The invention pertains to networks and particularly to observation of networks. More particularly, the invention pertains to observation of various kinds of networks.
The invention may be a framework for scalable state estimation using multi-network observations. The invention may involve a unification of models of disparate networks and the analysis of information obtained from the unified multiple networks.
a, 6b and 6c are diagrams of three diverse networks;
d is a diagram of a resultant unified network of corresponding nodes of the diagrams in
Organizations (such as the U.S. Department of Defense) often need to piece together bits of information on different networks in order to detect anomalies and make predictions. The networks may be, for example, computer networks, social networks, logistics networks, and financial networks. In the past, many conventional approaches treated each network as a “stove piped” or a “silo” problem, meaning that each network was treated as an independent and isolated problem. As an example, analysis of computer network events typically ignored the social networks, even though the social networks intersected or involved the computer networks. Likewise, the logistics networks (which support one or more organizations) were analyzed independently of the computer networks.
Networks are constantly under attack. However, the available tools (e.g., firewalls, VPNs, intrusion detection, anti-virus, and so on) may be mainly defensive. One cannot necessarily win a defensive war. Eventually the attackers may succeed. Many organizations appear to lack the tools necessary to mount an effective counterattack against cyber attackers. In many cases, one does not know in a timely manner who is attacking, what the attackers' objectives are, what targets they may strike next, what tools and techniques they may use, and what their true location is in cyberspace.
This disclosure provides a technique or tool for piecing together information from diverse networks in a way that links data from multiple contexts (such as computer networks, social networks, logistics networks, and financial networks). This may be done to provide improved situational awareness compared to what could be obtained by analyzing each network in isolation of the others.
In some approaches, this technique or tool may incorporate an approach for performing scalable coherent state estimation. Highly scalable qualitative probabilistic algorithms may be used to combine noisy, uncertain outputs from numerous networks into a relatively accurate and coherent estimate of a system state. This technology may be integrated into a larger framework that provides analysts and other personnel with a holistic approach to answering questions related to the networks. This tool or approach may address various challenges that the personnel face when confronted with bits of information from disparate networks. The approach may involve the unification of models of disparate networks and the analysis of information obtained from multiple networks.
One example approach of a system 100 incorporating the tool is shown in
Data associated with the networks 102a-102d may be provided to a framework architecture 104 for analysis. For example, the framework architecture 104 may receive multi-modal event data associated with the networks 102a-102d and perform functions for unifying this event data. This may produce unified multi-modal network data that can be analyzed, such as by performing qualitative probability analysis and probability aware graph-based data mining. Feedback based on the analysis can also be provided, such as to update or modify unification models used for unifying the multi-modal event data.
The framework architecture 104 may include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof for analyzing data from multiple types of networks. The framework architecture 104 may, for example, include one or more computing devices 106a-106n executing various applications or software programs or otherwise performing various functions. “n” may represent the number of devices. Each computing device may include one or more processors 108 and one or more memories 110 storing instructions and data used, generated, or collected by the one or more processors 108. Each computing device may also include at least one network interface 112 facilitating communication over one or more wired or wireless networks, such as one or more Ethernet interfaces. Note that each computing device may be responsible for performing one or more processes to support the overall functionality of the framework architecture 104. Also note that multiple computing devices may be responsible for performing at least some of the processes, or each computing device may be responsible for performing different processes. One may further note that the computing devices may have different hardware or other configurations, such as configurations based on the functions performed by those computing devices.
Data associated with the example networks 102a-102d may be provided to the framework architecture 104 in any suitable manner. For example, data associated with various networks may be collected automatically and provided to the framework architecture 104 (note that suitable security or other mechanisms may be provided for protecting the framework architecture 104 from intrusion, harmful data, or other attacks). Data may also be provided manually, such as by analysts or other personnel manually providing data using one or more operator stations 116 (again note that username-password combinations or other security mechanisms may be used to protect access to the framework architecture 104). In addition, data generated by the framework architecture 104 may be used in any suitable manner, such as stored for later retrieval or use, or presented to operators.
In this example, a database 114 may be used to store various information used, generated, or collected by the computing devices 106a-106n in the framework architecture 104. A single database 114 may store information for one or multiple computing devices, and/or multiple databases 114 may store information for one or multiple computing devices. The database 114 may include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof for storing and facilitating retrieval of information. The database 114 may also use any of a variety of data structures, arrangements, and compilations to store and facilitate retrieval of information.
