FORMING DIENES FROM CYCLIC ETHERS AND DIOLS, INCLUDING TETRAHYDROFURAN AND 2-METHYL-1,4-BUTANEDIOL

Abstract

Forming a diene includes contacting a reactant including at least one of a cyclic ether and a diol with a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield a reaction mixture including a diene. The heterogeneous acid catalyst includes at least one of a Lewis acid catalyst, a supported Lewis-acid catalyst, a Brnsted acid catalyst, a solid acid catalyst, a supported phosphoric acid catalyst, and a sulfonated catalyst. The dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols with high selectivity to yield dienes completes pathways for the production of dienes, such as isoprene and butadiene, from biomass in high yields, thereby promoting economical production of dienes from renewable resources.

Description

BACKGROUND

Some dienes, such as butadiene and isoprene, are used to produce rubbery polymers (e.g., for use in car tires). These dienes are commonly produced from the cracking of naptha and other petroleum-derived precursors. Although these dienes can be produced from renewable resources such as bio-based feedstocks, yields are generally low, making these processes cost prohibitive. In one example, depicted in Scheme 1, furfural can be formed from xylose, a readily available biomass-derived platform molecule. Furfural can then be converted to furan through decarbonylation, followed by hydrogenation to yield tetrahydrofuran. Dehydra-decyclization of tetrahydrofuran yields butadiene, completing the pathway for the production of butadiene from biomass.

Synthetic methods with improved diene yields would make production of dienes from renewable resources economically feasible.

SUMMARY

In a general aspect, forming a diene includes contacting a reactant with a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield a reaction mixture including a diene, where the reactant includes a cyclic ether or a diol. The heterogeneous acid catalyst includes at least one of a Lewis acid catalyst, a solid Lewis-acid catalyst, a Brønsted acid catalyst, a solid acid catalyst, a supported phosphoric acid catalyst, and a sulfonated catalyst.

Implementations of the general aspect may include one or more of the following features.

The reactant may be derived from biomass. When the reactant is a cyclic ether, the cyclic ether may have tetrahydrofuran skeleton. In some embodiments, the cyclic either is tetrahydrofuran, and the diene is butadiene. A selectivity of the butadiene is typically at least 95%. In some embodiments, the cyclic ether is 2-methyltetrahydrofuran, and the diene is pentadiene. A selectivity of the pentadiene is typically at least 95%. In some embodiments, the cyclic ether is 2,5-dimethyl tetrahydrofuran and the diene is hexadiene. A selectivity of the hexadiene is typically at least 90%. In some embodiments, the cyclic ether is 3-methyltetrahydrofuran, and the diene is isoprene. A selectivity of the isoprene is typically at least 65%. When the cyclic ether is 3-methyltetrahydrofuran, forming the diene may include processing biomass to yield citric acid, itaconic acid, or mesaconic acid, and processing the citric acid, itaconic acid, or mesaconic acid to yield the 3-methyltetrahydrofuran. That is, the 3-methyltetrahydrofuran may be formed from at least one of citric acid, itaconic acid, and mesaconic acid derived from biomass. When the reactant is a diol, the diol may be 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol, and the diene is isoprene. A selectivity of the isoprene is typically at least 70%.

In some implementations, the contacting occurs at a temperature from 100° C. to 600° C., 150° C. to 400° C., 100° C. to 500° C., or 200° C. to 300° C. The contacting may occur at a pressure from 0 psia to 500 psia (34 atm), at a pressure up to 147 psia (10 atm), at pressure from 1 atm to 10 atm, or from 1 atm to 2 atm. In some cases, the contacting occurs in the presence of an inert gas, such as He, Ar, and N₂. In certain cases, the contacting occurs in the vapor phase. Some implementations may include separating the diene from the reaction mixture. The reaction mixture may include unreacted cyclic ether, unreacted diol, or both, and the unreacted cyclic ether, unreacted diol, or both may be contacted with the heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield the diene.

In some implementations, the heterogeneous acid catalyst includes a Lewis acid catalyst, and the Lewis acid catalyst includes at least one of AlCl₃, TiCl₄, FeCl₃, BF₃, SnCl₄, ZnCl₂, ZnBr₂, AMBERLYST-70, SiO₂, Nb₂O₅, MgO, TiO₂, SiO₂—Al₂O₃, CeO₂, and Cr₂O₃.

In some implementations, the heterogeneous acid catalyst includes a Brønsted acid catalyst, and the Brønsted acid catalyst includes at least one of HCl, HBr, HI, HClO₄, HClO₃, HNO₃, H₂SO₄, CH₃COOH, CF₃COOH, and H₃PO₄.

In some implementations, the heterogeneous acid catalyst includes a solid acid catalyst, and the solid acid catalyst includes at least one of a zeolite type catalyst, a substituted-zeolite type catalyst, a heteropolyacid type catalyst, a phosphate type catalyst, a zirconia type catalyst, a celite type catalyst, a metal organic framework type catalyst, a carbon type catalyst, and a sulfonic acid catalyst. Suitable zeolite type catalysts include H-ZSM-5, H-BEA, H-Y, mordenite, ferrierite, chabazite, and self-pillared pentasil. The self-pillared pentasil typically has an average pore size of at least 5 A. Suitable phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalysts include phosphorus-containing MFI, phosphorus-containing MEL, phosphorus-containing BEA, phosphorus-containing FAU, phosphorus-containing MOR, phosphorus-containing FER, phosphorus-containing CHA, and phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil. The phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has a ratio of silicon atoms to phosphorus atoms in a range of 1:1 to 1000:1 or 3:1 to 150:1. The phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has rotational intergrowths of single-unit-cell lamellae that lead to repetitive branching nanosheets. The nanosheets have a thickness of about 2 nm and define a network of micropores having a diameter of about 0.5 nm. The phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has a house of cards arrangement defining a network of mesopores having a dimension in a range of 2 nm to 7 nm. The phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst is substantially free of aluminum. That is, the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst may include less than 5 wt %, less than 4 wt %, less than 3 wt %, less than 2 wt %, or less than 1 wt % of aluminum. Suitable substituted zeolite type catalyst include Sn, Ge, Ga, B, Ti, Fe, and Zr.

Suitable heteropolyacid type catalysts include H₃PW₁₂O₄₀, H₃SiW₁₂O₄₀, H₅AlW₁₂O₄₀, H₆CoW₁₂O₄₀, H₃PMo₁₂O₄₀, H₃SiMo₁₂O₄₀, and Cs⁺ substituted heteropolyacid type catalyst.

Suitable phosphate type catalysts include niobium phosphate (NbOPO₄), zirconium phosphate (ZrO₂—PO₄), siliconiobium phosphate (Nb—P—Si—O), tricalcium phosphate (Ca₃(PO₄)₂), lithium phosphate (Li₃PO₄), and lithium sodium phosphate (Li₃NaP₂O₇).

