ ID NO: 55)
>ACLA_097790 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus clavatus)
ATGGATCTCGCAAACCTCATCTCGCATCCCACCTCCGAGGCTGCCTCGACTTTC
AAGTCGAGGTCAGCTCAGAGTCCTCCCGCCTTTCAAGCGAACCCTTACAAGCGT
CTCTCCGGATCGTCGATGAGCTCTTACTTCACCTCCGTACCGACGACCGCGACA
TCGTATTCTCGCACCCCGCAGCCACCACTCTCCCCACCCGTCGACGACCGGCCC
AGATGTTCGCTGCCCTCAATCTCGACTCTACTGGAGGGTGCAGACAGCGCAGCC
GCACATGCAGCGAAACGCCAAAGAACTAGCCTCTCGGCGCATAGGGATCTTGA
TGCCCGTCCTCAGTCGCAACCGTATGACACGATCACCCCACATGCCTTGCCACC
TACGCCGCCATTGCGTCCTGGCTCGGGTTTTCGCAGCAACGGCCATTCGCCTTC
AGCCTCGTCTGTTTCCGCAACGAGCGCCAGCACGGTGATCAAGACCGAAACAT
ATCCTCAGCCTCACATCGGCCTTCCCAGCCCGACAGATCGCTCCTCCATCTCCA
GCCAAGGATCGGTGCAGCATGCGCCCGGAGCGCCGTATGCGTCGCCAGCGCCT
AGCGTGGCATCTTACTCGTCACCTGTCGAGCCTTCCACACCGTCCAGCGCAGCC
TACTATCAAAGAAAGGCCCCTTCAGCTCCCTTCCAGAACCCAGGCAGCGTCCCC
TCAGCATCGGCCGCTCACCAGCAGCTTATCACCCCCATCACCCCCGCCTGGCAA
CACCACCACTATTTCCCCCCATCCAGCTCAACCGCCTACCAGCAGAACCATGAT
CGCTACATCTGCCGCACCTGCCACAAAGCGTTCTCGCGCCCTTCCAGTCTGCGC
ATCCACTCCCACAGCCACACGGGCGAGAAGCCCTTTCGCTGCACACACGCCGGC
TGCGGCAAGGCCTTCAGCGTGCGAAGCAATATGAAGCGCCATGAGCGTGGATG
CCATACAGGCCGCCCAGTCGCCACTGCTATGGTGTCATAA (SEQ ID NO: 56)
>gi|317033475: 64-1041 Aspergillus niger CBS 513.88 C2H2
finger domain protein, mRNA
ATGGATCTCGCCAGCCTCATCTCCCACCCGGGACCCGATCCCATCATGAAGTCT
AGAGCCTCATACAGCCCTCCCATGACTTCCTACAAGCGCTCCATCGAACACACC
TCGGACTCCTACTTCCCCTCCGTCCCGATCTCCTACACCCGCTCCCCGCAGCCTC
CTCTCTCCCCGCCTGTCGAGGACCAGTCCCCCAAGTGCTCTCTTCCCTCCATCTC
TACCTTGCTCGAGGGCGCAGATGGCGCAGCTATGCATGCAGCAAAGCGCACTA
GAATGACCCCTCCTCTGCAACGCGACCTTGATTCCCGCCAACAGTCGCAAGCAT
ATGACCTCAAAGCTAACGGCCCCCAAATCGCCTTGCCCCCCACCCCCCCATTGC
GCCCCGGTTCTAGCTTCCACAGCGCCGGACACTCCCCCGCCTCCTCCATCTCTGC
TGCCAGCGATGCTGCTGCGCCCAAGCGCTCCGACTCCTACCCTCAAGTGCCCAT
GGCTCTGCCTAGCCCCTCGGATCGCTCGTCCATCTCCAGCCAGGGTTCAGTTCA
GGGTGTCTCCAGTGCTTCCTACGCTTCTCCCGCTCCCAGCGTCTCTTCCTACTCC
TCTCCCATTGAGCCTTCGGCCTCGTCCGCCATGTTCTACCAACGCACGGCTCCCT
CCACTTCCGCCGCTCCTCTCCCGACGCCAGCAGCACCGCAACAGATTATCTCCC
CTGTGAACCCTGCCTGGCAGCACCACCACTACTTCCCTCCCTCCAGCACCACGC
CCTACCAGCAGAACCATGATCGCTATATCTGCCGCACCTGCCACAAGGCCTTCT
CGAGACCCTCCAGCCTGCGCATCCACTCCCACAGCCACACGGGCGAGAAGCCC
TTCCGCTGCACCCACGCCGGTTGTGGGAAGGCCTTCAGCGTGCGCAGCAACATG
AAGCGTCATGAGCGTGGCTGCCACAGTGGTCGGCCCGTCGCAACCGCCATGGTT
TAA (SEQ ID NO: 57)
>(gi|358370982: 305608-305869, 305944-306659) Aspergillus
kawachii IFO 4308 DNA, contig: scaffold00014, whole genome
shotgun sequence
ATGGATCTCGCCAGCCTCATCTCCCACCCGGGACCCGATCCCATCATGAAGTCT
AGAGCCTCATACAGCCCTCCCATGACCTCTTACAAGCGGTCCATCGAACAGACT
TCCGACTCATACTTCCCCTCCGTCCCGATCTCCTACACCCGCTCCCCGCAGCCTC
CTCTCTCCCCGCCTGTGGAGGACCACTCTCCCAAGTGCTCTCTTCCTTCCATCTC
TACCTTGCTTGAGGGCGCAGATGGCGCAGCTATGCACGCAGCAAAGCGTACTA
GAATGACCCCTCCTCTGCAGCGCGACCTTGATTCCCGCCAACAGTCGCAAGCAT
ATGACCTCAAAGCCAACGGCCCCCAAATCGCCCTGCCCCCCACGCCCCCATTGC
GCCCTGGGTCTAGCTTCCACAGCGCCGGCCACTCCCCCGCTTCCTCCATCTCTGC
TGCCAGCGATGCTGCTGCGCCCAAGCGCTCCGACTCCTACCCTCAAGTGCCCAT
GGCTCTGCCTAGCCCTTCGGATCGGTCGTCCATCTCCAGCCAGGGTTCCGTTCA
GGGTGTCTCCAGCGCTTCCTACGCTTCTCCCGCGCCCAGCGTCTCTTCCTACTCC
TCTCCCATTGAGCCTTCGGCCTCCTCCGCTATGTTCTACCAGCGCACGGCGCCTT
CCACTTCGGCCGCTCCTCTCCCGACACCGGCAGCACCGCAACAGATTATCTCCC
CTGTGAACCCTGCCTGGCAACACCACCACTACTTCCCTCCCTCCAGCACCACGC
CCTACCAGCAGAACCATGATCGCTATATCTGCCGCACCTGCCACAAGGCCTTCT
CGAGACCTTCCAGCCTGCGCATCCACTCCCACAGCCACACGGGCGAGAAGCCCT
TCCGCTGCACCCACGCTGGTTGTGGGAAGGCCTTCAGTGTGCGCAGCAACATGA
AGCGTCATGAGCGTGGTTGCCACAGTGGTCGGCCCGTCGCAACTGCCATGGTAT