The operator stations 116 may represent computing or communication devices providing user access or interface to the framework architecture 104. Each of the operator stations 116 may include any hardware, software, firmware, or combination thereof for supporting user access or control of the framework architecture 104. The operator stations 116 may, for example, represent desktop computers, laptop computers, personal digital assistants, pagers, mobile telephones, or other devices. One may note that a wide variety of operator stations 116 may be used to interact with the framework architecture 104 and that these interactions may vary depending on the type of operator station 116 currently used by a user.
In a particular example, the framework architecture 104 may apply incorporate, use or otherwise be associated with a modified version of SCYLLARUS™ by Honeywell International Inc. SCYLLARUS™ may be regarded as a computer network security tool (CNST). CNST may be described and referred to herein in conjunction with the present approach and system. Other kinds of tools may be used as a CNST. As a particular example, the framework architecture 104 may apply Bayesian logic to cyber events (such as network-based intrusion detection) and to events associated with other networks (such as non-computer networks). As another particular example, the framework architecture 104 can be used to determine if two or more graphs are related, such as by using probabilities that various nodes in each graph are equivalent.
Unified multi-modal network data 16 may emerge from unification model 15 and go to a multi-modal analyses module 17. The multi-modal analyses module 17 may use module 18 for qualitative probability analysis of data 16 and data stored in 114. Also, data 16 may use a probability-aware graph-based data mining module 19 on data 16 and data stored in 114. The qualitative probability analysis module 18 may ensure usability of the data by human analysts by pruning down probability space. The probability-aware graph-based data mining module 19 may uncover the “unknown unknowns” of the data and feed them back to the unification framework 13 and model 15. There may be feedback mechanisms for maintaining fidelity of the unification model.
The present description introduces an approach for performing scalable state estimation based on multi-network observations. One may use highly scalable qualitative probabilistic algorithms to combine the noisy, uncertain outputs from numerous networks into a relatively accurate and coherent estimate of system state. This technology may be integrated into a larger framework which provides the analyst with a holistic approach to answering the questions herein. The present approach may address two major challenges, which include the unification of models of disparate networks and analysis of information obtained from multiple networks.
Unification that may be performed by module 13 in
The analysis process needs to recognize that observations from disparate networks may have multiple interpretations, each with a different probability and that each relationship may also have a prior probability, so a sophisticated probability calculus is required. The analysis engine should be guided by the reference model to discover meaningful clusters of observations and hypotheses about their cause. The analysis process should consider multiple outcomes for each set of observations to avoid both blind spots (i.e., missed inferences) and false alarms (i.e., incorrect inferences). Two approaches that may be implemented include 1) a cyber alert correlation and analysis system such as module 18 in
The challenges that should be achieved include developing effective, scalable means of combining multi-modal information from cyber, physical, social and military contexts, processing the flood of input data to find the information which has both high probability and high impact, and extending current graph-based data mining problem formulations and algorithms to handle probabilistic correlations among nodes and arcs.
Two key challenges associated with state estimation based on multi-network observations include the following. The first may involve the correlation of actors, data, ties, and relationships across networks (i.e., is data derived from one network associated to the same “real world” actor, event, relationship, and so forth, as a disparate unit of data derived from another network). The second challenge may involve the fast, accurate, and effective analysis of the correlated networks. One may anticipate then that a framework for multi-modal network analysis will include two key components. One is a network unification framework such as the combination of modules 13, 14, and 15 in
The network unification framework may create a unified multi-network picture from information obtained from diverse, but (directly or indirectly) interconnected networks. One may begin by defining a canonical network ontology such as module 15 in
An analysis engine may use probabilistic analyses as well as probability-aware graph-based data mining algorithms to reason about events, patterns, and anomalies emergent across multiple networks. Since each network event generally may have a different level of plausibility and impact, the analysis engine such as module 17 in
Several key extensions to the CNST evidence aggregation and interpretation technology may serve as the network unification framework. CNST may be successfully applied to a cyber-network security domain in a combined attack-recognition. It may maintain global system information in a threat reference model (TRM) that is an extension of an intrusion reference model (IRM). The TRM may store attributes of the world being protected and provide the knowledge needed to combine the judgments of a wide variety of detectors—that use widely varying sources of information and algorithms—into a much smaller set of events. The resulting events may be scored for plausibility and severity using qualitative probabilities. Qualitative probabilities provide a “ladder” of events of qualitatively different orders of likelihood. This may allow one to combine information from sources with widely varying dynamic ranges and false alarm rates. CNST may reason over rich cyber network ontologies built on top of generalized network base classes to transform events, reports, and so forth, into a cyber network model. These ontologies and associated transformation functions may be extended to include other types of networks.
