Patent Application
20200035903
This invention relates to electroactive material (EAM) actuators, and methods for driving EAM actuators.
Electroactive materials (EAMs) are a class of materials within the field of electrically responsive materials. When implemented in an actuation device, subjecting an EAM to an electrical drive signal can make them change in size and/or shape. This effect can be used for actuation and sensing purposes. There exist inorganic and organic EAMs. A special kind of organic EAMs are electroactive polymers (EAPs).
Electroactive polymers (EAPs) are an emerging class of materials within the field of electrically responsive materials. EAPs can work as sensors or actuators and can easily be manufactured into various shapes allowing easy integration into a large variety of systems.
Materials have been developed with characteristics such as actuation stress and strain which have improved significantly over the last ten years. Technology risks have been reduced to acceptable levels for product development so that EAPs are commercially and technically becoming of increasing interest. Advantages of EAPs include low power, small form factor, flexibility, noiseless operation, accuracy, the possibility of high resolution, fast response times, and cyclic actuation.
The improved performance and particular advantages of EAP material give rise to applicability to new applications.
An EAP device can be used in any application in which a small amount of movement of a component or feature is desired, based on electric actuation. Similarly, the technology can be used for sensing small movements.
The use of EAPs enables functions which were not possible before, or offers a big advantage over common sensor/actuator solutions, due to the combination of a relatively large deformation and force in a small volume or thin form factor, compared to common actuators. EAPs also give noiseless operation, accurate electronic control, fast response, and a large range of possible actuation frequencies, such as 0-1 MHz, most typically below 20 kHz.
Devices using electroactive polymers can be subdivided into field-driven and ionic-driven materials.
Examples of field-driven EAPs include Piezoelectric polymers, Electrostrictive polymers (such as PVDF based relaxor polymers) and Dielectric Elastomers. Other examples include Electrostrictive Graft polymers, Electrostrictive paper, Electrets, Electroviscoelastic Elastomers and Liquid Crystal Elastomers.
Examples of ionic-driven EAPs are conjugated/conducting polymers, Ionic Polymer Metal Composites (IPMC) and carbon nanotubes (CNTs). Other examples include ionic polymer gels.
This invention relates in particular to field-driven electroactive material actuators.
Field-driven EAPs are actuated by an electric field through direct electromechanical coupling. They usually require high fields (volts per meter) but low currents. Polymer layers are usually thin to keep the driving voltage as low as possible. Ionic EAPs are activated by an electrically induced transport of ions and/or solvent. They usually require low voltages but high currents. They require a liquid/gel electrolyte medium (although some material systems can also operate using solid electrolytes).
Both classes of EAP have multiple family members, each having their own advantages and disadvantages.
A first notable subclass of field-driven EAPs are Piezoelectric and Electrostrictive polymers. While the electromechanical performance of traditional piezoelectric polymers is limited, a breakthrough in improving this performance has led to PVDF relaxor polymers, which show spontaneous electric polarization (field-driven alignment). These materials can be pre-strained for improved performance in the strained direction (pre-strain leads to better molecular alignment). Normally, metal electrodes are used since strains usually are in the moderate regime (1-5%). Other types of electrodes (such as conducting polymers, carbon black based oils, gels or elastomers, etc.) can also be used. The electrodes can be continuous, or segmented.
Another subclass of interest of field-driven EAPs is that of Dielectric Elastomers. A thin film of this material may be sandwiched between compliant electrodes, forming a parallel plate capacitor. In the case of dielectric elastomers, the Maxwell stress induced by the applied electric field results in a stress on the film, causing it to contract in thickness and expand in area. Strain performance is typically enlarged by pre-straining the elastomer (requiring a frame to hold the pre-strain). Strains can be considerable (10-300%). This also constrains the type of electrodes that can be used: for low and moderate strains, metal electrodes and conducting polymer electrodes can be considered, for the high-strain regime, carbon black based oils, gels or elastomers are typically used. The electrodes can be continuous, or segmented.
In some cases, thin film electrodes are added when the polymer itself lacks sufficient conductivity (dimension-wise). The electrolyte can be a liquid, a gel or a solid material (i.e. complex of high molecular weight polymers and metal salts). Most common conjugated polymers are polypyrrole (PPy), Polyaniline (PANi) and polythiophene (PTh).