AA (SEQ ID NO: 58)
>Afu6g02690 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus fumigatus)
ATGGATGTCGCAAGCCTCATCTCGCCTTCTGAATCGGATACTGTCCCGACCTTC
AGGTCAAGATCGATTCAGAATTCATCAGCCAGCCATTACAAGCGCCTCTCCGAA
CAATCAACAGGCTCTTACTTCTCTGCTGTGCCAACACATACAACGTCTTACTCTC
GTACCCCTCAGCCACCACTGTCCCCTCCAGCGGAGGACCAGTCCAAATGCTCGC
TTCCTTCCATCTCGATCCTGCTTGAGAACGCAGACGGTGCCGCCGCACACGCAG
CAAAACGCCAACGAAACAGCCTATCAACGCACAGGGATTCGGATCCCCGGCCT
CCATATGACTCGATCACACCACACGCCATGCCGCCAACGCCGCCATTGCGTCCC
GGTTCGGGCTTCCACAGTAATGGCCATTCTCCCTCGACATCATCTGTCTCTGCCG
CTAGCTCCAGCGCTTTGATGAAAAACACAGAATCGTATCCTCAGGCGCCAATTG
GGCTTCCTAGTCCAACGGATCGATCCTCGATCTCGAGCCAAGGGTCCGTTCAGC
ATGCCGCCAGCGCTCCATATGCTTCGCCTGCTCCCAGCGTATCGTCCTTCTCTTC
TCCCATCGAGCCCTCTACACCATCAACTGCCGCTTACTACCAAAGAAATCCTGC
GCCGAACACCTTCCAAAACCCAAGCCCCTTCCCCCAAACATCCACAGCATCTCT
TCCCTCCCCGGGTCATCAACAGATGATTTCTCCCGTCACCCCCGCCTGGCAACA
TCACCACTACTTCCCCCCGTCCAGTTCCACGTCTTACCAGCAGAACCATGATCG
CTACATCTGCCGGACATGCCACAAGGCCTTTTCGCGGCCCTCCAGCCTGCGCAT
CCACTCCCACAGCCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCTTTCCGTTGCACACATGCCGGCTG
CGGCAAGGCCTTCAGCGTACGGAGCAATATGAAGCGTCATGAGCGTGGTTGCC
ATACGGGCCGCCCAGTTGCTACCGCCATGGTCCAATAG (SEQ ID NO: 59)
>NFIA_049000 Transcript 1 (Neosartorya fischeri)
ATGGATGTCGCAAGCCTCATCTCGCCTTCTGAATCGGATACAGTTCCGACCTTC
AGGTCAAGATCGATTCAGAATTCATCAGCCAGCCATTACAAGCGCCTCTCCGAA
CAATATACGGGCTCTTACTTCTCTGCTGCACCAACACATACGACGTCTTACTCTC
GTACCCCTCAGCCACCACTGTCCCCTCCAGCCGAGGACCAGCCCAAATGCTCGC
TTCCTTCCATCTCGATTCTGCTTGAGAACGCAGACGGTGCCGCCGCACACGCAG
CAAAACGCCAAAGAACCAGTCTATCAACGCACAGGGATTCGGGGCCTCCATAT
GACTCGATCACACCACACGCCATGCCACCAACGCCGCCACTGCGTCCTGGTTCG
GGCTTCCACAGTAATGGCCATTCTCCCTCGGCATCGTCTGTCTCTGCCACCAGCT
CCAGCGCTGTGATGAAGAACACCGAAACGTATTCTCAGGCGCCAATTGGGCTTC
CTAGTCCGACGGATCGATCCTCGATCTCGAGCCAAGGGTCCGTTCAGCATGCCG
CCGGCGCTCCATATGCTTCGCCTGCTCCCAGCGTGTCGTCCTTCTCTTCTCCCGT
CGAGCCCTCTACACCATCAACTGCCGCTTACTACCAAAGAAACCCTGCGCCGAA
CACCTTCCAAAACCCAGGCTCCTTCCCTCCAACATCCGCGGCCTCTCTTCCTTCC
CCGGGTCATCAACAGATGATTTCTCCCGTCACCCCCGCCTGGCAACATCACCAC
TACTTCCCCCCGTCCAGTTCCACGCCTTACCAGCAGAACCATGATCGCTACATCT
GCCGGACATGCCACAAGGCCTTCTCGCGGCCATCCAGCCTGCGCATCCATTCCC
ACAGCCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCTTTCCGCTGCACACATGCCGGCTGCGGCAAG
GCCTTTAGCGTACGGAGCAATATGAAGCGTCACGAGCGTGGTTGCCATACGGG
CCGCCCGGTTGCTACCGCCATGGTCCAATAG (SEQ ID NO: 60)
>AFL2G_08180 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus flavus)
ATGGATCTCGCCAGCCTTATCACTCCGGGTCCTGAACCCATCTACAAGTCTCGG
GCATCCTACAGCCCTCCTCCCAGCTCTGCGGGTTCCTACAAGCGCCCGGCTGAA
CACGACTCTTACTTCTCGTACTCGCGCGCCCCGCAAGCCCCTCTTTCCCCGCCAG
TCGAGGACCAGCCCAAGTGCTCTCTTCCCTCTATCTCGACTCTCTTGGAAGGCG
CCGACAGCGCATCGACATATGCTGCAAAGCGTCAAAGAACCAGCCCACCCCCG
CGCAGGGAGTCTGAGTTCCGTTCACCTTATGACTCAGTCTCAACACCAAATGGC
CCTCCTACTCCACCTTTGCGCCCTGAATCGGGCTTCCACAGCGGCCACCACTCTC
CCTCTGCTTCGTCCGTGACTAGTGGAAAGGCCATCAAGCTCGAGTCGTACTCGC
AAACCCCCATGACACTGCCTAGCCCGTCCGATAGATCCTCGATCTCCAGCCAGG
GCTCTGTCCACCACGTTTCCGCTGCTCCCTACGCTTCTCCTGCCCCCAGTGTGGC
CTCGTACTCTTCGCCGGTTGAATCCTCGGCTCCGTCCGCCATGTACTACCAGAG
ACCTTCCGGCTCCTACCAGACCCCTGCTACTGTGCCTAGCCCCTCCGCTGCTCCT
ATGCCTGCATCTGCCACACACCAGCAGATGATTACTCCCGTCACTCCGGCCTGG
CAGCACCACCACTACTTCCCGCCTTCCAGCTCGGCACCCTACCAACAGAACCAC
GACCGGTATATCTGCCGGACTTGCCACAAGGCCTTCTCCAGACCATCCAGCCTG
CGCATCCACTCTCACAGCCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCATTCCGCTGCACCCACGCC
GGCTGCGGTAAGGCGTTCAGCGTACGAAGCAACATGAAGCGCCACGAGCGCGG
CTGCCACACCGGACGCCCCGTCGCCACCGCCATGGTATAA (SEQ ID NO: 61)
>ATEG_07186 Transcript 1 (Aspergillus terreus)
ATGGATCTCGCCAGCCTAATCACCCCGGGACCTACTCCCTTCGCATCTCGTCCG
CCTCGAGCTTCCTACAGTCCCCCGGCTTCTTCGTCCGGTTCATACAAGGCCCCTA
ATGAGCCTCATTATACGGGGTCATACTTCCCCGCCATGCCTACTGCGACTCCAG
TGACCACCACTACTTCCTACTCGCGCTCGCCGCAACCGCCTCTCTCTCCTCCCGT
CGAGGACCAGCCCAAGTGCTCTCTCCCTTCCATCTCCACCCTTCTCGGTGCCGCA
GACAGCGCCCCAATGCCCCCAGCTAAGCGCCAGCGCCTCAGTACCCCCGCGCG
CAGAGAATCCGATAGCTGGCTCCAGACAACACCATGCCTGCCTCCGACCCCCCC
GTTGCGTCCAGGCTCCGGCTTCCACAGCAGCGGCCACCGCTCGCCATCATCCAA
CAAGCCCACCGAATCGGCGCCCTTCCCGCAACAGCCCCCCGTGACGCTCCCCAG
TCCCACCGAGCGCTCCTCCATCTCCAGCCAGGGCTCCGCGCACGCGCCGTACGC
TTCGCCCGCCCCCAGCGTCGCCTCGTACTCGTCTCCCGTCGAGCCCTCCCCGGCT
CCCTCCACGCTGTACTACCAGCGCCCCGCCGCGCCTCCAGCGCCTTCCGCCGCC
GCCGCTGCTCCCGCTCCCGCGCAGCCCTTGATCTCCCCCGTCACCCCGGCCTGG
CAGCACCACCACTACTTCCCGCCCTCCAGCTCCACCCCCTACCAGCAGAACCAT
GACCGGTACATCTGCCGTACCTGCCACAAGGCATTCTCGCGCCCCTCGAGTCTG
CGCATCCATTCGCACAGTCACACCGGCGAGAAGCCCTTCCGCTGCACCCACGCC
GGCTGCGGCAAGGCCTTCAGCGTCCGCAGCAACATGAAGCGCCATGAGCGCGG
ATGCCACAGCGGCCGTCCGGTTGCTACCGCTATGGTATGA (SEQ ID NO: 62)
>gi|255951067|ref|XM_002566255.1|Penicillium chrysogenum
Wisconsin 54-1255 hypothetical protein (Pc22g24110) mRNA,
complete cds
ATGGATCTCTCCAACCTCCTCTCTCACAGCGCGGCTGTCAAGCCGATCTATACTC
CTGTCGAGTCCAGTTACTATAAGCGCTCGCCGCCTCTGTCGCCGCCAGCCGAAG
AGCCCAAGGTCTCATTGCCTTCAATCTCGTCTCTCTTTGAGGGTGCTGATGGTGC
TCAGCACGCAGCTACCTCGCTAACCCTAAACCTTCCAGAGCGCCAACGCTTGTC
ACCATCTCTCGGTGACCGCCATGTCCGGGTTCAGTCCTACGAACTGCCCCCAAC
ACCACCTCTGCGCCCCGGCTCTGGCCACGCCCACCGCCGCGCATCTCCCGTGGA
GTCGCTGTCTCACAAGGAAGCACACCAGCATCACCTTCACCGTTCCTCTATCTC
CAGCAACAGCTCAGTCCACATCCCTCGCAACACAGTACCCTACGCCTCGCCTGT
ACCAAGCGTCTCATCCTACACATCTCCAGTCGACGCTCCTCAACAGCCAATGTA
CTACCCTCGCCCACCAACCACATCCTCCTTCCAGCCCTCAACACCAGCATCAGC
ACCCCAGATGCCCCCTGTCCAGGTCCAGACGCAGCAGCCGCACTCGCACTCTCA
CTCGTCTTCGGCTCTCATCTCTCCTGTCACCCCGGCCTGGCAACACCACCACTAC
TTCCCGCCCTCCACCACAGCCCCGTACCAGCAGAACCACGACCGCTATATCTGC
CGTACATGCCACAAGGCTTTCTCGCGCCCTTCCTCCCTGCGCATCCACTCGCACT
CGCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCCTTCCGCTGCACGCATGCCGGCTGCGGTAAGGCTT
TCTCCGTGCGCAGTAACATGAAGCGCCATGAGCGTGGCTGCCATTCTGGTCGCC
CTGCCCCTGCCCCTGCTGCTACTGCGCTTGTCGTATAG (SEQ ID NO: 63)
>gi|119173021|ref|XM_001239026.1|Coccidioides immitis RS
hypothetical protein (CIMG_10049) partial mRNA
ATGAACGTTTCAAGCCTGATCACTTGCGATCAGCCGCACCAATTGCGCGCGCCT
GCATCTTCATATTCTGAGCACCGTCGATCCCCATCCATCCCCAAGCCTTTGCAGA
CGGAGAGCAGTTCATGCGCTTCTCCATACTCGCGGTTCGAGCGTCTCCCTCTTTC
ACCGCCGGAGGAGGATGGCAAGACACAGTTCTCACTTCCTTCTATCTCGTCTCT
TCTTCGGGGCGTAGATGGTGTTTCTGATGCGCACGTTGCTAAGAGACAACGAAC
CAACCCTCCTCCTAGCATTGACTTAGGGATGGAGAGACGGACTATAGACCAAA
CATTAAAGCAGAGGCCAGCGCTGCCTTTGACGCCTCCTCTAAGGCCTGAGTCTG
GCATGAATAGCACAAGCCAGTCGCCGTCAACATCATCGCCACCACGAAGCGCC
ATCTCACTACCGAGTCTTGTTCGGAGTTATCCGTCTCCAGTTTCAGAAGTTCCAG
AGGGACGACGGATGTCACAGATATCGCGACATTCGCGAGGGGCTTCGACGTCG
CAAACTTCTCAACTTTCAGGCCCAGAAACACGTTACCCATCGCCACCAAATGTC
AACTCTCCAACCTTTGCTGCCCCTGTTGAACCAGCGCCAAAGCCGACAGAATAC
TACCCAGCCAGCCGACCGGTAACGTTTCCGCCTGTGGCGTTCGCAGTTCTGCCA
AGCCAGCCAACTCATCCTCAGGTGCTTCCTCTTGGAAGTCCTGCGTGGCAGCAC
CATCATTATTTCCCTCCTTCCAACACAGCAACTTATCCTCTCAATCACGATAGAT
ACATCTGCCGAATATGTCATAAGGCTTTCTCAAGACCGTCCAGCCTGCGAATAC
ACTCCCACAGTCATACTGGCGAGAAGCCTTTCCGGTGCCCCCATGCCGGCTGTG
GGAAAGCGTTTAGCGTGCGAAGCAACATGAAGCGACACGAAAGGGGTTGCCAT