To aid building ontology extensions, a game-theoretic model such as module 14 in
Attacker plans/goals 43 and defense plans/goals 45 may interact with each other. Attacker plans/goals 43 and defense plans/goals 45 may be provided to a unified event model/event dictionary 46. Observable models 47 and network models 48 may be provided to unified event model/event dictionary 46. Observable models 47 and environment/traffic models 49 may interact with each other. Network models 48 and environment/traffic models 49 may interact with each other. Environment/traffic models 49 may be provided to unified event model/event dictionary 46.
Network attack modeling and analysis may be noted. To build ontology extensions, a game-theoretic or stochastic network attack model may be used. Attack trees may be simulated to analyze and predict for each network model, the effects of threats on a system 100 of diverse networks (
A cyber network attack model may be used as a baseline to develop general attack models for other networks. Properties of the cyber network attack model may include situation calculus and goal directed procedure invocation. Simulated attackers may choose among methods that can achieve goals, and react to failures appropriately, by persistence, choosing alternate means of goal achievement or goal abandonment.
The situation calculus may provide an expressive framework for encoding actions including those whose effects are complex functions of the system state. Golog, Congo/og and Indigolog may provide in approach for implementing situation calculus.
The goal directed invocation may give the ability to invoke procedures based on desired effect, rather than by name. A prototype may simulate a single attacker, who can synthesize full network attacks from a library of plans and primitive actions, reacting to successes and failures encountered. Vulnerability propagation may be modeled.
An attacker population model 65 may affect attacker plans 66. An attacker simulation engine 67 may affect attacker plans 66, an event model/event dictionary 68, and a sense model 69. Attacker plans 66 may affect event model/event dictionary 68. Defender plans 71 may affect attacker simulation engine 67 and defender acts/events 72. Sense model 69 and defender acts/events 72 may affect each other. Event model/event dictionary 68 and sense model 69 may affect each other. Event model/event dictionary 68, sense model 69 and an intrusion detection system (IDS) model 73 may affect a network model 74. Sense model 69, IDS model 73, defender acts/events 72 and a background traffic model 75 may affect a network and simulation engine 76.
In addition to developing richer and more diverse ontologies, a number of other key extensions may be made to CNST. Network environments may be dynamic with changes (known as concept drift) significantly affecting the predictive accuracy of the TRM. Thus, the TRM should adapt and evolve as the world changes. Furthermore, it should be extended to include the more complex and abstract events that will be monitored and reasoned over. The present system may utilize a feedback mechanism such as module 21 in
There may be probability-aware graph-based data mining performed by module 19 in
In particular, graph-based partitioning, clustering, and pattern detection algorithms may be fast, scalable, and effective in analyzing network data. However, current formulations and algorithms may require complete and certain knowledge of the structure of the graph. The present network unification framework 13 (
If the corresponding nodes of each network can be correlated to the same real world phenomena with a high degree of confidence, a unified network 80 in
A challenge may occur if the corresponding nodes cannot be correlated with high confidence by the network unification framework. The result is that duplicate nodes and edges may exist that can hinder graph-based analysis algorithms. In
There may be probability-aware graph-based data mining for video analytics, for example, in module 19 (
The approach may collapse multiple networks using probability or weighted arcs across networks. A challenge may occur for multi-modal networks in which corresponding nodes cannot be correlated with high confidence by the network unification framework. Related art graph-based data mining algorithms that do not take into account these probabilities cannot necessarily find the cluster BEDG in a
The approach may include a suite of “probability-aware” problem formulations for useful graph algorithms which may be needed to compute integrated solutions. The following facts may be exploited. First, network nodes and arcs are similar in nature, and thus can be meaningfully combined. Second, nodes in the same network represent different real-world entities. One may transform the system of correlated graphs into a single, weighted graph, as shown in
In
The following shows a process for transforming the graphs of multiple networks that are linked by probability arcs into a single network graph. 1) For each node in the original graph, one may do the following. a) If the node is not connected to any other nodes by a probability arc, copy the node over to the new graph with the same name and the same weight. b) If the node is connected to one or more other nodes by a probability arc, for each probability arc, create a composite node in the new graph. Name each composite node by appending the names of the two related nodes from the original graph. Compute the weight of the composite node using an appropriate weight composition function (e.g., sum, average, or product) applied to the weights of the two related nodes from the original network graph. Then scale this weight by the probability value of the associated probability arc.