Suitable zirconia type catalysts include SO₃—ZrO₂, SiO₂—ZrO₂, Zeolites-ZrO₂, Al₂O₃—ZrO₂, ZrO₂, and WO_x—ZrO₂.

Suitable celite type catalysts include P-CELITE.

Suitable metal organic framework catalysts include MTh 101.

Suitable carbon type catalysts include activated carbon, sulfated carbon, and SO₃H-functionalized carbon.

Suitable sulfonated catalysts include NAFION and AMBERLYST.

Advantages of processes described herein include dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols with high selectivity to yield dienes, there by completing pathways for the production of dienes, such as isoprene and butadiene, from biomass in high yields. These synthetic methods facilitate economical production of dienes from renewable resources.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 depicts a reaction diagram for the dehydration of 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol (MBDO) to isoprene at 200° C. and 1 atm. Intermediates in the dehydration reaction include 3-methyltetrahydrofuran (3-MTHF), 2-methyl-3-butene-1-ol, and 3-methyl-3-butene-1-ol (MBEO).

FIG. 2 shows a process scheme for the production of isoprene from MBDO with continuous recycling of 3-MTHF and MBDO.

FIG. 3 depicts of high throughput pulsed flow reactor (HTPFR).

FIG. 4 shows butadiene yield and selectivity formed by the dehydration of tetrahydrofuran (THF) for various catalysts.

FIG. 5 shows THF conversion and butadiene selectivity for various catalysts.

FIG. 6 shows isoprene yield and isoprene selectivity formed by the dehydration of MBDO various catalysts.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Disclosed herein are processes and methods for the dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols over heterogeneous acid catalysts to produce dienes. Examples of suitable cyclic ethers include furans (compounds with a tetrahydrofuran skeleton), including tetrahydrofuran (THF), 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF), 3-methyltetrahydrofuran (3-MTHF), and 2,5 dimethyltetrahydrofuran (2,5-DMTHF). Examples of suitable diols include butanediols, such as 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol (MBDO). The particular diene produced depends on the reactant (e.g., the cyclic ether or diol) and the reaction conditions (e.g., temperature or pressure). In some embodiments, dienes produced include 1,3-butadiene (“butadiene”), 2-methyl-1,3-butadiene (isoprene), pentadiene, and hexadiene.

One embodiment, depicted in Scheme 2, includes a process for the dehydra-decyclization of tetrahydrofuran (THF) over a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield 1,3-butadiene and water. The THF may be obtained from any biomass-derived source, such as biomass-derived furan. This process, which completes the pathway for the production of butadiene from biomass depicted in Scheme 1, results in a high yield of 1,3-butadiene, with a selectivity of at least 95%.

Another embodiment, depicted in Scheme 3, includes a process for the dehydration of 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF), which can be readily derived from biomass, over a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield pentadiene with a selectivity of at least 95%.

Yet another embodiment, depicted in Scheme 4, includes a process for the dehydration of 2,5 dimethyltetrahydrofuran (2,5-DMTHF), which can be readily derived from biomass, over a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield hexadiene with a selectivity of at least 90%.

Another embodiment, depicted in Scheme 5, includes a process for the dehydration of 3-methyltetrahydrofuran (3-MTHF), which can be readily derived from biomass, over a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield isoprene. The selectivity to isoprene of this reaction is at least 65%.

Still another embodiment, depicted in Scheme 6, includes a process for dehydration of 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol (MBDO), which can be readily derived from biomass, over a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield isoprene with a selectivity of at least 70%. In some examples, MBDO is produced from biomass-derived citric acid, itaconic acid, or mesaconic acid. Thus, disclosed methods complete the pathway for the production of isoprene in high yields from biomass.

FIG. 1 shows a calculated reaction energy diagram for MBDO dehydration. Isoprene is the thermodynamically preferred product at 200° C. and 1 atm pressure. At temperatures lower than 150° C., 3-MTHF becomes the preferred product. As such, greater selectivity for isoprene can be achieved at temperatures of at least about 150° C. The upper temperature limit (e.g., 400° C. or 600° C.) for producing isoprene is governed by bond-forming reactions of isoprene (e.g., Diels-Alder of two isoprene molecules to form limonene), coking reactions, and bond-breaking reactions, all of which may be favored at higher temperatures.

Dehydration reactions disclosed herein can be carried out with a variety of catalysts at a variety of temperatures, pressures, and space velocities (reactant volumetric flow rate per volume of catalyst). Suitable catalysts include acid catalysts, such as those listed in Table 1. In some embodiments, dehydration reactions described herein take place at an elevated temperature (relative to room temperature) over a heterogeneous acid catalyst. In certain embodiments, dienes can be produced from cyclic ethers or diols without adding water to the reaction, simplifying and reducing the cost of the process.

TABLE 1
Acid catalyst classes, types, and examples suitable for
dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols to yield dienes.
Class	Type	Example
Lewis Acid (L-	L-Acids	AlCl3, TiCl4, FeCl3, BF3, SnCl4,
Acid) Catalysts		ZnCl2, ZnBr2, Amberlyst-70
	Solid L-Acids	SiO2, Al2O3, Nb2O5, MgO
		TiO2, SiO2—Al2O3, CeO2, Cr2O3
BrØnsted Acid	B-Acids	HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HClO3,
(B-Acid)		HNO3, H2SO4, CH3COOH,
Catalysts		CF3COOH, H3PO4
Solid Acid	Zeolites (Z)	H-ZSM-5, H-BEA, H—Y,
Catalysts		Mordenite, Ferrierite, Chabazite,
		Self-Pillared Pentasil (SPP),
		phosphorus-containing zeolites (e.g.,
		P-BEA, P-MFI)
	Substituted Zeolites (Sub.)	Sn, Ge, Ti, Fe, Zr, P
	Heteropolyacids (HPAs)	H3PW12O40, H5AlW12O40,
		H6CoW12O40, H3SiW12O40,
		H3PMo12O40, H3SiMo12O40
		(Cs+ substituted HPAs)
	Phosphates (PO43−)	Niobium phosphate (NbOPO4),
		Zirconium phosphate (ZrO2—PO4),
		Siliconiobium phosphate (Nb—P—Si—O)
		Tricalcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2)
		Lithium phosphate (Li3PO4)
		Lithium sodium phosphate
		(Li3NaP2O7)
	Zirconias (ZrO2)	SO3—ZrO2, SiO2—ZrO2,
		Zeolites-ZrO2, Al2O3—ZrO2,
		ZrO2, WOx—ZrO2
	Celite ®	P-Celite ®
	Metal Organic Framework	Metal organic framework
	(MOF)
	Carbon (C)	Activated carbon, sulfated carbon
		(SO3H-functionalized carbon)

Other suitable catalysts include a supported phosphoric acid catalysts.