An actuator may also be formed of carbon nanotubes (CNTs), suspended in an electrolyte. The electrolyte forms a double layer with the nanotubes, allowing injection of charges. This double-layer charge injection is considered as the primary mechanism in CNT actuators. The CNT acts as an electrode capacitor with charge injected into the CNT, which is then balanced by an electrical double-layer formed by movement of electrolytes to the CNT surface. Changing the charge on the carbon atoms results in changes of C—C bond length. As a result, expansion and contraction of single CNT can be observed.
The device comprises an electroactive polymer layer 14 sandwiched between electrodes 10, 12 on opposite sides of the electroactive polymer layer 14.
Together, the electrodes, electroactive polymer layer, and carrier may be considered to constitute the overall electroactive polymer structure.
The nature of this movement for example arises from the interaction between the active layer which expands when actuated, and the passive carrier layer. To obtain the asymmetric curving around an axis as shown, molecular orientation (film stretching) may for example be applied, forcing the movement in one direction.
The expansion in one direction may result from the asymmetry in the EAP polymer, or it may result from asymmetry in the properties of the carrier layer, or a combination of both.
An electroactive polymer structure as described above may be used both for actuation and for sensing. The most prominent sensing mechanisms are based on force measurements and strain detection. Dielectric elastomers, for example, can be easily stretched by an external force. By putting a low voltage on the sensor, the strain can be measured as a function of voltage (the voltage is a function of the area).
Another way of sensing with field-driven systems is measuring the capacitance-change directly or measuring changes in electrode resistance as a function of strain.
Piezoelectric and electrostrictive polymer sensors can generate an electric charge in response to applied mechanical stress (given that the amount of crystallinity is high enough to generate a detectable charge). Conjugated polymers can make use of the piezo-ionic effect (mechanical stress leads to exertion of ions). CNTs experience a change of charge on the CNT surface when exposed to stress, which can be measured. It has also been shown that the resistance of CNTs change when in contact with gaseous molecules (e.g. O2, NO2), making CNTs usable as gas detectors.
When an EAP actuator is activated, a certain time delay caused by the capacitive behavior occurs. Approximately, the EAP-response follows a non-linear, exponential function, which essentially is very similar to the charging curve of a capacitor.
To reach a certain position of the EAP, this capacitive charge needs to reach a corresponding level as well. Such a charging level is reached after a certain multiple of the time constant τ. Usually, after a time duration of 5τ, the maximum extension (or end position) is reached. For applications where a fast response is needed with a limited delay time, or a higher frequency of operation is required, this behavior might be a disadvantage and would hinder the usage of EAPs.
Electro Active Polymers (EAPs) can be used in several applications where different requirements in terms of precision may exist. For example, if used as a simple haptic feedback device it is not important how the EAP reacts; it may be sufficient that it reacts at all and hence a feedback is given. However, in certain applications a very high precision may be required, where the EAP needs to be deactivated, or partially deactivated, very accurately. In such cases, ideally a step-like mechanical deformation is desired. This would be the case, for example, if the EAP is to be used as an on-off switch. As a function of the input signal, the EAP needs to change its mechanical state from a first (activated) state to a second (deactivated or partially deactivated) state. Alternatively, there are applications where actuation without jitter is required for example in steering devices such as catheters.
However for some EAPs, a very specific behavior has been observed. If operated by a rectangular driving voltage, the mechanical deformation (deactivation) shows a very strong oscillating performance as presented in
The top image shows the actuation voltage versus time, and the bottom image shows the mechanical response versus time. This may result in significant problems in some applications such as where very precise on-off states need to be provided. Usually a certain threshold value to separate between the off and on states is defined. If the device oscillates around this threshold value, the switching state is not defined and the switch itself will be jittering. For steering applications, the problem is an undefined (and at some points incorrect) steering direction. Therefore it would be of great benefit, if an EAP could be deactivated as fast as possible but without any oscillations during the deactivation phase.
The paper by Xiang, X., Alici, G., Mutlu, R., & Li, W. (2014); “How the type of input function affects the dynamic response of conducting polymer actuators” Smart Materials and Structures, 23, 11 discloses a method to improve the command following ability of a conducting polymer actuator, while minimizing the electric power consumption. A smooth input has been found to consume less electrical power than sharp inputs such as a step input with discontinuous higher-order derivatives. This work relates to slowly responding current-driven (ionic) actuators for which oscillations during the activation phase do not arise. Further, oscillations during the deactivation phase are not addressed.