2) For each non-probability edge in the original network graph, one may do the following. a) If neither of the end nodes of the edge is connected to any other nodes by a probability arc, copy the edge over to the new graph with the same end nodes and weight. b) If one or both of the end nodes of the edge are connected to other nodes by one or more probability arcs, for each probability arc, add an edge to the new graph between the corresponding nodes on the new graph. Scale the weight of each new edge by the probability value of the associated probability arc. If an edge already exists between the nodes on the new graph, combine the edges into a single composite edge. Adjust the weight of the composite edge by combining the weights of the two edges using an appropriate weight composition function (e.g., sum, average, or product).
Graph-based data mining algorithms may be developed and extended to handle both uncertain correlations across nodes and arcs as well as typed vertices and edges. Various type graphs may be needed to model semantically diverse network concepts. For example, one edge in a unified model may be derived from a transaction specified in a financial network while another edge may be derived from a social network and represent a history of cooperation between actors. Even when there is high confidence that the source and destination of the transaction are associated with the same real world entities as the nodes incident on the “cooperative relationship” edge, it might not necessarily be meaningfully to combine these edges into a single edge—because a transaction appears fundamentally different than a cooperative relationship. Therefore, both edges should be maintained in the unified model and be handled individually even as integrated analyses that take these both into account are sought.
Graph-based data mining to meet certain needs, state-of-the-art graph-based partitioning, clustering, and pattern detection algorithms may be extended to be probability-aware and to correctly and effectively compute over typed data. Multi-constraint, multi-objective graph partitioning formulations may be used as a way forward. These formulations may associate a vector, vwgt, of size n to each vertex. The value of vwgt[i] may indicate the ith weight of the associated vertex. Similarly, each edge may have an associated weight vector of size m. For present purposes, these vectors of weights may be used to specify both probability and type information in the graph. A straightforward method to do so for typed vertices may be to simply utilize a vertex weight vector of size n, where n is the number of types. Then every element in the vector may be associated with one of the possible node types. Each vector element may be assigned the value of either zero or one depending on whether or not the associated vertex is of the associated type. Of course, more complex schemes may also be possible under this general formulation. For example, since the multi-constraint, multi-objective graph partitioning formulations may handle real numbers as weights, correlation probabilities may likewise be represented under these formulations. This may enable specifying that two nodes (e.g., the source of a transaction and a particular actor in social network) are equivalent with probability p, and to potentially use this knowledge in subsequent analyses.
Multi-constraint, multi-objective partitioning algorithms may be effective in finding highly connected domains while taking into account multiple weights on the vertices and edges of a graph, and without combining the weights. This may lead to application in multi-modal network analysis. However, partitioning may be just one of a number of potential graph-based data mining algorithms that can be employed for this purpose. Generalized multi-constraint, multi-objective formulations and algorithms for other types of useful graph algorithms likewise may be used. A vector of weights may be assigned to every vertex and every edge of the graph. This formulation may become a multi-objective concern. The n edge cuts may be minimized. It may be subject to multiple constraints. One may ensure that each sub-domain has an equal amount of all of the m vertex weights.
The upper portion of
CNST may be an aspect of a framework for scalable state estimation using multi-network observations. CNST may relate to one of the multi-networks. It may be a management and analysis system for network security monitoring. CNST may correlate reports from many disparate intrusion detectors to provide information useful to operating personnel or administrators. CNST may also alert and display possible intrusion events and associated reports. It may weigh evidence for or against intrusions to reduce false alarms, access intrusion events for plausibility and severity, and discount attacks against non-susceptible targets. CNST may consolidate and retain report data for forensic investigation. Additionally, it may maintain detector and system configuration information.