Other suitable catalysts include self-pillared pentasil (SPP). Phosphorus-containing-self-pillared pentasil (P-SPP) is a silica-based, self-pillared, hierarchical (containing both micropore and mesopore) zeolitic material. In some embodiments, the ratio of silicon to phosphorus in suitable P-SPP catalysts is typically in a range of 1 to 5. In certain embodiments, the ratio of silicon to phosphorus in suitable P-SPP catalysts is 50 or less, 500 or less, or 1000 or less. Examples of ranges for the ratio of silicon to phosphorus in suitable P-SPP catalysts include 1 to 1000, 5 to 500, and 5 to 50 (e.g., 27). P—SPP can be synthesized by a direct hydrothermal method using tetrabutylphosponium hydroxide (TBPOH) as an organic structure directing agent, with TBPOH providing phosphorus for the P-SPP. The rotational intergrowths of single-unit-cell lamellae leads to repetitive branching nanosheets. The nanosheets can be about 2 nm thick and can contain a network of micropores having a diameter of about 0.5 nm. The house-of-cards arrangement of the nanosheets creates a network mesopores having a diameter in a range of about 2 nm to about 7 nm. As used herein, a micropore has a diameter of less than about 2 nm, and a mesopores has a diameter between about 2 nm and about 50 nm.

In some embodiments, other phosphorus-containing zeolites (“P-zeolites”) can be utilized to form dienes from cyclic ethers and diols. Suitable P-zeolites include, for example P-BEA, P-MFI and P-MEL, P-FAU, P-MOR, P-FER, P-CHA, and P-SPP. One example, P-BEA can be prepared by impregnating a zeolite having a BEA framework with phosphoric acid, as described in Fan W. et al. (2016) Renewable p-Xylene from 2,5-Dimethylfuran and Ethylene Using Phosphorus-containing Zeolite Catalysts. ChemCatChem (2016) (DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201601294). In some cases, suitable P-zeolites are free or substantially free of aluminum. A P-zeolite that is “substantially free” of aluminum can include, for example, less than 5 wt %, less than 4 wt %, less than 3 wt %, less than 2 wt %, or less than 1 wt % of aluminum.

In some embodiments, P-Celite® prepared by impregnating Celite® with phosphoric acid can be used to form dienes from cyclic ethers and diols. P-Celite® may be made according to Fan W., et al. (2016) Renewable p-Xylene from 2,5-Dimethylfuran and Ethylene Using Phosphorus-containing Zeolite Catalysts. ChemCatChem (2016) (DOI: 10.1002/cctc.201601294).

In some embodiments sulfonated (e.g., sulfonic acid) catalysts can be utilized. Suitable sulfonic acid catalysts (also referred to as sulfonate catalysts) include NAFION and AMBERLYST.

The dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols to yield dienes can be carried out using any appropriate temperature. In some embodiments, the reaction can be carried out in the vapor phase. In some embodiments, the reaction can be carried out at temperatures of not less than 100° C., not less than 150° C., or not less than 200° C. In some embodiments the reaction can be carried out at a temperature of not greater than 600° C., not greater than 500° C., not greater than 400° C., not greater than 350° C., or not greater than 300° C. In some embodiments, the reaction can be carried out at a temperature from 100° C. to 600° C., from 150° C. to 400° C., from 100° C. to 500° C., or from 200° C. to 300° C. For selective formation of isoprene from 3-MTHF, suitable temperatures are from 150° C. to 350° C.

The dehydration of cyclic ethers or diols can be carried out at any appropriate pressure. In some embodiments the reaction pressure can be not less than vacuum (0 psia) or not less than 1 atm. In some embodiments, the reaction pressure can be 10 atm or less, or 2 atm or less. In some embodiments, the reaction pressure can be from vacuum (0 psia) to 500 psia, or from 1 atm to 2 atm. Low pressures may yield selective formation of certain dienes, such as isoprene, due to favorable thermodynamic conditions. Thus, in some cases, pressures less than 10 atm may be selected.

The dehydration of cyclic ethers or diols can be carried out at any appropriate space velocity. In some embodiments, space velocity can be chosen to obtain single-pass conversion of the cyclic either or diol that is less than 100%. In some embodiments, space velocity can be chosen such that 100% conversion is obtained. In certain embodiments, space velocity can be considerably higher than that necessary to obtain 100% conversion of the cyclic ether or diol.

Dehydration reactions described herein may be carried out with or without an inert carrier gas (e.g., He, Ar, N₂, etc.) added to or contacted with the cyclic ether or diol prior to the reactants entering a catalytic reactor with the catalyst.

Because the selectivity of the dehydration reactions disclosed herein to a particular diene may decrease with increasing conversion of the reactant (i.e., cyclic ether or diol), it may be useful to perform the process using a recycle stream of the reactant. In some embodiments, as depicted in FIG. 2, a reaction intermediate, such as 3-MTHF in the formation of isoprene from MBDO, may be recycled with the cyclic ether or diol.

In some embodiments, zeolites may be useful in the dehydration of cyclic ethers and diols to dienes (e.g., MBDO to isoprene). In particular, zeolites such as microporous aluminosilicates with pore sizes of not less than about 5 A, not less than about 4 A, or not less than about 3 A may promote diene formation over that of other products (e.g., isoprene formation over 3-MTHF) based on the size of the reactant and product molecules.

This disclosure is further illustrated by the following examples. The particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the disclosure as set forth herein.

Examples

Dehydra-Decyclization of Tetrahydrofurans

The following catalysts were tested for THF dehydra-decyclization: CeO₂ (Sigma Aldrich), H-ZSM-5 Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV28014 SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio=280), H-Y Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV760, SiO₂/Al₂O₃=60), H-BEA Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV811C-300 SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio=360), tin-BEA Zeolite (Sn-BEA) (Chang C-C, Wang Z, Dornath P, Je Cho H, & Fan W (2012) Rapid synthesis of Sn-Beta for the isomerization of cellulosic sugars. RSC Advances 2(28):10475-10477), ZrO₂ (Sigma Aldrich), phosphorous-self-pillared pentasil (P-SPP), phosphorous-celite (P-Celite) (Hong Je Cho, Limin Ren, Vivek Vattipalli, Yu-Hao Yeh, Nicholas Gould, Bingjun Xu, Raymond J. Gorte, Raul Lobo, Paul J. Dauenhauer, Michael Tsapatsis, and Wei Fan, Renewable p-Xylene from 2, 5-Dimethylfuran and Ethylene Using Phosphorus-Containing Zeolite Catalysts ChemCatChem 9 (3), 398-402, 2017) MgO (Alfa Aesar), tricalcium phosphate (TCP, Sigma Aldrich), SiO₂—Al₂O₃(Sigma Aldrich), activated carbon (Sigma Aldrich), metal organic framework catalyst (MOF) (e.g., MIL 101), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅, Sigma Aldrich), phosphotungstic acid (PTA, H₃PW₁₂O₄₀). All catalysts were pressed, crushed, and sieved to a particle size of 0.5 to 1 mm. With the exception of MOF, all catalysts were pre-treated under flowing He at 400° C. for 1 h. MOF was pre-treated under flowing He at 150° C. for 1 h.