CCTGGAAGATCAGCACCACCATCGGCCCTGGTTAACTGA (SEQ ID NO: 64)
>(gi|198250550: c746647-746377, c746321-745555) Ajellomyces
capsulatus H88 supercont1.9 genomic scaffold, whole genome
shotgun sequence
ATGAATTTATCCCACTTGGTGACCAGCTATCATAGCCCTCCTTCGACGTATCCAC
ACTCAGGCACTTCGCAAAAGCGCCAGTCCTTGCAGAGCGAATCTTCATTATCTG
TATCGAACGGATACTACGATCGCAATGCTTCAAATCTTGCATATGCCCGCTCTC
CTCAACCACCCTTATCCCCACCTGTCGAAGAGCAGTCCAGATTCTCTCTTCCTTC
AATATCTAGTTTATTGCAAGGAGCTGACCAACTCTCTCCTGTTCATATAGCTAA
AAAACATCGTCCCAATCCACTCTCAACTGGAGAAGTTGATTTAAAATCGCAGGG
CCATGGAGCCACCCAAAAGCCCATACACAGGCCGAGAATGATTTTACCACCGA
CCCCTCCCATGCGCCCAGGCTCCGGATTAGATGGAAGAAATCACTCTCCTGCCG
GATCGTCGCCATCGTCTGCACACTCTCCCATTTCAGTAGCCAATCTCACAAGTTC
GTCATCGGCGGACCCTTCCTATCAGCATCGGATGCCCCAAGGTCCGTTACCCCC
ACAGTCAACCAGATCGTCCGTATCTCAAAATTCTCCTGTCTCTCTACCCGAAAA
GCATTACGCTCCATCCTCCAATTTACCCACCAGCTCGACTCCATTCGCTTCCCCA
GTTGAACCCCTAGCGAATTCTACGGAATATTATCACCGCCCATCCCATCCCCCTT
CTTTCTCGACATCTATTCCTCTGGCAGCCCCGCCAGCGCAACAGCACCATCACC
ATTCTATGATCTCAACCTGGCAACACCACCACTATTTTCCACCGTCAAATACGG
CTCCCTACCCACAAAATCATGACAGGTATATCTGTCGAATATGTCACAAGGCGT
TTTCTCGGCCTTCTAGTCTGCGGATTCACTCGCACAGCCATACCGGCGAAAAGC
CATTCAAATGCCCGCATGTCAACTGTGGCAAGTCATTTAGTGTCAGGAGTAACA
TGAAGCGACATGAACGGGGTTGTCATACAGGCAGACCTACGCAAGCAGCTTTG
GTGAATTAA (SEQ ID NO: 65)
>gi|258569089|ref|XM_002585243.1|Uncinocarpus reesii 1704
conserved hypothetical protein, mRNA
ATGAACGTTTCTAGCCTGATTAGTTGTGATCAGACTGCTCCCTTCCACGGGTCTG
CAACATCATATTTCGAGCATCATCAAAGAATCCGATCGCCTTCCATTCCCAAAA
GATCACACGAAGAGAACAGCTCATCCGCCTCTCCCTACCCTCCTTTTGCAACCC
TGCCTCTTTCGCCACCAGAAGATGACGGGAAGACAACCTTCTCGCTTCCTTCTA
TCTCATCCCTTCTTCAAAGCGTCGACGCTGCTTCTGACACTCACGTTGCCAAACG
GCAACGAGCCAACCCCCCTCCTAGCATTGATTTAGCTCTGGAGAGACGAGGTGC
CTGTGCGGACCAAGCAATCAGACAAAGGCCAGCCCTTCCACTAACGCCTCCCCT
GCGACCAGAGTCGGGAATGGGCGGTGTAAATCACTCGCCATCTGCATCATCCCC
TCCCCGAACCGCTATCTCACTACCCAGCCTCATTGGAAGTTACCCATCGCCAGT
TTCAGAGGCTCCAGAAGGACGACGAATGTCGCAAATCTCACGACACTCAAGCA
GAACTTCCATCTCTCAATCCTCCCAACATCCAGGGCCGGAAGCCCGCTACCCAT
CGCCACCAACTCTCAGCTCTCCTTCCTTCGCCGCTCCTATTGAACCACCTCCAAA
GCCAGAGTACTACTCTTCTGGTGCCCGACCGACCAACTTTCCGCCAGTAACTTT
CGCTGTCCTTCCAAGTCAACCAACGCATCCGCAGATGGTGGCCTTGGGGAGTCC
TGCCTGGCAGCATCACCACTACTTTCCTCCATCAAACACAGCAACTTACCCACT
CAACCACGACAGATACATTTGCCGAATATGCCACAAGGCATTCTCACGGCCGTC
AAGCCTGCGAATTCACTCGCATAGTCACACAGGCGAGAAGCCGTTTCGATGCCC
CCATGCCGGCTGCGGGAAGGCATTCAGCGTGCGAAATCAGCCCCGCAGCCAGC
GCTCGTTAATTGAAAAACGGAAGGGGTACGCGATCGGATTTGACGAATGGGTT
TTGACGATGATAACGCCCACAATACGGAGTACCAACGAGCAAATCTACACAAC
TGCATCGTGTAAGATCGCGAACGTGGCGGTGATCAACATCAATAGAAGAATTG
CCGAGCTTCGCAAGTCATTTCGCAACAGACGTTCGAATGGGACGTTGTCCCCGA
CGAAGCGCCGCGTCAAATTGGCATTTTCCCTGGATTGCCAATCTACATCCTCAT
CCAGGCTTGCCCTTTTACCGCAGTCCCTTTGA (SEQ ID NO: 66)
>gi|212537380: 615-1358 Penicillium marneffei ATCC 18224
C2H2 finger domain protein, putative, mRNA
ATGGATAACGTGCCTGCAAGCAAACGTGCCCGCCATGACTCAGGCGACTACAG
CCGTGGCTTCTTACCTCCAACACCGCCAATGCGCCCCTGCTCCGGGTTCACAGA
AGGCAGCTCGCCTGCCTCTCTTCCTTCTGGACGATCACATTCTGCTTCTATAAGC
AGCGCAGTTTCGCATCCATCACACCAACAGCGTACATCTTTACCATCTATTTCTG
CATCTCTTCAAAATACACCAATCCACCCTTCAGAGCGTTTATCCATCTCCTCTCT
CGCCTCTCACGACTCTTCCCGCCTTTCTCACGCCATTCCCAGCCCTTCATCTACC
ACAGCCTCGATCACAACCACAGCGACTCCATCAACGTCATATTATTCTACATCA
GAAGAGAAAGCATATCCACGATCACATAGCACATCCGCTCCAGTGACCCCATC
AACACTTGTCCCACCACCACCCGCCATGCTCTCGCCTGTGAACCACCCAGGCTG
GCAACACCACCACTACTTCCCACTTTCGACTACGACATCATACCCACAAAACCA
