Patent Grant
10907264
This invention relates to a composition of matter for at least a multi-layer conductive diamond electrode deposited on a cost effective metal or semiconductor substrate, resulting in extraordinary durability, reliability, and resistance to failure under high current density/voltage and shear stress. The invention also describes diamond electrodes that resist oxidative electrochemical etching exceeding that of prior art polycrystalline diamond electrodes. The inventive diamond electrode can be utilized in any electrochemical application requiring extreme durability and reliability, but is particularly well suited for waste water treatment (electrochemical advanced oxidation processes, EAOP) and electrochemical ozonated water generation.
A superior electrode useful for electrochemical applications has the following characteristics: (1) Wide working potential window, high over-potentials for oxygen and hydrogen evolution; (2) Durability: ability to function for long periods in a wide range of electrochemical applications (oxidant generation, amperometric detection of redox-active target chemicals); (3) Pin-hole free thin films, isolation of the electroactivity to just that of the conducting diamond electrode surface, inhibition of electrode failure via delamination caused by deleterious electrochemical reactions at the diamond/substrate interface; (4) High current density operation, reduces the need for active electrode area thereby reducing the volume/space of the system infrastructure with the electrode and reducing the capital costs of the technology. High current density also increases the descale efficiency. (See “Electrochemical System And Method For On-Site Generation Of Oxidants At High Current Density, WO 2012142435 A2, to Ian W. Wylie et al.; and (5) Minimization of the total thickness of the diamond needed to meet cost, durability and lifetime specifications of the application.
Note that in theory only a few layers of diamond material deposited on a conducting substrate would enable limited function for these applications, but the current state of the technology does not allow this to be achieved effectively. This invention delivers electrode technology which meets the application criteria. Advanced Diamond Technologies Inc. (ADT) proprietary UNCD® (ultrananocrystalline diamond) enables much thinner diamond to be sufficiently durable, but this material alone does not exhibit optimal electrochemical properties for many water treatment applications. MCD (microcrystalline diamond) has superior electrochemical properties but this material alone does not meet the required durability, reliability, and economic needs for practical applications (i.e., its deposition time is typically substantially longer and more expensive). According to an embodiment, the innovation combines UNCD and MCD on various metal or silicon substrates, which provides products that exceed those based on either type of diamond individually.
For the purpose of clarifying the differences between UNCD and MCD films for electrochemical applications, MCD, with much larger grain sizes and with a structure with larger grain presence near the terminal surface, has a much smaller proportion of sp2-bonded (graphitic) carbon at the surface. Sp2-bonded carbon is more electroactive than sp3-bonded (diamond) carbon at applied potentials below +/− about 3V. MCD films are also more resistant to oxidative processes that lead to active electrochemical etching of diamond in certain conditions, such as the applications involving high current densities in ordinary water (e.g., for ozone generation) or in the presence of organic acids, e.g., acetic acid (C2H4O2) and oxalic acid (C2H2O4), which are often encountered in waste water treatment applications (EAOP—Electrochemical Advanced Oxidation Processes).
UNCD films have superior adhesion (than MCD films) to metal and silicon electrode substrates due to a combination of small grain size, higher, as-deposited, tensile stress (leading to lower interfacial stress), and less differential stress in the film, in particular for thicker UNCD films.
In order to reduce cost and to improve compatibility with other materials, diamond coatings for electrodes must typically be integrated with conducting metal and/or silicon substrates. Ideally, these substrates support higher thermal expansion coefficients (compared to diamond thermal expansion coefficient). However, lower cost materials most often have characteristics generally unfavorable for the nucleation and adhesion of diamond to the substrates (i.e. not good carbide-forming materials). Further, as a useful electrode, the diamond film must be pin-hole free to avoid electrochemical reactions occurring at the diamond/substrate interface which can also lead to delamination of the film from the substrate. Then the diamond must be doped with boron or other dopant, such as nitrogen, in order to render it conductive. Finally, the surface of the diamond that will drive most of the electrochemical reactions, for which diamond is attractive, must consist of a large sp3-bonded fraction, and not consist of large amounts of sp2-bonded (graphitically bonded) carbon that can reduce the over-potential for oxygen evolution in water-based reactions or reduce the chemical inertness of the film that is important in all electrochemical applications including those that occur in aqueous environments.