As mentioned above, this invention relates in particular to field-driven electroactive polymer actuators. They are able to respond at high frequencies and consequently have been found to suffer from oscillation issues.
The invention is defined by the claims.
According to examples in accordance with an aspect of the invention, there is provided a field-driven electroactive material actuator, comprising:
an electroactive material structure; and
a driver for providing an actuation voltage to the electroactive material structure, wherein the driver is adapted to:
This arrangement is for low frequency voltage-driven EAP actuators. Rather than using a single step function to transition between the first and second voltages, a transition function is used that comprises a smoothing function and occurs over a time of at least 0.5 ms. In this way, mechanical oscillations of the actuator can be prevented whilst maintaining a deactivation period which is as short as possible for the particular EAP technology.
In particular, the driver is most preferably adapted to drive the actuation voltage from a first voltage level to a second voltage level, the second voltage level being lower than the first voltage level, and lying between the first level and zero.
According to this set of preferred embodiments, the invention in particular concerns instances in which an electroactive material actuator is being partially deactivated, so as to reach a lower actuation level, by reducing the driving voltage to a level between the first level and zero. It is in this circumstance that the problem of oscillation is most acute. To explain, if the EAP is being fully deactivated, the applied voltage is being disconnected and accordingly the EAP will slowly discharge via its internal parallel resistance and finally will go back to its initial position. However, if the EAP is being partially deactivated, so as to reach a lower actuation level between the first level and zero, the EAP will be discharged via the output impedance of the driving circuit, which is typically far lower than the internal parallel resistance of the EAP itself. By using a transition function to move to the second voltage level that comprises a smoothing function and occurs over a time of at least 0.5 ms, oscillation in such circumstances can be substantially avoided.
The specific gradient and shape of the smoothing function may be selected to find the best compromise between oscillation suppression and response speed.
In an embodiment, the smoothing function comprises at least one of: a ramp function; a parabolic function; and an exponential function.
In order to reduce and/or eliminate the oscillations generated by an EAP during a deactivation phase, the slope of the smoothing function, and so the transition function, should be as shallow as possible. The simplest way in which this can be realized is with a ramp like response, starting from the first voltage level and ending at the second voltage level with a single straight line. Accordingly, the ramp function occurs over a time of at least 0.5 ms. In this case, the entire transition time relates to the smoothing function.
The transition time may be at least 1.0 ms or at least 2.0 ms or at least 5.0 ms.
Other shapes may also be considered for the smoothing function, such as parabolic and exponential functions. In particular, an exponential waveform is simple to implement in an electronic system through the inclusion of a capacitor. In addition, the waveform shapes may be combined to form the smoothing function. For example, within a first time frame of the total transition time a ramp may be used, which may then be followed by an exponential function or a parabolic function in a second time frame.
In some embodiments, the smoothing function is approximated as a set of discrete points.
In further embodiments, the smoothing function further comprises interpolated data points between the discrete points.
The smoothing function selected to manage a deactivation transition of an EAP may be realized by a gradual approximation. For example, step functions, with or without any interpolated intermediate values, may be used, wherein the steps are chosen to reduce any oscillations to a reasonable amount. Interpolated values may be exactly on, or close to, the corresponding points of the smoothing function.
In some designs, the transition function further comprises at least one of: a first step function, between the first voltage level and the smoothing function; and a second step function, between the smoothing function and the second voltage level.
In this way, it is possible to increase the speed of the transition function whilst simultaneously preventing excessive oscillations.
In an arrangement, the actuator further comprises a feedback system adapted to detect oscillations of the electroactive material structure.
In a further arrangement, the feedback system comprises at least one of: a mechanical sensor; and an electrical sensor.
In a yet further arrangement, the driver is adapted to alter the drive voltage if the oscillations detected by the feedback system are above a threshold value.
Mechanical sensors used to detect actuator oscillations may include: a PVDF foil; a strain gauge; an optical distance/deflection sensor; or any other external sensor capable of detecting the mechanical oscillations of the actuator.
Electrical sensors may be adapted to detect oscillating changes in the driving signal/current of the actuator in order to identify mechanical oscillations. A simple implementation of this would be to connect a small resistor in series with the actuator.
As the sensors can only detect existing oscillations, a threshold value for an ‘allowable’ level of oscillations is included. If the threshold is exceeded, the driving signal is adapted accordingly.