CGAGCGGTATGTCTGCCGTACATGCCACAAGGCATTCTCTCGTCCATCCAGTCT
TCGAATCCACTCGCATAGCCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCATTCCGATGCACACATGC
AGGCTGCGGAAAGGCGTTCAGTGTGCGCAGCAATATGAAGCGCCACGAGCGCG
GCTGTCATAGCGGACGACCTATGACGGCAACTGTTGTCTAA (SEQ ID NO: 67)
>(gi|325974178: c673869-673659, c673604-673177, c673115-672801)
Botryotinia fuckeliana isolate T4 SuperContig_50_1 genomic
supercontig, whole genome
ATGGCCTCATCGTTGGTTTCAAACCCTTATACAGTCCATCCTATGGCTCAACACT
CTTCCTACACATACGTTAACGCACCTCAACCACCACCCTCACCACCCGTAGACG
AAACTTCAAAGTGTTCCCTACCATCTATTTCAAGTCTGTTGGGTTTGGCCGATGG
ATCGAGTCCAACAGAGCAGGCTCAGCAACAGTCATCGCCACAACAAGCAGCTT
TCAAGGAAGATTATAGACCAGAGTCTGGACATCAGTACGGTCCTTCCTCATCAA
TGAGCTCTCGAGGTGCTCTTCCACCTACACCCCCAATGCAATCTGACGGTGGAT
TCGACGGCAGACAATCGCCGTCTCAAGCATCTACTTCATCATATTCAGTAGTTT
CTGCGCCAAATTATTACTTTAATCCTTCTCAAGTCTCGGCCATCAACAATATGGA
GCCTCATGCACAACGCCAGCCAGTCCAAACTGTTACTCGAAGAGTTTCAATGCC
AGTGTCTTCAATGCAATATGGCCATTCTCCGTTCAACGGATCCTACACTATGTCT
CCTGGCGCCCAGTCTTTGAGCTCTTACTATCCAAGCCCGATACAAACACAATCT
CCCCAAGTTTCTTCACTATACTATCAAAGACCACTTCCACAGCAATTTCCTCCGC
CAATGATGCCAGTGTCTGTGACTCTGACTCCATCATCCGGTGCTAATCCATGGC
AACATCATCACTATATCTCTCCTTCCTCAGCAGCCTCATTTCCTCAGTCACAAGA
TAGATACATCTGTCAGACTTGTAACAAAGCTTTTTCGAGACCATCGAGTCTCCG
AATCCACAGCCACTCACATACCGGCGAGAAACCCTTCAAGTGTCCACATCAAA
ACTGTGGGAAAGCCTTCAGCGTTAGGAGCAACATGAAGAGACACGAGCGAGGT
TGTCACAGTTTTGAAAGCGCTTCAATGGTCTGA (SEQ ID NO: 68)
>ENA|EGO52630|EGO52630.1 Neurospora tetrasperma FGSC 2508
hypothetical protein: Location: 1 . . . 1000
ATGGCACCCACGACGTTAACGCCTCAATATCCTGCCCAGCCTTATGGCTTCGCT
CCGCCACCCTCCCCTCCTTTGGACGACTCCAACAAGTGCTCCCTGCCCTCGATTT
CGAACCTGCTTGTCATGGCCGATCAGGGATCTCCTACCTCAGAGACATCTCCTC
AGTCTCAGCAATTGCACTTCTCAAAGCCTGACAACCGTCCCAACTCTTCCCAGT
TTGGCAACCCAGCATCGATCAGGGCGAACCTCCCCCCTAGTCCTCCCATGTCTT
CGGAAGCTTCTTTTGAAGGATACCGCTCTCCTTCAAGCAAGCCAGCAAGCCAGT
CTCAGGGCAGCTCCAACTACTACTATGAGACCACGCCGCCTTTGAGCCAGCATG
AAGCCGACTCCCGGCAGATGGCCACTGCTGCACCCAGAGCCCCTGTTCAGTCAT
CAACCTTCCAAACACAGTACCCGTCGTCAGCCGGCTACTCGAGTCAGTCAGGCA
TGAACCCTTATTACCCTCCCATGCAGCCGACACCCCCTCCGCAGCAGCAGATGT
CGGGCTTGTATTATCAGCGACCACTCCCTCAGACTTTCACCCCTGCTGTGCCAGT
TCCAGTCACTCTCGCACCAGTCACGGGAGCCAACCCTTGGCAACATCACCACTA
TATTGCTCCTTCTTCCACTGCATCTTTTCCGCAGTCTCAAGACCGGTACATCTGC
CAGACTTGCAACAAGGCCTTCTCTCGACCGAGCTCATTGCGAATCCACAGCCAC
TCTCACACTGGTGAGAAGCCTTTCAAGTGCCCCCATGCAGGCTGCGGAAAGGCC
TTCAGCGTTCGCAGTAACATGAAGCGTCATGAGCGTGGCTGCCACAGTTTTGAG
AGCAGCAACGGCAGAAGCAGTGGCAACAGCAACAACGGCGCATCTGCCTAG
(SEQ ID NO: 69)
>gi|85113804|ref|XM_959497.1|Neurospora crassa OR74A
hypothetical protein partial mRNA
ATGGCACCCACGACGTTAACGCCTCAATATCCTGCCCAGCCTTATGGCTTCGCT
CCGCCACCCTCCCCTCCTTTGGACGACTCCAACAAGTGCTCTCTACCCTCGATTT
CGAACCTGCTTGTCATGGCCGATCAGGGATCTCCTACCTCAGAGACATCTCCTC
AGTCTCAGCAATTGCACTTCTCAAAGCCTGACAACCGTCCCAACTCTTCCCAGT
TTGGCAACCCAGCATCGATCAGGGCGAACCTCCCCCCTAGTCCTCCCATGTCTT
CGGAAGCTTCTTTTGAAGGATACCGCTCTCCTTCGAGCAAGCCAGCAAGCCAGT
CTCAGGGCAGCTCCAACTACTACTATGAGACCACGCCGCCTTTGAGCCAGCATG
AAGCCGACTCCCGGCAGATGGCCACTGCTACACCTAGAGCCCCTGTTCAGTCAT
CAACCTTCCAAACACAGTACCCGTCGTCAGCCGGCTACTCGAGTCAGTCAGGCA
TGAACCCTTATTATCCTCCCATGCAGCCGACACCCCCTCCGCAGCAGCAGATGT
CGGGCTTGTATTATCAGCGACCACTCCCTCAGACTTTCACCCCTGCTGTGCCAGT
TCCAGTCACTCTCGCACCAGTCACGGGAGCCAACCCTTGGCAACATCACCACTA
TATTGCTCCTTCTTCCACTGCATCTTTTCCGCAGTCTCAAGACCGGTACATCTGC
CAGACTTGCAACAAGGCCTTCTCTCGACCCAGCTCATTGCGAATCCACAGCCAC
TCTCACACTGGTGAGAAGCCTTTCAAGTGCCCCCATGCAGGCTGCGGAAAGGCC