Diamond is well known to be a hard material by those unskilled in the art. For those skilled in the art it is generally well known that the properties of diamond thin films grown using conventional chemical vapor deposition technologies can be adjusted and optimized for different electrochemical electrode applications. Choices of deposition chemistries can, for instance, dramatically change the conductivity or thermal conductivity of the electrode. In most cases engineering of the film for a particular property results in the diminishment of other important film properties. High thermal conductivity requires growth chemistries that yield larger diamond grains, which have an overall negative impact on the differential stress of the film and the cost as well, (i.e. slower deposition rates). Fine grain diamond materials that are well suited to achieve superior film adhesion and lower film stress yield very poor thermal conductivities and are also not optically transparent. Films grown to be highly thermally conductive are also very rough and cannot be used for applications that require low friction and high wear resistance. Therefore, there is a need to develop a novel diamond film and electrode composition which can simultaneously deliver extreme durability with an acceptable deposition cost.
Diamond films have been deposited previously using many techniques and have been well characterized in terms of sp2 (graphitic carbon) versus sp3 (diamond) carbon content, grain size distribution, roughness, friction coefficient, Young's modulus, durability under extreme stress and many other key characteristics. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 7,556,982, to Carlisle et al., and U.S. Pat. No. 6,592,839, to Gruen et al., describe ultrananocrystalline diamond (UNCD) films comprised of pure sp3 diamond grains of less than 10 nm average grain size independent of thickness. When correctly deposited, i.e. “phase pure,” such UNCD films are typically comprised of less than 8% overall sp2 carbon content, as characterized by NEXAFS (Near Edge X-Ray Absorption Fine Structure Spectroscopy), principally due to the sp2 bonding between grains. Typical Young's moduli for such UNCD films vary between 550 and 900 GPa.
More traditional microcrystalline diamond (MCD) films, as for example in U.S. Pat. No. 4,766,040, to Hillert et al., typically exhibit grain sizes from 100 nm up to several microns in average grain size which increases with increasing film thickness during deposition. Such MCD films, when correctly deposited, i.e. “phase pure”, usually exhibit less than 1% sp2 carbon content because of the larger average grain size (less grain boundary) of these films as compared to UNCD. Chemical and electrochemical properties dependent upon sp2 carbon content, such as oxidation resistance and surface catalysis, will therefore tend to differ when comparing the properties of UNCD and MCD. Typical Young's moduli for MCD films approach those of single crystal diamond and are in the range of 900-1200 GPa.
Other bilayer or multilayer composite diamond films are known in the art. For example, U.S. Pat. No. 5,955,155, to Yamato et al., describes a multi-layer diamond film of at least 20 μm in thickness with a combination of MCD layers of grain size 3-7 μm. U.S. Pat. No. 7,384,693, to K. V. Ravi, describes a two layer diamond-like carbon composite film with pores and nitrogen doping to reduce film stress. U.S. Pat. No. 7,563,346, to Chen, also describes a multi-layer composite diamond-like carbon film using an interfacial layer of amorphous carbon to improve bond strength to the underlying substrate. Finally, U.S. Pat. No. 8,101,273, to Jacquet et al., describes a multilayer nanostructure separated by many intervening layers of diamond-like carbon. However, the last patent uses many layers of diamond in order to act as barrier layers between the nanostructures.