In some embodiments, the transition function further comprises an anti-oscillation function, the anti-oscillation function having the same frequency as oscillations of the electroactive material structure.
The mechanical oscillations of a given EAP actuator depend on its design, such as its form, size and shape, its load condition and the deactivation requirements. Thus, for actuators with known oscillations, a specific transition signal may be generated, such as an initial step function followed by a dc-biased anti-oscillation function. In order to destructively interfere with the actuator oscillations, the frequency of the anti-oscillation function needs to match the oscillation frequency of the actuator.
In further embodiments, the anti-oscillation function has a phase shift between 170° and 190° relative to the oscillations of the electroactive material structure.
A phase shift of this magnitude allows the anti-oscillation function to achieve total destructive interference with the actuator oscillations.
In an embodiment, the driver comprises a memory adapted to store look-up tables of predetermined values for driving the actuation voltage.
In this way, the driver may have quick and reliable access to transition and smoothing functions to reduce and/or eliminate oscillations due to a planned deactivation of the EAP actuator.
In an arrangement, the actuator further comprises a microcontroller.
According to examples in accordance with an aspect of the invention, there is provided a method for driving a field-driven electroactive material actuator, the method comprising:
providing an electroactive material structure with an actuation voltage; and
driving the actuation voltage from a first voltage level to a second voltage level, the second voltage level being lower than the first voltage, by way of a transition function, the transition function occurring over a transition time, wherein the transition function comprises a smoothing function, wherein the transition time is at least 0.5 ms.
Preferably, the second voltage level lies between the first level and zero.
In an embodiment, the method further comprises approximating the smoothing functions as a set of discrete points.
In a further embodiment, the method further comprises interpolating data points between the discrete points.
Examples of the invention will now be described in detail with reference to the accompanying drawings, in which:
The invention provides a field-driven electroactive material actuator that is driven by an actuation voltage. A driver is adapted to drive the actuation voltage from a first voltage level to a second voltage level, wherein the second voltage level is lower than the first, by way of a transition function, which occurs over a transition time. The transition function includes a smoothing function. The transition time is at least 0.5 ms.
Typically, an EAP is controlled by a driving circuit which provides the required electrical voltage to operate the component. If the EAP is being activated, the driver normally generates a step dc voltage with a certain amplitude to bring the EAP into the desired position. Since electronic driving circuits are not ideal (e.g. they always have internal resistances), the actuation response is not only a function of the EAP itself but also of the driving circuit. In order to reduce the impact of the driver, the operating voltage for the EAP is usually stored in a capacitor, parallel to the EAP, and in terms of actuation this stored voltage is fed by an electronic switch (e.g. transistor, MOSFET) to the EAP.
The EAP actuator then starts to deform as a function of its charge, which again depends on the applied voltage amplitude. If the EAP is being deactivated, the applied voltage is being disconnected and accordingly the EAP will slowly discharge via its internal parallel resistance and finally will go back to its initial position. If the EAP is being partially deactivated, so as to reach a lower actuation level, the driving voltage is reduced. In this case, the EAP will be discharged via the output impedance of the driving circuit, which is typically far lower than the internal parallel resistance of the EAP itself.
A problem is that the step decrease in voltage can give rise to mechanical oscillation. In particular, it has been observed by the applicant during experimental investigations that voltage (field) driven EAPs, operated by a rectangular voltage show strong oscillations during the deactivation phase, whereas a sinusoidal operation does not result in these oscillations. The oscillations during the deactivation phase are found to be caused by a sudden change of the control (actuation) voltage. Mathematically this can be described as the slope or voltage derivative dv/dt.
If this slope exceeds a threshold, oscillations have been found to appear. If the slope is limited by providing a transition function which follows one of a set of suitable mathematical smoothing functions, these oscillations can be reduced, or even fully or almost fully eliminated. A further measure to assist in providing a non-oscillating deactivation of an EAP is a smooth transition between the deactivation phase and the final steady state. Again, a large step in operating voltage may cause oscillations. The change in the voltage amplitude at this transition should thus also be limited. For example, at the point of transition between deactivation phase and the final steady state position, the slope or voltage derivative dv/dt may be small or zero.
In order to determine the most suitable mathematical smoothing functions for the deactivation transition function, various measurements have been made using a standard voltage-driven EAP actuator.