TTCAGCGTTCGCAGTAACATGAAGCGTCATGAGCGTGGCTGCCACAGTTTTGAG
AGCAGCAACGGCAGAAGCAGTGGCAACAGCAACAACAGCGCATCTGCCTAG
(SEQ ID NO: 70)
>gi|389646062: 228-1157 Magnaporthe oryzae 70-15 hypothetical
protein (MGG_12536) mRNA, complete cds
ATGGCCGCCACCATGATACAACAGCCCTACCCAATTCATCAGCAGCAGTCGCAG
TACAGCTACATGGTTCAGCCTCAGGGCCCGCCTTCGCCGCCCATGGACGACAAC
AAGTGCTCGCTTCCATCCATCTCGAACCTGCTCGGCTTGGCGGATCAAGGATCA
CCAACCTCGGAGACCTCGGCCCAATTCCGCGAGGAGCAGAAGCAACAACAAGC
AGCACAACAATCAAGACCCAACTCGTCACACTATAGCAATGCAGTCCAGTCTGT
GCGCCAGGGCATCCCGCCAACGCCGCCAATGACTTCTGAGACCTCATTCGACGG
TTACAACTCGCCCTCAAACAAGTCGGTCAGCCAGCTTCCCGCCACTGGCTACTA
CTTTGAGGCGACGCCACCCCCAGGCCACATGGAGATGGAGCCCCGCCCGCACA
TGACCAGCGTTTCCAGGGTCCCAGTTCAGGCTCCCTTCGCTCAGTCTGCCTACTC
AGCTCCCTATGGCATGGCCCCCAGCAACCCGATGGCGGCCTACTACCCGACGAT
GCAGCCCACGCCTCCTCCTCAGCAGCCTCAGATCTCTAGCCTTTACTACCAGAG
ACCCCTTCCTCAGGCCTTCCCTCCCATGCCTGTCAACGTCTCCATGGGTCCTCAG
TCTGGCGCCAACCCGTGGCAGCACCACCACTACATCTCGCCATCTGCTGCGGCA
TCTTTCCCTCAGTCCCAGGACCGCTACATCTGCCAGACCTGCAACAAGGCATTC
TCCCGCCCGAGCTCCTTGAGGATACACAGCCACTCGCACACTGGCGAGAAGCCT
TTCAAGTGCCCTCACGCCGGCTGCGGCAAGGCTTTCAGCGTGCGCAGCAACATG
AAGCGCCACGAGAGGGGCTGCCACAACTATGACAGCAGCAGCAGCAACGGCAC
CGCCATGCACTGA (SEQ ID NO: 71)
>gi|116193176|ref|XM 001222400.1|Chaetomium globosum CBS
148.51 hypothetical protein (CHGG_06306) partial mRNA
ATGGCAAACACAATGGTCACACACTACGCGCACGTACCTCAACATAGCCTTCAG
TATGGCTACATGCCGCCACCTTCACCGCCAATGGATGAGGCGGCAAAGTGCTCG
CTCCCCTCTATCTCGAACCTCCTCGGGCTTGCAGACCAAGGATCGCCGACTTCG
GAAACGTCGCCCCAGTCCCAGCAGCAGCAACAGGCGCAGCAGCAGCAGCAACA
GCAATGTATGAGCAGCTCGTGGTGGGATATGGGACACCTAGATACTGACTCGA
CCCCAGCGCAAGGATCCAAGCCGGAGACGAGGCCCAACTCYTCGCATTACACC
AACCCGGTAACCATTCGGACAGGACTCCCGCCCAGCCCGCCCATGTCCTCGGAT
GCATCCTTTGAAGGTTTCAACTCGCCATCGACCAGGTCGGTGAGCCAGGTGCCG
AACGGGTCAAACTACTTCTTTGAGACAACGCCACCGCTTCAGATGGAAGCCGAT
GCACGGCAGATGACCGCTGCCGCCGCCGTCCCGCGAGTTTCTGTCCAGGCTTCA
GCCTACCAGCCCCAGTACGCTCCCGGCCCTGCGTACATGAGTCAACCAGCCATG
ACCTCATACTATCCTCCGATGCAATCCGCGGCGCCACCGCAGACGCAAATGTCC
GGCCTCTACTACCAACGACCGCTTCCTCAGTCTTTTCCGCCTCCGATGTCCATGT
CTATGACTCTTGCGCCGACGGCCGGGAACCCCTGGCAGCACCATCACTACATTG
CCCCTTCGGCGTCAGCATCCTTTCCCCAGAGCCAGGACCGGTATATCTGCCCGA
CGTGCAGCAAAGCCTTCTCGCGGCCCAGCTCGCTGCGGATCCACAGCCACTCGC
ACACGGGCGAGAAGCCCTTCAAGTGCCCGTTCCCGGGTTGCGGCAAGGCCTTCA
GTGTGCGCAGCAACATGAAGCGGCACGAACGTGGGTGCCACAACTACGACAGC
AGCAGCACGACGAGCAGCACCGGCACCATGAACAGCAACACCGGGGGAAGCC
GTCCCTGA (SEQ ID NO: 72)
>(gi|342883535: 113711-113828, 113878-114590) Fusarium
oxysporum Fo5176 contig01821, whole genome shotgun sequence
ATGGAGGAACAAAAGTGCTCTCTACCCTCAATCTCGAACCTCTTGGGTTTGGCC
GATGCCGGCTCACCCACGAGTGAGTCCTCACCAACTTCACGGCAACATTCTCCT
CGCTTTGAAGTTCCTCCACCTTCACATGGTCATAGCCGAGCTGGATCTGAATGG
GCTAAATCATCGCACCGTGGGCTTCCCCCTACACCACCTATGAGCACAGACGCA
TCTTTCGAAGGCTACAGCTCCCCCACAAGGAAACCATCCAACCAGGCGTATCCA
GGCTCAGCACCAAGAACATACTATTACGAGACCACACCACCTCTAGAAGCCGA
TGCACAGCGTCAGGCATCAGTAACGGCTATTCCTCGAGCAACACCTCCAGCAAC
GGCTCCTTATCCTCAGCAAGCTCACCCCACGGTATACGCCAACCCAGCACCAGT
GGGCGCTTATTACCCGGCGGCACAGGTGCCTCCTGCTGTCCAGCCTCAAGAGAT
GAACCCTTACTACCAGCGCCCTCTCCCACAGGCTTATCCCCCACCAGTGAGCAT
GCCAGCACCTGCTCCCTCGGGAGCAAATCCTTGGCAGCACCATCACTATCTTAA
CCCAACTGGAGCGGCGGCATTCCCGCAAAGCCAGGACCGGTATATTTGCCCGA
CTTGCAACAAAGCCTTTAGCAGGCCCAGCAGTCTCCGAATCCACAGTCACTCAC
ATACCGGAGAGAAACCCTTCAAGTGTCCCCATGCTGGATGTGGCAAGGCTTTCA
GCGTACGCAGCAACATGAAACGTCATGAGAGGGGCTGTCACAGCTTCGAATTT
AATGGGTCTGTGATTCGGGGTTGA (SEQ ID NO: 73)