Dehydration reactions were performed in a high throughput pulsed flow reactor (HTPFR), such as HTPFR 100 depicted in FIG. 3. HTPFR 100 includes a glass reactor (i.e., inlet liner) 102 coupled to a gas chromatograph (Aglient 7890A) via conduit 104. Glass reactor 102 is packed with quartz wool 106 (7.5 mg and 15 mg) and catalyst 108 (5-200 mg). Carrier gas is provided to glass reactor 102 via inlet 110, and gas exits via split vent 112. Reactant is provided to HTPFR 100 through injection needle 114.

Experiments were performed at reaction temperatures of 200 to 400° C. The space velocity was controlled by adjusting the carrier gas (He, 99.999%) flow rate to the split vent. Space velocities of 10-89 s⁻¹ were tested with the reactor, where space velocity is defined as follows:

$S=\mathrm{space}\mathrm{velocity}=\frac{F_{\mathrm{He}}}{V_C}[=]{\min }^{-1}$

where F_He is the flow rate of He through in sccm min⁻¹ and V_C is the volume of the catalyst bed. He pressure was kept constant at 30 psig. Each experiment was performed by injecting 1 uL of reactant (cyclic ether or diol) into the reactor followed by immediate separation and quantification of the products.

Reaction products were quantified by separating on a column (Agilent Plot-Q, 30 m, 0.32 mm ID, 20 μm film thickness; temperature program: 40° C. for 2 min, 10° C./min to 270° C., hold 10 min) and detecting with a Polyarc/FID. The Polyarc (Activated Research Company) allows for calibration-free quantitative analysis of hydrocarbons because the FID signal area is proportional to the moles of each compound. Diene selectivity is defined as the ratio of moles of C from the diene divided by the total moles of C from the diene plus the moles of C from all reaction by-products.

$\mathrm{Diene}\mathrm{Selectivity}=\frac{\mathrm{Diene}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}{\mathrm{Diene}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]+\sum \mathrm{By}-\mathrm{products}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}$

Diene yield and reactant conversion are defined as follows:

$\mathrm{Diene}\mathrm{Yield}=\frac{\mathrm{Diene}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}{\sum \mathrm{Reactant}\mathrm{and}\mathrm{Products}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}$ $\mathrm{Reactant}\mathrm{Conversion}=1-\frac{\mathrm{Reactant}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}{\sum \mathrm{Reactant}\mathrm{and}\mathrm{Products}\left[\mathrm{mol}C\right]}$

where Reactant and Products [mol C] refers to all reaction products including the diene and by-products as well as the reactant.

FIG. 4 shows a summary of the catalytic data obtained for dehydra-decyclization of THF with various catalysts. Detailed catalytic data for the dehydration of THF to butadiene over fifteen different catalysts are presented in Tables 2-16. Data for 2-methyltetrahydrofuran (2-MTHF) and 2,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuran (2,5-DMTHF) to butadiene are presented in Tables 17 and 18.

TABLE 2
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using CeO2
Catalyst CeO2
Mass (mg) 100
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	1.0000	0.0000	0.0000
200	10	0.5355	0.0001	0.0001
300	89	1.0000	0.0000	0.0000
300	10	0.6157	0.0000	0.0000
400	89	0.3613	0.0003	0.0008
400	10	0.4085	0.0004	0.0010

TABLE 3
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to
butadiene using H-ZSM-5 zeolite
Catalyst H-ZSM-5
Mass (mg) 61.8
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.8085	0.0209	0.0259
200	10	0.5603	0.0215	0.0383
300	89	0.4598	0.1439	0.3109
300	10	0.1880	0.1203	0.6281
400	89	0.1546	0.1126	0.7204
400	10	0.1281	0.1266	0.9875

TABLE 4
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using H—Y zeolite
Catalyst H—Y
Mass (mg) 45.2
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.9598	0.1001	0.1043
200	10	0.8807	0.2903	0.3296
300	89	0.6589	0.2760	0.4189
300	10	0.4917	0.4683	0.9524
400	89	0.4063	0.2310	0.5686
400	10	0.3162	0.3012	0.9525

TABLE 5
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using P-SPP
Catalyst P-SPP
Mass (mg) 42.5
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.4646	0.0004	0.0008
200	10	0.8612	0.0016	0.0019
300	89	0.9379	0.0079	0.0084
300	10	0.9776	0.0250	0.0256
400	89	0.9626	0.0308	0.0320
400	10	0.9731	0.1084	0.1114

TABLE 6
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using ZrO2.
Catalyst ZrO2
Mass (mg) 200
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
200	10	1.0000	0.0001	0.0001
300	89	1.0000	0.0056	0.0056
300	10	0.7570	0.0126	0.0166
400	89	0.6231	0.0122	0.0196
400	10	0.6041	0.0288	0.0476

TABLE 7
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to
butadiene using tricalcium phosphate
Catalyst TCP
Mass (mg) 111.7
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0167	0.0000	0.0011
200	10	0.0204	0.0000	0.0012
300	89	0.0172	0.0001	0.0040
300	10	0.0491	0.0003	0.0069
400	89	0.1139	0.0002	0.0018
400	10	0.0425	0.0007	0.0105

TABLE 8
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using SiO2—Al2O3
Catalyst SiO2•Al2O3
Mass (mg) 200
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.8631	0.0076	0.0088
200	10	0.8688	0.0202	0.0233
300	89	0.4728	0.1754	0.3710
300	10	0.4640	0.4640	1.0000
400	89	0.4833	0.4833	1.0000
400	10	0.2522	0.2522	1.0000

TABLE 9
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using H-BEA zeolite
Catalyst H-BEA
Mass (mg) 45.1
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.6813	0.1809	0.2655
200	10	0.5765	0.5017	0.8702
300	89	0.2849	0.2234	0.7840
300	10	0.3982	0.3873	0.9725
400	89	0.2036	0.1803	0.8857
400	10	0.3512	0.3512	1.0000

TABLE 10
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to
butadiene using magnesium oxide (MgO)
Catalyst MgO
Mass (mg) 96
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0219
200	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0001
300	89	0.5000	0.0000	0.0000
300	10	0.5733	0.0000	0.0000
400	89	0.0232	0.0000	0.0010
400	10	0.1513	0.0002	0.0012

TABLE 11
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene
using phosphotungstic acid (PTA), H3PW12O40
Catalyst PTA
Mass (mg) 136
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.9042	0.0070	0.0077
200	10	0.8298	0.0156	0.0188
300	89	0.7143	0.0308	0.0431
300	10	0.5704	0.0492	0.0862
400	89	0.6062	0.0735	0.1213
400	10	0.5369	0.1018	0.1896

TABLE 12
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to
butadiene using activated carbon (C)
Catalyst C
Mass (mg) 17.7
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
200	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0000
300	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0001
300	10	0.1913	0.0000	0.0001
400	89	0.6331	0.0001	0.0002
400	10	0.0773	0.0001	0.0012