CNST may correlate information from multiple disparate intrusion sensors to provide a more accurate and complete assessment of computer network security. This action may lower the false alarm rate, provide a broader range of detected intrusions, such as finding intrusions that a single sensor cannot detect, and estimate effects on security system goals.
CNST may reduce information overload and identify important events. It may consolidate and retain virtually all relevant intrusion detection systems (IDS) reports but distill thousands of IDS reports to far fewer events. CNST may weigh evidence for and/or against intrusions. It may discount attacks against non-susceptible targets. It may identify critical events using Bayesian estimation technology to score intrusion events for plausibility and severity. CNST may also propose likely attacker plans.
From intrusion reference model 51, CNST may go to a dynamic evidence aggregator (DEA) 55 for intrusion detection. The DEA 55 may cluster IDS reports with possible intrusion events, evaluate likelihood of intrusions or alternative events given the IDS reports and status of the network, and link possible intrusions to the status of security goals. An attack plan recognizer may estimate likelihood of alternative attacker goals.
DEA 55 may recognize hypotheses of possible situations. Fore example, one hypothesis 56 may indicate an accidentally mis-configured application. Another hypothesis 57 may indicate an intrusion in progress. There may be additional hypotheses.
Audit reports 58 may come to DEA 55 relative to the hypotheses 56 and 57. Instances of audit reports 61, 62 and 63 may include audit report of communication report of communication attempt, audit report of network probe, and audit report of unauthorized user, respectively.
A cluster preprocessor (CPP) may combine evidence from multiple instances and various kinds of detectors to produce hypothesized events. An event analyzer may use probability to weigh hypotheses generated by the CPP. The event analyzer may “explain away” false positives from innocuous events. A security goal analyzer may identify security goals attacked or compromised. The attack plan recognizer may combine hypothesized events to estimate high level plans/goals of an intruder.
The intrusion reference model 51 static components may include a network entity relationship database (NERD), a security goal database, an attack plan library, and intrusion detector “contracts.” The network entity relationship database may have hardware and services in a protected domain, potential targets such as protected files or applications, services and relationships between entities, deployed detectors, and users, groups and permissions. The security goal database may capture security policies, and have security objects, actors and relationships. The attack plan library may have potential exploits and attach plans, and innocent events that can be confused with attacks (future work). The intrusion detector “contracts” may have IDS locations, scope and capabilities.
The intrusion reference model 51 dynamic components may include intrusion detector reports, hypothesized events, hypothesized security goal violations, and hypothesized attack plans. IDS reports may be clustered by time, target and other similarity criteria. Hypothesized events may be events of interest deduced from reports. Hypothesized security goal violations may be hypothesized from events. Hypothesized attack plans may be likely attack plans.
The cluster preprocessor of the dynamic evident aggregator may combine evidence from multiple instances and various kinds of detectors, as noted herein, and employ the intrusion reference model 51 to understand context, and associate multiple reports with hypothesized events. The cluster preprocessor may build hypotheses by assembling clusters consisting of reports and events. These terms have may have special meanings in CNST. Reports may be direct observations which are the alerts or notifications coming directly from contributing intrusion detection systems (IDSs), firewall logs, and so on. Events are not generally observed. They may be hypothesized causes of reports, some bad, some nice. Various kinds of events may be known in the intrusion reference model 51 event dictionary at different levels of abstraction. Semantics may include attacks, anomalies, operations that may be parts of attacks, and normal activities confusable with attacks.
Reports and events may be clustered to build hypotheses. Reports may include alerts and notifications from intrusion detection systems. Events may be hypothetical causes of reports. Reports may be associated with events by binding to the existing events and hypothesizing new events. Events may be associated with related events where events are manifestations of others, events are parts of conglomerate events, and events are specializations of others.