TABLE 7
Amino acid sequence comparison of Aspergillus nidulans MtfA in with putative orthologs in other fungal species.
The comparisons were done using the BLASTp tool provided by NCBI (National Center for Biotechnology Information)
and EMBOSS Needle - Pairwise Sequence Alignment tool provided by EMBL-EBI (European Bioinformatics Institute).
	NCBI	EMBOSS Needle - Pairwise Sequence
	E-value	Alignment (global alignment)
Name of the species, with the strain information	Accession number	(BLASTp)	Length	% Identity	% Similarity
Aspergillus oryzae [RIB40]	XP_001823905.1	0	332	64.2	70.8
Aspergillus clavatus [NRRL 1]	XP_001270264.1	2E−111	347	65.1	71.2
Aspergillus niger [CBS 513.88]	XP_001395874.1	5E−106	336	62.8	71.1
Aspergillus kawachii [IFO 4308]	GAA87693.1	6E−106	336	62.8	70.8
Aspergillus fumigatus [Af293]	XP_747808.1	2E−100	342	62	71.3
Neosartorya fischeri [NRRL 181]	XP_001257459.1	5E−94	353	60.9	68.8
Aspergillus flavus [NRRL3357]	XP_002380969.1	9E−94	332	64.2	70.8
Aspergillus terreus [NIH2624]	XP_001209872.1	6E−93	344	62.5	68.9
Penicillium chrysogenum [Wisconsin 54-1255]	XP_002566301.1	3E−74	351	49.3	58.7
Coccidioides immitis [RS]	XP_001239027.1	1E−64	355	44.5	54.6
Ajellomyces capsulatus [H88]	EGC49893.1	9E−64	364	45.9	58.0
Uncinocarpus reesii [1704]	XP_002585289.1	6E−54	440	34.1	42.0
Penicillium marneffei [ATCC 18224]	XP_002148846.1	1E−52	342	38	43.9
Botryotinia fuckeliana	CCD44702.1	6E−47	347	40.3	51.9
Neurospora tetrasperma [FGSC 2508]	EGO52630.1	2E−44	347	39.8	50.1
Neurospora crassa [OR74A]	XP_964590.1	2E−44	343	39.1	50.1
Magnaporthe oryzae [70-15]	XP_003720663	4E−50	335	38.5	50.4
Chaetomium globosum [CBS 148.51]	XP_001222401.1	6E−39	382	34.0	45.8
Fusarium oxysporum [Fo5176]	EGU84033.1	3E−38	350	34.9	43.4