Other diamond electrodes and methods of using them for ozone production and other high current density and high reliability applications are known in the art. For example, U.S. patent application Pub. No. 2014/0174942, to Wylie et al., “Electrochemical System and Method for On-Site Generation of Oxidants at High Current Density,” by the current inventors and Arumugam, describes the basic 2 μm thick BD-MCD single layer electrodes used as the basis for improvement of the composite electrodes described in this invention. PCT patent application No. WO2013078004, to Wylie and Arumugam, “In Situ Regeneration of Diamond Electrodes after Anodic Oxidation” describes a method to extend the lifetime of diamond electrodes subject to extreme oxidative surface degradation through a series of short reverse polarity operations typically of duration less than 1% of the lifetime of the electrode. Such a method can also be used to extend the lifetime of diamond electrodes being used for ozone generation. Other prior art relevant to the use of diamond electrodes to generate ozone at high current density and systems using such electrodes include U.S. Pat. No. 8,734,626, to Arihara et al., “Electrode, Ozone Generation, and Ozone production Method”, U.S. Pat. No. 8,980,079, to Yost et al., “Electrolytic Cell for Ozone Production”, U.S. patent application Pub. No. 2012/168302, to Kato et al., “Ozone Generator”, and U.S. patent application Pub. No. 2011/0247929, to Nagai et al., “Diamond electrode and method for manufacturing diamond electrode,” and U.S. Pat. No. 6,620,210, to Murphy et al., “Method of washing laundry using ozone to degrade organic material.” All of these patents and applications illustrate different approaches to improving diamond electrodes for application to electrochemical oxidation challenges including the generation of ozone and for the use of ozone in certain applications. Given the extreme current densities and local electric fields required for electrochemical ozone generation in aqueous solutions, they all illustrate the need for yet more reliability to allow such electrodes to operate without failure for an extended period and to reduce the cost of their manufacture.
The present invention seeks to simultaneously improve durability of composite diamond electrodes, the delamination resistance of diamond films deposited upon electrode substrates, to reduce the cost of durable diamond-coated electrodes, to decrease the relative roughness of thick diamond films and to provide thinner composite layers of similar or improved reliability over thicker single layer films. At least a bilayer approach as deposited on an electrode substrate is proposed to deliver this improvement. Ultrananocrystalline Diamond (UNCD) films are particularly favored as an underlying layer because of their high deposition rates, small grain sizes (high re-nucleation rates), their extremely low roughness which is not dependent upon thickness, their extreme chemical compatibility with other diamond films, and their somewhat lower brittleness due to their somewhat lower Young's modulus and larger internal grain surface areas. UNCD is also much more easily polished even to sub-nm average roughness because of the somewhat lower Young's modulus of UNCD films and the larger proportion of sp2 carbon present in the film and most importantly because of the lower initial roughness (typically 5-8 nm) than MCD for example. Adjustment of the thickness of the underlying UNCD layer can be effected to optimize the stress relief and the other desired properties of the composite stack (such as radiation resistance and overall delamination resistance). An overlying layer of MCD is a superior choice due to its extreme chemical and biological inertness and its unsurpassed hardness. Given that the underlying layer can constitute the bulk of the thickness of the composite stack, the overlying layer can be much thinner and yet maintain a relatively high overall shear resistance of the composite stack. A thin MCD layer surface overlying a thick underlying UNCD layer as deposited on an electrode substrate thus delivers a robust combination of properties such as hardness, durability and chemical inertness appropriate for many different challenging applications in a composite diamond film based electrode that significantly outperforms the corresponding properties of a single (non-composite) layer-coated electrode.
CVD (Chemical Vapor Deposition) and other diamond deposition techniques including PECVD (Plasma Enhanced Chemical Vapor Deposition) are well known in the art and these prior art techniques can be used to deposit doped diamond with various properties and thicknesses on select electrode substrates. Nitrogen or boron are typically used to dope the diamond for high conductivity. In the data shown here, all of the electrodes were doped with boron and therefore the film type is prefaced with the abbreviation “BD” (boron-doped). In
The cross-sectional Scanning Electron Micrograph (SEM) of the inventive composite film as deposited on an electrode substrate shown in
The inventive conductive composite diamond electrode was tested under Highly Accelerated Stress Test (HAST) conditions at high current density and with varying levels of chemical acceleration. The literature (e.g. Kraft, “Doped Diamond: A Compact Review on a New, Versatile, Electrode Material”, Int. J. Electrochem. Sci., 2(2007) 355-385, p. 363), indicates that acetic acid (C2H4O2) or “HAC” is highly effective at accelerating the electro-etching of doped diamond. Current density acceleration is a standard HAST technique for electrode testing in our lab and has indicated that lifetimes before delamination decrease in rough proportion to the cube of increasing current density over a range from 2.0-3.0 A/cm2. Extrapolation of the lifetime to normal operating conditions was estimated to be a reasonable and conservative verification of HAST testing. Testing of previous single layer diamond electrodes (see Table 1) have indicated that this is a conservative estimate and that actual lifetimes to delamination at typical operating current densities, e.g. 0.15-0.50 A/cm2, are in fact longer than would be predicted from a simple cube-law extrapolation. However, this extrapolation will be used in this invention since the current density typical of ozone applications, i.e. 1.0-2.0 A/cm2, is much closer to the HAST conditions used for test to failure of the inventive electrodes and therefore the extrapolation will be less likely to diverge from the fitted cube law estimation.