TABLE 13
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene
using metal organic framework (MOF) (MIL 101)
Catalyst MOF
Mass (mg) 25
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
150	89	0.4447	0.0615	0.1383
150	10	0.5049	0.0952	0.1885
175	89	0.4453	0.0245	0.0549
175	10	0.6482	0.0485	0.0748
200	89	0.4041	0.0036	0.0088
200	10	0.1924	0.0073	0.0379

TABLE 14
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using niobia (Nb2O5)
Catalyst Nb2O5
Mass (mg) 132.5
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.6622	0.0002	0.0003
200	10	0.6217	0.0003	0.0004
300	89	0.7707	0.0209	0.0271
300	10	0.7412	0.0197	0.0266
400	89	0.7636	0.0405	0.0530
400	10	0.6945	0.0370	0.0533

TABLE 15
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using Sn-BEA Zeolite
Catalyst Sn-BEA
Mass (mg) 44.1
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.8857	0.0001	0.0002
200	10	0.9443	0.0005	0.0005
300	89	0.8455	0.0009	0.0011
300	10	0.6842	0.0046	0.0067
400	89	0.5676	0.0035	0.0061
400	10	0.5215	0.0170	0.0327

TABLE 16
Tetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to butadiene using P-Celite ®
Catalyst P-Celite ®
Mass (mg) 41.1
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Butadiene	Butadiene	THF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.5015	0.0002	0.0003
200	10	0.6741	0.0004	0.0006
300	89	0.8442	0.0018	0.0022
300	10	0.9023	0.0044	0.0049
400	89	0.9199	0.0119	0.0130
400	10	0.9149	0.0372	0.0407

TABLE 17
2-methyltetrahydrofuran dehydra-decyclization to pentadiene using P-SPP
Catalyst P-SPP
Mass (mg) 42
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Pentadiene	Pentadiene	2-MTHF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.9788	0.0169	0.0172
200	10	0.9915	0.0538	0.0542
300	89	0.9914	0.0822	0.0829
300	10	0.9726	0.2903	0.2985
400	89	0.9471	0.2104	0.2221
400	10	0.9265	0.7009	0.7565

TABLE 18
2,5-dimethyltetrahydrofuran dehydra-
decyclization to hexadiene using P-SPP
Catalyst P-SPP
Mass (mg) 42
	Space
Temperature	Velocity	Hexadiene	Hexadiene	2,5 DMTHF
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.9902	0.0547	0.0553
200	10	0.9687	0.4061	0.4192
300	89	0.9830	0.2053	0.2088
300	10	0.9096	0.6934	0.7624
400	89	0.9252	0.4075	0.4404
400	10	0.8101	0.8101	1.0000

A variety of solid acid catalysts were tested for the dehydra-decyclization of tetrahydrofuran to butadiene, including: phosphorous acid impregnated self-pillared pentasil (P-SPP), phosphotungstic acid supported on MCM-41 (PWA), tin framework substituted BEA zeolite (Sn-BEA), amorphous silica alumina (SiAl), and Al framework zeolite (ZSM-5). Catalysts were tested in a packed bed flow reactor operated at 250° C. and a weight hourly space velocity of 1 g THF g catalyst⁻¹ hf⁻¹, with a THF partial pressure of 5 torr. FIG. 5 shows selectivity to butadiene (line plot) and THF conversion (bar graph) for these catalysts. While ZSM-5 provides the highest conversion of THF, it resulted in the lowest selectivity to butadiene. Conversely, P-SPP affords the highest selectivity to butadiene but with the lowest conversion level of THF. PWA provides an optimal intermediate with regards to butadiene yield; the conversion to THF was comparable to ZSM-5 with a relatively high selectivity to butadiene of about 90%.

Preparation and Dehydration of 2-Methyl-1,4-Butanediol

Liquid-phase hydrogenation reactions were performed in 100 mL high pressure reactors (model 4598HPHT, Parr Instrument Co.) equipped with Hastelloy C-276 internals, a magnetic stirrer with gas-entrainment propeller, liquid sampling port, and electronic pressure gauge. 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol was prepared by a previously established method (Spanjers, C. S.; Schneiderman, D. K.; Wang, J. Z.; Wang, J.; Hillmyer, M. A.; Zhang, K.; Dauenhauer, P. J. ChemCatChem 2016, DOI: 10.10). Briefly, 40 g of itaconic acid (Sigma Aldrich) was added to a 100 mL Parr reactor with 20 mL deionized water. To the mixture, 2 g 10 wt. % Pd/C (Sigma Aldrich) was added. The mixture was heated to 220° C. under 140 bar H₂ for 3 days. The reactor was subsequently cooled, de-pressurized, and 2.5 g 5 wt. % Ru/C (Sigma Aldrich) was added. The mixture was re-heated to 120° C. under 140 bar H₂ for 3 days. The reaction product was filtered and purified in a rotary evaporator to yield 95% pure MBDO.

Dehydration reactions were performed in a high throughput pulsed flow reactor (HTPFR), such as that described with respect to FIG. 3. Experiments were performed at reaction temperatures of 175 to 400° C. The space velocity was controlled by adjusting the carrier gas (He, 99.999%) flow rate to the split vent. Space velocities of 9-400 s′ were tested with the reactor, where space velocity is defined previously herein. He pressure was kept constant at 30 psig.

Each experiment was performed by injecting 1 μL of pure MBDO into the reactor followed by immediate separation and quantification of the products. Reaction products were quantified by separating on a column (Agilent Plot-Q, 30 m, 0.32 mm ID, 20 μm film thickness; temperature program: 40° C. for 2 min, 10° C./min to 270° C., hold 10 min) and detecting with a Polyarc/FID. The Polyarc (Activated Research Company) allows for calibration-free quantitative analysis of hydrocarbons because the FID signal area is proportional to the moles of each compound.

Isoprene selectivity is defined previously herein as diene selectivity. The reaction by-products exclude 3-MTHF, because this compound is an intermediate in the production of isoprene and can be recycled. 3-MTHF yield is defined analogously to diene yield.

The following catalysts were tested for 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene: CeO₂ (Sigma Aldrich), H-ZSM-5 Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV28014 SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio=280), H-Y Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV760, SiO₂/Al₂O₃=60), H-BEA Zeolite (Zeolyst CBV811C-300 SiO₂/Al₂O₃ ratio=360), ZrO₂ (Sigma Aldrich), phosphorous-self-pillared pentasil (P-SPP), MgO (Alfa Aesar), tricalcium phosphate (TCP, Sigma Aldrich), SiO₂.Al₂O₃(Sigma Aldrich), activated carbon (Sigma Aldrich), metal organic framework catalyst (MOF), niobium oxide (Nb₂O₅, Sigma Aldrich), phosphotungstic acid (H₃PW₁₂O₄₀, Sigma Aldrich), Sn-BEA Zeolite (Chang C-C, Wang Z, Dornath P, Je Cho H, & Fan W (2012) Rapid synthesis of Sn-Beta for the isomerization of cellulosic sugars. RSC Advances 2(28):10475-10477) and P-Celite (Hong Je Cho, Limin Ren, Vivek Vattipalli, Yu-Hao Yeh, Nicholas Gould, Bingjun Xu, Raymond J. Gorte, Raul Lobo, Paul J. Dauenhauer, Michael Tsapatsis, and Wei Fan, Renewable p-Xylene from 2, 5-Dimethylfuran and Ethylene Using Phosphorus-Containing Zeolite Catalysts ChemCatChem 9 (3), 398-402, 2017)). All catalysts were pressed, crushed, and sieved to a particle size of 0.5 to 1 mm. With the exception of MOF MTh 101, all catalysts were pre-treated under flowing He at 400° C. for about 1 hr. MOF MIL 101 was pre-treated under flowing He at 150° C. for 1 hr.