TABLE 8
Comparison of MtfA with other A. nidulans
C2H2 transcription factors
				% identity of the
Transcription	Accession			DNA binding
Factor	No. (NCBI)	% identity	length	domain
FlbC	ACP28867	25.3	399	29.0
BrlA	XP_658577	21.4	457	19.2
SteA	O74252	11.3	742	27.9
PacC	CAA87390	6.1	830	9.8
SltA	XP_660523	11.7	720	21.7
CrzA	XP_663330	14.3	746	25.8
CreA	AAR02858	6.4	607	25.0
Note:
The pairwise sequence alignment was carried out with EMBOSS Needle, provided by EMBL-EBI.

Publications

These publications are incorporated by reference to the extent they relate materials and methods disclosed herein.

• BROWN, D. W., J. H. YU, H. S. KELKAR, M. FERNANDES, T. C. NESBITT et al., 1996 Twenty-five coregulated transcripts define a sterigmatocystin gene cluster in Aspergillus nidulans. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences of the United States of America 93: 1418-1422.
• CALVO, A. M., J. BOK, W. BROOKS and N. P. KELLER, 2004 veA is required for toxin and sclerotial production in Aspergillus parasiticus. Applied and Environmental Microbiology 70: 4733-4739.
• CALVO A. M. 2008. The VeA regulatory system and its role in morphological and chemical development in fungi. Fungal Genetics and Biology 45:1053-61.
• COLE, R. J., and R. H. COX, 1981 Handbook of Toxic Fungal Metabolites. Academic Press, New York.
• DURAN, R. M., J. W. CARY and A. M. CALVO, 2007 Production of cyclopiazonic acid, aflatrem, and aflatoxin by Aspergillus flavus is regulated by veA, a gene necessary for sclerotial formation. Applied Microbiology and Biotechnology 73: 1158-1168.
• KAFER, E., 1977 Meiotic and mitotic recombination in Aspergillus and its chromosomal aberrations. Adv. Genet. 19: 33-131.
• KATO, N., W. BROOKS and A. M. CALVO, 2003 The expression of sterigmatocystin and penicillin genes in Aspergillus nidulans is controlled by veA, a gene required for sexual development. Eukaryotic Cell 2: 1178-1186.
• KELLER, N. P., and T. M. HOHN, 1997 Metabolic pathway gene clusters in filamentous fungi. Fungal Genetics and Biology 21: 17-29.
• KIM, H. S., K. Y. HAN, K. J. KIM, D. M. HAN, K. Y. JAHNG et al., 2002 The veA gene activates sexual development in Aspergillus nidulans. Fungal Genetics and Biology 37: 72-80.
• MILLER, B. L., K. Y. MILLER, K. A. ROBERTI and W. E. TIMBERLAKE, 1987 Position-dependent and position-independent mechanisms regulate cell-specific expression of the spoc1 gene-cluster of Aspergillus nidulans. Molecular and Cellular Biology 7: 427-434.
• MILLER, B. L., K. Y. MILLER and W. E. TIMBERLAKE, 1985 Direct and indirect gene replacements in Aspergillus nidulans. Molecular and Cellular Biology 5: 1714-1721.
• MYUNG, K., S. J. LI, R. A. E. BUTCHKO, M. BUSMAN, R. H. PROCTOR et al., 2009 FvVE1 Regulates Biosynthesis of the Mycotoxins Fumonisins and Fusarins in Fusarium verticillioides. Journal of Agricultural and Food Chemistry 57: 5089-5094.
• OSHEROV, N., and G. MAY, 2000 Conidial germination in Aspergillus nidulans requires RAS signaling and protein synthesis. Genetics 155: 647-656.
• PONTECORVO, G., J. A. ROPER, L. M. HEMMONS, K. D. MACKDONALD, A. W. BUFTON et al., 1953. The genetics of Aspergillus nidulans. Adv. Genet. 5: 141-238.
• SAMBROOK, J., and D. W. RUSSELL, 2003 Molecular cloning: a laboratory manual, 3rd ed. Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.
• YELTON, M. M., J. E. HAMER, E. R. DESOUZA, E. J. MULLANEY and W. E. TIMBERLAKE, 1983 Developmental regulation of the Aspergillus nidulans-Trpc Gene. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences 80: 7576-7580.
• YU, J. H., R. A. Butchko, M. Fernandes, N. P. Keller, T. J. Leonard, and T. H. Adams. 1996. Conservation of structure and function of the aflatoxin regulatory gene aflR from Aspergillus nidulans and A. flavus. Curr. Genet. 29: 549-555.

Claims

1. A genetically modified fungal strain selected from the strains listed in FIG. 11 wherein the modification is in an mtfA homolog.

2. A method to control expression of secondary metabolites by fungal genes encoding a fungal transcription factor , the method comprising: (a) selecting a gene encoding a fungal transcription factor; and(b) manipulating expression of the gene in a fungal strain of claim 1 to increase or decrease expression products.

3. The method of claim 2 wherein manipulating is deleting the gene or a part of the gene.

4. The method of claim 2 wherein manipulating is interrupting the coding region of the gene with an insertion.

5. The method of claim 2 wherein the secondary metabolites are selected from the group consisting of mycotoxins and antibiotics.

6. A method to improve production of desirable secondary metabolites during fermentation or reduce undesirable products, the method comprising: (a) increasing the production of secondary metabolites by increasing expression of mtfA encoding a fungal transcription factor;(b) decreasing the production of undesirable products of fermentation by not expressing a gene encoding a fungal regulator; and(c) coordinating expression of the genes in the fungal strain of claim 1 to achieve a predetermined combination of products.

7. The method of claim 6 wherein a desirable secondary metabolite is penicillin.

8. The method of claim 6 wherein an undesirable product is selected from the group consisting of mycotoxin and aflatoxin.

9. The method of claim 2 where the fungal transcription factor is MtfA.

10. A method to increase production of penicillin from a fungus, the method comprising: (a) obtaining the fungal strain of claim 1 capable of producing penicillin; and(b) causing the fungal strain to overexpress the mtfA gene encoding the MtfA protein.

11. A method to reduce sexual and asexual development of a fungus, the method comprising: (a) obtaining the fungus; and(b) manipulating expression of the gene encoding MtfA with an insertion or deletion in the gene.

12. A modification of the mtfA genetic locus in a fungal strain of claim 1, wherein the modification is selected from the group consisting of a deletion, alteration and overexpression.

13. A DNA cassette producing the modification of claim 1.

14. The fungal strain of claim 1 selected from the group consisting of TRVΔ mtfA and TRVΔ60.