The exemplary smoothing functions, given in Table 1, are limited to the time where the EAP is forced to change actuation state from an initial state to a lower one. Mathematically the corresponding time t is limited to: t0<t≤t1, where t0 is the point in time where the deactivation starts and t1 is the point in time where the transition should end. Typically, this is the point in time where the EAP should reach its new actuation level. Further, v0 is the actual voltage at t0 and v1 is the required voltage at t1.
The top graph 20 of
The leftmost transition function 30 of the top graph 20 shows the previously discussed step function typically used in conventional EAP actuator systems. In this case, the theoretical gradient of the transition function is infinitely negative, meaning the transition time is theoretically infinitely small, thereby resulting in large oscillations as shown in the corresponding leftmost signal 31 of the lower graph 22. The table below shows the approximate gradients used in each transition, and the corresponding plot in the bottom graph 22.
As can be readily seen from the lower graph 22, a reduction in the absolute value of the gradient of the transition, and so an increase in the transition time, leads to a significant reduction in the amplitude and number of oscillations observed in the EAP.
As shown in the table above, the absolute gradient may for example be less than 2 kV/s, for example less than 20 kV/s, for example less than 200 kV/s. By having the transition shallower than a true step function, oscillations are reduced or avoided. A transition from 200V to zero for example may take place in 1 ms or longer.
Such corrections could be stored by the driver in a look-up table for example. By increasing the absolute gradient of the transition function, and so reducing the transition time, the offset and the delay decrease. For this specific EAP, a transition function 32 with a gradient of about −1280 V/s comes closest to the original response but with severely reduced oscillations 33. This gradient leads to a transition time of approximately 0.8 ms. The transition time may be decreased further; however, decreasing the transition time below 0.5 ms may increase the risk of generating oscillations.
In contrast to the first set of measurements, shown in
As discussed above, it is possible for the smoothing function to adopt a number of, or combination of, different shapes as shown in Table 1. In order to reduce, or prevent, the oscillations, the transition time, which may comprise one or more smoothing times, should be at least 0.5 ms.
As discussed above, the observed oscillations of a specific EAP depend on its design, load condition and the (de)actuation requirements. Thus, for actuators with known oscillations, a specific deactivation signal may be generated. For example, a step-wise response may be used initially, followed by a dc-biased anti-oscillation function 94. The anti-oscillation function needs to have the same frequency as the mechanical oscillations, but shifted in phase by about 180° in order to achieve destructive interference. More specifically, in order to pro-actively compensate the mechanical oscillations, the phase shift needs to be adapted so that the driving signal is leading by slightly less than 180°.
Since the oscillation frequency is dependent on EAP geometry, clamping, history and driving voltage, it is necessary to determine the exact oscillation frequency just before de-actuation occurs in order to achieve maximum effectiveness of the anti-oscillation function. An electrical measurement of the typical oscillation frequency of the EAP can be used to determine the anti-oscillation amplitude. This eliminates the need for feedback on the amplitude of the EAP oscillations, for example by using an additional sensor.
The oscillation frequency of the EAP can be determined by driving a small AC voltage signal on top of the primary actuation voltage. This small AC voltage signal is small enough to avoid adding extra mechanical deformations to the EAP, but can still be measured electronically. Typically, the small AC voltage signal will be <1% of the primary actuation voltage.
In order to generate the required transition function, several implementations may be used. Basic analogue circuits may be employed in some cases, such as using a capacitor to generate an exponential smoothing function. Further, a digital-microcontroller may calculate the required analogue data points for the transition function, which may then be amplified by any conventional power amplifier solution.
Further still, a look-up table approach might be implemented; where all required data points are pre-calculated and saved in a memory within the driver, or other suitable controlling device. The digital or analogue data points may then be read out as a function of time.
In step 112, an EAP structure is provided with an actuation voltage.
In step 114, a smoothing function may be approximated as a set of discrete points.
In step 116, data points may be interpolated between the discrete data points in order to better approximate the original smoothing function.
In step 118, the actuation voltage is driven from a first voltage level to a second voltage level, wherein the first voltage level is higher than the second, by way of a transition function, the transition function occurring over a transition time. The transition function at least partially comprises a smoothing function, wherein transition time is at least 0.5 ms.
This invention relates in particular to actuation of EAP actuators. However, it can be used in applications where an EAP device is performing both a sensing and an actuation function.