FIG. 6 shows a summary of the catalytic data obtained for the illustrative catalysts that were tested. Detailed catalytic data for the dehydration of MBDO to isoprene over fifteen different catalysts are presented in Tables 19-33. Data for the conversion of 3-MTHF to isoprene over P-SPP is presented in Table 34.

TABLE 19
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using CeO2
Catalyst CeO2
Mass (mg) 100
Temper-	Space
ature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	3-MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	201	0.0000	0.0000	0.0013	0.0050
200	101	0.0000	0.0000	0.0010	0.0069
200	52	0.0000	0.0000	0.0009	0.0055
200	22	0.0000	0.0000	0.0007	0.0055
250	201	0.0396	0.0003	0.0113	0.0184
250	101	0.0353	0.0003	0.0125	0.0209
250	52	0.0385	0.0003	0.0120	0.0195
250	22	0.0199	0.0001	0.0090	0.0159
300	201	0.3480	0.0086	0.0182	0.0428
300	101	0.4020	0.0132	0.0237	0.0565
300	52	0.4155	0.0136	0.0231	0.0558
300	22	0.3179	0.0105	0.0241	0.0572
350	201	0.4524	0.0241	0.0257	0.0789
350	101	0.4890	0.0286	0.0382	0.0967
350	52	0.4410	0.0255	0.0403	0.0982
350	22	0.4129	0.0259	0.0464	0.1092
400	201	0.4582	0.0453	0.0916	0.1906
400	101	0.3730	0.0393	0.1279	0.2333
400	52	0.3376	0.0338	0.1303	0.2305
400	22	0.4210	0.0308	0.1320	0.2052

TABLE 20
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using H-ZSM-5 zeolite
	Catalyst	H-ZSM-5 Zeolite,
		SiO2/Al2O3 = 280
	Mass (mg)	75
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	80	0.4731	0.0407	0.9140	1.0000
200	9	0.3416	0.0606	0.8225	1.0000
250	80	0.1937	0.1096	0.4341	1.0000
250	9	0.0581	0.0581	0.0000	1.0000
300	80	0.0974	0.0811	0.1671	1.0000
300	9	0.0466	0.0466	0.0000	1.0000
350	80	0.0617	0.0576	0.0656	1.0000
350	9	0.0489	0.0489	0.0000	1.0000

TABLE 21
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using H—Y zeolite
	Catalyst	H—Y Zeolite,
		SiO2/Al2O3 = 60
	Mass (mg)	65
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	80	0.0941	0.0300	0.6811	1.0000
200	9	0.0319	0.0232	0.2715	1.0000
250	80	0.0702	0.0223	0.6825	1.0000
250	9	0.0384	0.0256	0.3338	1.0000
300	80	0.0735	0.0273	0.6293	1.0000
300	9	0.0173	0.0162	0.0591	1.0000
350	80	0.0404	0.0253	0.3739	1.0000
350	9	0.0234	0.0234	0.0000	1.0000

TABLE 22
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using P-SPP
	Catalyst	P-SPP
	Mass (mg)	7
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	202	0.6516	0.0094	0.3768	0.3913
250	202	0.7369	0.0321	0.4079	0.4515
300	202	0.7061	0.0539	0.4821	0.5585
350	202	0.6798	0.0670	0.5871	0.6857
400	202	0.6361	0.0804	0.6264	0.7528
400	103	0.6398	0.1037	0.7374	0.8995
400	44	0.6560	0.1208	0.8023	0.9865

TABLE 23
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using ZrO2
	Catalyst	ZrO2
	Mass (mg)	200
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0692	0.0004	0.0683	0.0735
200	10	0.0659	0.0004	0.0808	0.0867
250	89	0.1704	0.0052	0.1782	0.2086
250	10	0.1802	0.0053	0.2501	0.2795
300	89	0.2828	0.0356	0.4191	0.5451
300	10	0.2482	0.0261	0.6057	0.7109
350	89	0.3310	0.0701	0.5992	0.8110
350	10	0.3186	0.0587	0.8157	1.0000
400	89	0.3015	0.0816	0.7116	0.9824
400	10	0.2831	0.0605	0.7864	1.0000

TABLE 24
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to
isoprene using tricalcium phosphate
	Catalyst	Tricalcium
		Phosphate
	Mass (mg)	100
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	201	0.0000	0.0000	0.0007	0.0023
200	101	0.0000	0.0000	0.0004	0.0020
200	52	0.0000	0.0000	0.0005	0.0020
200	22	0.0000	0.0000	0.0007	0.0024
250	201	0.0000	0.0000	0.0004	0.0019
250	101	0.0000	0.0000	0.0006	0.0021
250	52	0.0000	0.0000	0.0008	0.0026
250	22	0.0000	0.0000	0.0011	0.0030
300	201	0.0000	0.0000	0.0006	0.0017
300	101	0.0000	0.0000	0.0008	0.0024
300	52	0.0000	0.0000	0.0011	0.0030
300	22	0.0000	0.0000	0.0016	0.0035
350	201	0.0000	0.0000	0.0016	0.0032
350	101	0.0000	0.0000	0.0025	0.0047
350	52	0.0000	0.0000	0.0026	0.0046
350	22	0.0053	0.0000	0.0033	0.0061
400	201	0.0056	0.0000	0.0113	0.0167
400	101	0.0079	0.0000	0.0159	0.0200
400	52	0.0042	0.0000	0.0203	0.0289
400	22	0.0076	0.0000	0.0261	0.0312

TABLE 25
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using SiO2•Al2O3
	Catalyst	SiO2•Al2O3
	Mass (mg)	50
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	160	0.4698	0.0103	0.9781	1.0000
225	160	0.5347	0.0202	0.9621	1.0000
250	160	0.5159	0.0387	0.9251	1.0000
275	160	0.5687	0.0549	0.9035	1.0000
300	160	0.4933	0.0586	0.8812	1.0000
325	160	0.4127	0.0695	0.8316	1.0000
350	160	0.3554	0.0776	0.7818	1.0000
375	160	0.2941	0.0905	0.6923	1.0000
400	160	0.2685	0.1098	0.5910	1.0000
300	17	0.3413	0.1985	0.4185	1.0000
300	41	0.3621	0.1366	0.6227	1.0000
300	81	0.3660	0.0885	0.7582	1.0000
300	120	0.3641	0.0544	0.8505	1.0000