The event analyzer (assessor) may use probabilistic reasoning to weight likelihood of hypotheses generated by the cluster preprocessor, and “explain away” false positives from innocuous events. The analyzer does not require actual probability but just relative surprise values. Clusters constructed by the cluster preprocessor may represent alternative hypotheses. Different scenarios (e.g., an intrusion detection system false positive, an innocuous event, and an intrusion) may be weighted against each other using qualitative probability. This reasoning may link up to an attack plan recognizer.
The event analyzer may also compute an effect of intrusion events on security goals. Processing may include a hierarchy of goals allowing for inference up the goal tree, inference of a higher level security goal compromise from the compromise of lower level goals, and links to attack plan tracking to allow a status of system security to provide information about attackers' actions/goals.
Set forth may be a multi-modal ontology to unify disparate networks. The networks may exist to transfer, aggregate, coordinate or destroy information, physical assets and money, via transactions that vary in type (digital, physical), direction, size, frequency and so on, between entities, such as individuals, organizations, legal structures, and the like, which have shared and/or conflicting goals. The ontology may link these network elements, and allow reasoning about static and dynamic network information, common or conflicting goals, common owners/actors, shared assets, and so on.
Models may exist that can be unified relative to cyber network attack detection, transportation networks and financial networks. Goals may be an essential unifying element. They may be temporally persistent, more so than individuals and organizations. Diverse groups may cooperate around goals. The goals may naturally cross-domain and enable war-gaming. The CNST tool may provide goal-centric reasoning over cyber network ontology.
In some approaches, various functions described herein may be implemented or supported by a computer program that is formed from computer readable program code and that is incorporated in a computer readable medium. The phrase “computer readable program code” may include any type of computer code, including source code, object code, and executable code. The phrase “computer readable medium” may include any type of medium capable of being accessed by a computer, such as read only memory (ROM), random access memory (RAM), a hard disk drive, a compact disc (CD), a digital video disc (DVD), or any other type of memory.
It may be advantageous to set forth definitions of certain words and phrases used throughout this patent document. The term “couple” and its derivatives may refer to any direct or indirect communication between two or more elements, whether or not those elements are in physical contact with one another. The terms “application” and “program” may refer to one or more computer programs, software components, sets of instructions, procedures, functions, objects, classes, instances, related data, or a portion thereof adapted for implementation in a suitable computer code (including source code, object code, or executable code). The terms “transmit,” “receive,” and “communicate,” as well as derivatives thereof, may encompass both direct and indirect communication. The terms “include” and “comprise,” as well as derivatives thereof, may mean inclusion without limitation. The term “or” may be inclusive, meaning and/or. The phrases “associated with” and “associated therewith,” as well as derivatives thereof, may mean to include, be included within, interconnect with, contain, be contained within, connect to or with, couple to or with, be communicable with, cooperate with, interleave, juxtapose, be proximate to, be bound to or with, have, have a property of, or the like. The term “controller” may mean any device, system, or part thereof that controls at least one operation. A controller may be implemented in hardware, firmware, software, or some combination of at least two of the same. The functionality associated with any particular controller may be centralized or distributed, whether locally or remotely.
In the present specification, some of the matter may be of a hypothetical or prophetic nature although stated in another manner or tense.
Although the present system has been described with respect to at least one illustrative example, many variations and modifications will become apparent to those skilled in the art upon reading the specification. It is therefore the intention that the appended claims be interpreted as broadly as possible in view of the prior art to include all such variations and modifications.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/091,657, filed Aug. 25, 2008. U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/091,657, filed Aug. 25, 2008, is hereby incorporated by reference. This application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/369,692, filed Feb. 11, 2009, which in turn is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/124,293, filed May 21, 2008. This application is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/369,692, filed Feb. 11, 2009, which in turn is a Continuation-in-Part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/187,991, filed Aug. 7, 2008. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/369,692, filed Feb. 11, 2009, is hereby incorporated by reference. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/124,293, filed May 21, 2008 is hereby incorporated by reference. U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/187,991, filed Aug. 7, 2008 is hereby incorporated by reference.
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61091657 | Aug 2008 | US |
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Parent | 12369692 | Feb 2009 | US |
Child | 12547415 | US | |
Parent | 12124293 | May 2008 | US |
Child | 12369692 | US | |
Parent | 12369692 | Feb 2009 | US |
Child | 12124293 | US | |
Parent | 12187991 | Aug 2008 | US |
Child | 12369692 | US |