Although in the detailed description herein above the construction and operation of devices and systems according to the invention have been described for EAPs, the invention can in fact be used for devices based on other kinds of EAM material. Hence, unless indicated otherwise, the EAP materials hereinabove can be replaced with other EAM materials. Such other EAM materials are known in the art and the person skilled in the art will know where to find them and how to apply them.
Materials suitable for an EAP layer are known. Electro-active polymers include, but are not limited to, the sub-classes: piezoelectric polymers, electromechanical polymers, relaxor ferroelectric polymers, electrostrictive polymers, dielectric elastomers, liquid crystal elastomers, conjugated polymers, Ionic Polymer Metal Composites, ionic gels and polymer gels.
The sub-class electrostrictive polymers includes, but is not limited to:
Polyvinylidene fluoride (PVDF), Polyvinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE), Polyvinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene-chlorofluoroethylene (PVDF-TrFE-CFE), Polyvinylidene fluoride-trifluoroethylene-chlorotrifluoroethylene) (PVDF-TrFE-CTFE), Polyvinylidene fluoride-hexafluoropropylene (PVDF-HFP), polyurethanes or blends thereof.
The sub-class dielectric elastomers includes, but is not limited to:
acrylates, polyurethanes, silicones.
The sub-class conjugated polymers includes, but is not limited to:
polypyrrole, poly-3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene, poly(p-phenylene sulfide), polyanilines.
In all of these examples, additional passive layers may be provided for influencing the electrical and/or mechanical behavior of the EAP layer in response to an applied electric field.
The EAP layer of each unit may be sandwiched between electrodes. The electrodes may be stretchable so that they follow the deformation of the EAP material layer. Materials suitable for the electrodes are also known, and may for example be selected from the group consisting of thin metal films, such as gold, copper, or aluminum or organic conductors such as carbon black, carbon nanotubes, graphene, poly-aniline (PANI), poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) (PEDOT), e.g. poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) poly(styrenesulfonate) (PEDOT:PSS). Metalized polyester films may also be used, such as metalized polyethylene terephthalate (PET), for example using an aluminum coating.
If the electrodes are arranged in a non-symmetric configuration, the imposed voltage can induce all kinds of deformations such as twisting, rolling, torsioning, turning, and non-symmetric bending deformation.
The invention can be applied in many EAP and polymer applications, including examples where a passive matrix array of actuators is of interest.
In many applications the main function of the product relies on the (local) manipulation of human tissue, or the actuation of tissue contacting interfaces. In such applications EAP actuators for example provide unique benefits mainly because of the small form factor, the flexibility and the high energy density. Hence EAP's and photoresponsive polymers can be easily integrated in soft, 3D-shaped and/or miniature products and interfaces. Examples of such applications are:
Skin cosmetic treatments such as skin actuation devices in the form of a responsive polymer based skin patches which apply a constant or cyclic stretch to the skin in order to tension the skin or to reduce wrinkles;
Respiratory devices with a patient interface mask which has a responsive polymer based active cushion or seal, to provide an alternating normal pressure to the skin which reduces or prevents facial red marks;
Electric shavers with an adaptive shaving head. The height of the skin contacting surfaces can be adjusted using responsive polymer actuators in order to influence the balance between closeness and irritation;
Oral cleaning devices such as an air floss with a dynamic nozzle actuator to improve the reach of the spray, especially in the spaces between the teeth. Alternatively, toothbrushes may be provided with activated tufts;
Consumer electronics devices or touch panels which provide local haptic feedback via an array of responsive polymer transducers which is integrated in or near the user interface;
Catheters with a steerable tip to enable easy navigation in tortuous blood vessels;
Measurements of physiological human body parameters such as heart beat, SpO2 and blood pressure.
Another category of relevant application which benefits from such actuators relates to the modification of light. Optical elements such as lenses, reflective surfaces, gratings etc. can be made adaptive by shape or position adaptation using these actuators. Here one benefit of EAPs for example is a lower power consumption.
Other variations to the disclosed embodiments can be understood and effected by those skilled in the art in practicing the claimed invention, from a study of the drawings, the disclosure, and the appended claims. In the claims, the word “comprising” does not exclude other elements or steps, and the indefinite article “a” or “an” does not exclude a plurality. The mere fact that certain measures are recited in mutually different dependent claims does not indicate that a combination of these measures cannot be used to advantage. Any reference signs in the claims should not be construed as limiting the scope.
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 17158318.0 | Feb 2017 | EP | regional |
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/EP2018/054723 | 2/27/2018 | WO | 00 |