TABLE 26
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using H-BEA zeolite
	Catalyst	H-BEA Zeolite
		SiO2/Al2O3 = 360
	Mass (mg)	8
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	400	0.4058	0.0072	0.2481	0.2658
200	44	0.4886	0.0117	0.4937	0.5177
250	400	0.3963	0.0097	0.1745	0.1990
300	400	0.3543	0.0149	0.2376	0.2797
300	44	0.3166	0.0279	0.5778	0.6659
350	400	0.2968	0.0254	0.3832	0.4686
400	400	0.2530	0.0449	0.6334	0.8110
400	44	0.2194	0.0700	0.6571	0.9761

TABLE 27
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene
using magnesium oxide (MgO)
	Catalyst	MgO
	Mass (mg)	100
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0048	0.0048
200	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0006	0.0015
250	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0032	0.0032
250	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0035	0.0053
300	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0025	0.0049
300	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0052	0.0082
350	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0049	0.0106
350	10	0.0174	0.0002	0.0154	0.0282

TABLE 28
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using
phosphotungstic acid (PTA), H3PW12O40
	Catalyst	PTA
	Mass (mg)	100
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.1075	0.0037	0.9658	1.0000
200	10	0.2715	0.0155	0.9429	1.0000
250	89	0.1064	0.0050	0.9534	1.0000
250	10	0.1404	0.0109	0.9226	1.0000
300	89	0.2344	0.0150	0.9360	1.0000
300	10	0.1662	0.0152	0.8867	1.0000
350	89	0.3365	0.0406	0.8793	1.0000
350	10	0.1305	0.0222	0.8296	1.0000
400	89	0.3492	0.0682	0.8048	1.0000
400	10	0.1009	0.0239	0.7632	1.0000

TABLE 29
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to
isoprene using activated carbon (C)
	Catalyst	Activated carbon
	Mass (mg)	20
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0516	0.0005	0.0423	0.0529
200	10	0.0412	0.0004	0.0151	0.0241
250	89	0.0486	0.0003	0.0093	0.0156
250	10	0.0260	0.0002	0.0354	0.0428
300	89	0.0103	0.0001	0.0167	0.0226
300	10	0.0195	0.0002	0.0663	0.0743
350	89	0.0232	0.0002	0.0187	0.0252
350	10	0.0086	0.0001	0.0827	0.0989

TABLE 30
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene
using metal organic framework (MIL 101)
	Catalyst	MOF
	Mass (mg)	20
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0059	0.0003	0.4034	0.4494
200	10	0.0028	0.0002	0.9163	0.9925
250	89	0.0245	0.0014	0.8226	0.8788
250	10	0.0300	0.0009	0.9679	0.9994
300	89	0.1059	0.0087	0.7696	0.8515
300	10	0.1037	0.0077	0.9185	0.9960
175	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.1142	0.1449
175	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.1445	0.1720
150	89	0.0000	0.0000	0.0356	0.0514
150	10	0.0000	0.0000	0.0366	0.0492

TABLE 31
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using niobia (Nb2O5)
	Catalyst	Nb2O5
	Mass (mg)	130
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.0212	0.0002	0.1299	0.1394
200	10	0.0484	0.0002	0.1501	0.1543
250	89	0.3807	0.0064	0.2807	0.2974
250	10	0.4121	0.0082	0.3757	0.3956
300	89	0.4226	0.0315	0.4830	0.5575
300	10	0.4145	0.0342	0.7116	0.7940
350	89	0.3467	0.0313	0.7597	0.8500
350	10	0.3136	0.0221	0.9295	1.0000
400	89	0.0317	0.0048	0.8492	1.0000
400	10	0.0333	0.0066	0.8031	1.0000

TABLE 32
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using P-Celite ®
	Catalyst	P-Celite ®
	Mass (mg)	35
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	160	0.4818	0.0081	0.3077	0.3246
200	17	0.3921	0.0065	0.2948	0.3114
250	160	0.4674	0.0152	0.2661	0.2987
250	17	0.4710	0.0158	0.6028	0.6362
300	160	0.3700	0.0165	0.4023	0.4468
300	17	0.4576	0.0253	0.8165	0.8717
350	160	0.3690	0.0294	0.4336	0.5133
350	17	0.5091	0.0502	0.8578	0.9565
400	160	0.4510	0.0588	0.4713	0.6016
400	17	0.5542	0.1032	0.8116	0.9978

TABLE 33
2-methyl-1,4-butanediol dehydration to isoprene using Sn-BEA zeolite
	Catalyst	Sn-BEA
	Mass (mg)	47.1
	Space			3-
Temperature	Velocity	Isoprene	Isoprene	MTHF	MBDO
(° C.)	(s−1)	Selectivity	Yield	Yield	Conversion
200	89	0.3243	0.0038	0.9884	1.0000
200	10	0.3322	0.0035	0.9896	1.0000
250	89	0.2994	0.0087	0.9710	1.0000
250	10	0.3730	0.0081	0.9784	1.0000
300	89	0.2613	0.0162	0.9381	1.0000
300	10	0.3063	0.0137	0.9552	1.0000
350	89	0.2820	0.0230	0.9183	1.0000
350	10	0.2924	0.0210	0.9283	1.0000
400	89	0.3071	0.0315	0.8975	1.0000
400	10	0.2800	0.0359	0.8717	1.0000

TABLE 34
3-Methyltetrahydrofuran dehydration to isoprene using P-SPP
	Catalyst	P-SPP
	Mass (mg)	45
Temperature	Space Velocity	S	Y	3-MTHF
(° C.)	(s−1)	(Isoprenes)	(Isoprenes)	Conversion
200	89	0.0796	0.0010	0.0130
200	10	0.5493	0.0057	0.0103
250	89	0.2029	0.0044	0.0218
250	10	0.6294	0.0199	0.0317
300	89	0.3207	0.0073	0.0229
300	10	0.7703	0.0493	0.0640
350	89	0.4036	0.0114	0.0284
350	10	0.7919	0.1032	0.1303
400	89	0.5338	0.0211	0.0395
400	10	0.8230	0.1668	0.2027

Thus, embodiments of methods of forming dienes from cyclic ethers and diols are disclosed. The implementations described above and other implementations are within the scope of the following claims. One skilled in the art will appreciate that the present disclosure can be practiced with embodiments other than those disclosed. The disclosed embodiments are presented for purposes of illustration and not limitation.

Claims

1. A method of forming a diene, the method comprising: contacting a reactant comprising at least one of a cyclic ether and a diol with a heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield a reaction mixture comprising a diene, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises at least one of a Lewis acid catalyst, a solid Lewis-acid catalyst, a Brønsted acid catalyst, a solid acid catalyst, a supported phosphoric acid catalyst, and a sulfonated catalyst.

2. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactant is derived from biomass.

3. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactant comprises a cyclic ether.

4. The method of claim 3, wherein the cyclic ether has a tetrahydrofuran skeleton.

5. The method of claim 4, wherein the cyclic either comprises tetrahydrofuran and the diene comprises butadiene.

6. The method of claim 5, wherein a selectivity of the butadiene is at least 95%.

7. The method of claim 3, wherein the cyclic ether comprises 2-methyltetrahydrofuran and the diene comprises pentadiene.

8. The method of claim 7, wherein a selectivity of the pentadiene is at least 95%.

9. The method of claim 3, wherein the cyclic ether comprises 2,5-dimethyl tetrahydrofuran and the diene comprises hexadiene.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein a selectivity of the hexadiene is at least 90%.

11. The method of claim 3, the cyclic ether comprises 3-methyltetrahydrofuran, and the diene comprises isoprene.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein a selectivity of the isoprene is at least 65%.

13. The method of claim 11, further comprising processing biomass to yield an acid comprising least one of citric acid, itaconic acid, and mesaconic acid, and processing the acid to yield the 3-methyltetrahydrofuran.

14. The method of claim 11, wherein the 3-methyltetrahydrofuran is derived from at least one of citric acid, itaconic acid, and mesaconic acid.

15. The method of claim 1, wherein the reactant comprises a diol.

16. The method of claim 15, wherein the diol comprises 2-methyl-1,4-butanediol, and the diene comprises isoprene.

17. The method of claim 16, wherein a selectivity of the isoprene is at least 70%.

18. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting occurs at a temperature from 100° C. to 600° C., 150° C. to 400° C., 100° C. to 500° C., or 200° C. to 300° C.

19. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting occurs at a pressure from 0 psia to 500 psia (34 atm), at a pressure up to 147 psia (10 atm), at pressure from 1 atm to 10 atm, or from 1 atm to 2 atm.

20. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting occurs in the presence of an inert gas.

21. The method of claim 20, wherein the inert gas comprises at least one of He, Ar, and N2.

22. The method of claim 1, wherein the contacting occurs in the vapor phase.

23. The method of claim 1, further comprising separating the diene from the reaction mixture.

24. The method of claim 1, wherein the reaction mixture comprises unreacted cyclic ether, unreacted diol, or both, and further comprising contacting the unreacted cyclic ether, unreacted diol, or both with the heterogeneous acid catalyst to yield the diene.

25. The method of claim 1, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a Lewis acid catalyst, and the Lewis acid catalyst comprises at least one of AlCl3, TiCl4, FeCl3, BF3, SnCl4, ZnCl2, ZnBr2, AMBERLYST-70, SiO2, Nb2O5, MgO, TiO2, SiO2—Al2O3, CeO2, and Cr2O3.

26. The method of claim 1, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a Brønsted acid catalyst, and the Brønsted acid catalyst comprises at least one of HCl, HBr, HI, HClO4, HClO3, HNO3, H2SO4, CH3COOH, CF3COOH, and H3PO4.

27. The method of claim 1, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a solid acid catalyst, and the solid acid catalyst comprises at least one of a zeolite type catalyst, a substituted-zeolite type catalyst, a heteropolyacid type catalyst, a phosphate type catalyst, a zirconia type catalyst, a celite type catalyst, a metal organic framework type catalyst, a carbon type catalyst, and a sulfonic acid catalyst.

28. The method of claim 27, wherein the solid acid catalyst comprises a zeolite type catalyst.

29. The method of claim 28, wherein the zeolite type catalyst comprises at least one of H-ZSM-5, H-BEA, H-Y, mordenite, ferrierite, chabazite, and self-pillared pentasil.

30. The method of claim 29, wherein the zeolite type catalyst comprises self-pillared pentasil.

31. The method of claim 28, wherein the zeolite type catalyst has an average pore size of at least 5 A.

32. The method of claim 28, wherein the zeolite type catalyst comprises a phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst.

33. The method of claim 32, wherein the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst comprises at least one of phosphorus-containing MFI, phosphorus-containing MEL, phosphorus-containing BEA, phosphorus-containing FAU, phosphorus-containing MOR, phosphorus-containing FER, phosphorus-containing CHA, and phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil.

34. The method of claim 33, wherein the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst comprises phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil, and the phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has a ratio of silicon atoms to phosphorus atoms in a range of 1:1 to 1000:1 or 3:1 to 150:1.

35. The method of claim 33, wherein the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst comprises phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil, and the phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has rotational intergrowths of single-unit-cell lamellae that lead to repetitive branching nanosheets.

36. The method of claim 35, wherein the nanosheets have a thickness of about 2 nm and define a network of micropores having a diameter of about 0.5 nm.

37. The method of claim 33, wherein the phosphorus-containing self-pillared pentasil has a house of cards arrangement defining a network of mesopores having a dimension in a range of 2 nm to 7 nm.

38. The method of claim 32, wherein the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst is substantially free of aluminum.

39. The method of claim 38, wherein the phosphorus-containing zeolite type catalyst comprises less than 5 wt %, less than 4 wt %, less than 3 wt %, less than 2 wt %, or less than 1 wt % of aluminum.

40. The method of claim 27, wherein the zeolite type catalyst comprises a substituted-zeolite type catalyst.

41. The method of claim 40, wherein the substituted zeolite type catalyst comprises at least one of Sn, Ge, Ga, B, Ti, Fe, and Zr.

42. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a heteropolyacid type catalyst, and the heteropolyacid type catalyst comprises at least one of H3PW12O40, H3SiW12O40, H5AlW12O40, H6CoW12O40, H3PMo12O40, H3SiMo12O40, and Cs+ substituted heteropolyacid type catalyst.

43. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a phosphate type catalyst, and the phosphate type catalyst comprises at least one of niobium phosphate (NbOPO4), zirconium phosphate (ZrO2—PO4), siliconiobium phosphate (Nb—P—Si—O), tricalcium phosphate (Ca3(PO4)2), lithium phosphate (Li3PO4), and lithium sodium phosphate (Li3NaP2O7).

44. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a zirconia type catalyst, and the zirconia type catalyst comprises at least one of SO3—ZrO2, SiO2—ZrO2, Zeolites-ZrO2, Al2O3—ZrO2, ZrO2, and WOx—ZrO2.

45. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a celite type catalyst, and the celite type catalyst comprises P-CELITE.

46. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a metal organic framework catalyst.

47. The method of claim 46, wherein the metal organic framework catalyst comprises MIL 101.

48. The method of claim 27, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a carbon type catalyst, and the carbon type catalyst comprises at least one of activated carbon, sulfated carbon, and SO3H-functionalized carbon.

49. The method of claim 1, wherein the heterogeneous acid catalyst comprises a sulfonated catalyst, and the sulfonated catalyst comprises at least one of NAFION and AMBERLYST.