Acetic Acid Testing:
An extreme chemical acceleration of the delamination/electro-etching of the diamond electrodes was achieved with an aqueous solution comprising 0.3 M HAC, 0.1 M sulfuric acid (H2SO4), 0.1 M sodium perchlorate (NaClO4). The diamond coated electrodes were exposed to this solution while being subject to a constant current density (in galvanostatic mode) of 0.5 A/cm2 at roughly 40° C. (104° F.), with an electrode gap of roughly 1 cm, and an applied voltage varying in a range between 10-25V. Multiple electrodes were tested using this HAST protocol with a lifetime to failure defined by an ˜3V increase in applied voltage which corresponded to an approximate delamination percentage of the diamond film electrode of 90-95% as observed in an optical microscope. The inventive electrodes with composite diamond film (5.5-μm thick BD-UNCD covered by 2-μm thick BD-MCD), tested with this method exhibited lifetime to delamination failure in the range of 50 to 60 Ahr/cm2 (100-120 hours under test at 0.5 A/cm2). See Table 1 for details. Testing using the same HAST protocol applied to previous generations of electrodes with a single layer of diamond deposited on the substrate, produced lifetimes to failure of roughly 5 to 7 Ahr/cm2 (10-14 hours under test). Therefore the inventive conductive composite (2 layer: UNCD MCD) diamond electrodes as shown in
Sodium Chloride (Salt Solution) Highly Accelerated Stress Testing:
A similar test regime was employed to that described above for HAC except that a 1M solution of sodium chloride (NaCl) was employed instead of HAC and the applied current density was much higher (2.5 A/cm2). Other test conditions were the same as those listed above. Lifetimes to failure were as high as 8000 Ahr/cm2 (corresponding to a time under test of >3200 hours) (see Table 1 for details). Such a test protocol was conducted before the HAC protocol, and is very time and labor costly, so we eventually used HAC protocol to evaluate the durability of electrodes. If a cube-law current density function of delamination lifetime is applied to this result for inorganic electrochemistry (e.g. solutions of NaCl or H2SO4), these lifetimes would correspond to a time to delamination failure of >342 years at a current density of 0.25 A/cm2, >58 years at 0.45 A/cm2 and >5 years at 1.0 A/cm2. The actual lifetime of a single layer conductive diamond electrode being operated at 0.45 A/cm2 has now been confined to be in excess of 2.0 years with only 60% delamination (i.e. it has not yet failed) which when compared to the cubed-law dependence would have failed at roughly 1.0 year, demonstrates that these single layer conductive diamond electrodes (and likely the inventive two layer conductive diamond electrodes) would last longer than a cube-law extrapolation as a function of current density would imply at these more “typical” current density operating conditions.
Table 1 presents representative data comparing the HAST under current density acceleration only (2nd column in Table 1) in 1M NaCl (58 g/L) at an extreme current density of 2.5 A/cm2 as compared to (3rd and 4th columns) both a mild current density acceleration (0.5 A/cm2) and an extreme chemical acceleration in 0.3 M HAC, 0.1 H2SO4. HAC provides a much more extreme HAST condition. Given the lower current density an approximate calculation of the extra acceleration by HAC can be made from the 2nd, 3rd and 4th row of comparative data. This is not definitive, but the HAC acceleration factor is likely to be at least 10,000 times greater than current density alone, i.e. in 1M NaCl. The innovative composite diamond electrodes were so reliable to delamination failure in 1M NaCl alone, that lifetime testing was restricted to the chemical HAST conditions to allow actual times to delamination failure of less than 6 months. Using a very conservative acceleration factor based upon the cube law extrapolation and the 10,000 times chemical acceleration factor calculated approximately from the other rows in the table, which is itself conservative, the bottom row of Table 1 (5 μm BD-UNCD/2 μm BD-MCD) would be expected to last more than 10 years at 1 A/cm2 under non-chemical acceleration conditions. 1 A/cm2 is an extreme current density for many electrochemical applications. It should be noted that the inventive film 5 μm BD-UNCD and 2 μm BD-MCD electrode has a shorter deposition time (less expensive) than the single layer 4 μm prior art BD-MCD film also listed in Table 1. Note, all of these results were derived from HAST measurements of planar electrodes. The non-planar geometry of typical ozone electrodes (e.g. cylindrical holes in a Nb substrate coated with diamond) would be expected to experience localized areas of higher electric fields, which could lower the lifetime for ozone generation or other non-planar geometry electrode applications. Higher HAST lifetimes of planar diamond films are required (or recommended) to accommodate the reliability requirements of these more extreme conditions.
It is well known to those skilled in the art of thin film deposition on metal or silicon electrodes that the use of strain-relieving layers can dramatically impact the quality of additional thin films grown on top of such layers. This is particularly true for the integration of epitaxial layers with substrates in which there is a significant lattice mismatch between the overlayer and electrode substrate. So-called “buffer” layers are used to distribute the stress within the heterostructure to prevent delamination and improve the overall material properties of the overlayer. An underlying diamond layer of BD-UNCD therefore serves the purpose of a “buffer” layer to distribute the deposition stress and stress generated in the layer during usage and thereby improve the overall delamination resistance of the composite film under shear stress which is particularly severe during high current density electrochemical oxidation (anodic oxidation) of a metallic, silicon or dielectric electrode substrates coated with doped diamond.
Without intention of being bound by a particular theory, it is hypothesized that the combination of the strong adhesion between the two diamond layers as deposited on an electrode substrate and the “cushioning” effect of the somewhat “softer” underlying “buffering” BD-UNCD layer provides some of the observed improvement in delamination resistance under shear stress caused by electrochemical oxidation. Additionally, the discontinuity in grain size between the two diamond layers as deposited on an electrode substrates may contribute to a reduction in defect propagation probabilities. Not withstanding the complex potential mechanisms that may contribute to the overall improvement in durability to shear stress, the experimental data indicates an improvement in lifetime under these extreme shear stress conditions of at least 5-10 times over non-composite BD-MCD films of the same or similar thickness as deposited on an electrode substrates. The extreme shear stress under high voltage/current density electrochemical oxidation is sufficient to pulverize even diamond films over time. However, BD-MCD exhibits larger grain sizes and Young's moduli and is therefore expected to exhibit greater resistance to this oxidative shear stress. However, such thick BD-MCD films would be much more expensive to deposit on an electrode substrate, due to their 340 times longer deposition times. The increase in reliability for a given thickness of the inventive composite film therefore offers the advantage of a thinner and less expensive composite diamond electrode for a given application and target reliability.
Alternative embodiments of the inventive diamond electrodes include the use of doped nanocrystalline diamond as the underlying layer and BD-MCD as the overlying layer or BD-UNCD as the underlying layer and BD-MCD as the overlying layer. The use of only two such layers may be sufficient for most applications. However, where extreme reliability or thicker diamond layers are appropriate (e.g. for ozone electrodes or high temperature applications), an additional set of underlying and overlying layers may be appropriate. This could involve a third diamond layer similar in properties (but not necessarily thickness) as the first diamond layer, (e.g. BD-UNCD) and a fourth diamond layer similar in properties (e.g. BD-MCD) to the second overlying layer.
Biomedical applications are appropriate for these composite diamond electrodes given their extreme hardness, bioinertness, chemical resistance and extreme reliability. Such applications could include cardiovascular devices, and other electrochemical or electrode implantables where these extraordinary properties would present an advantage over the prior art. For example, automatic defibrillators require a form of heart surgery to replace batteries. The battery lifetime is severely limited by the build-up of the body's immune system at or near the point of contact between the electrode and the surrounding tissue. The well-known extreme chemical and bioinertness of composite diamond electrodes could present a significant advantage in reducing the body's immunological reaction to the presence of these implantables and should significantly lengthen the useful lifetime of battery power for these devices.
These and other variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art once the above disclosure is fully appreciated. It is intended that the following claims be interpreted to embrace all such variations and modifications.
This application is a Non-Provisional Application, which claims priority to Provisional Application No. 62/173,504, filed Jun. 10, 2015, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
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