Patent Grant
10504186
The present invention relates to methods and systems for clearing of credit default swaps.
A credit default swap (“CDS”) is a contract between two parties, the protection buyer and a protection seller, whereby the protection buyer is compensated for the loss generated by a credit event in a reference instrument. The credit event can be the default of the reference entity, lack of payment of a coupon or other corporate events defined in the contract. In return the protection buyer pays a premium, e.g. equal to an annual percentage X of the notional or face value/amount, to the protection seller. The premium X, quoted in basis points or percentage points of the notional, i.e. face amount, is called the CDS spread. CDS's are often analyzed by graphing the CDS spread vs. maturity which results in a curve. This spread is paid, for example, (semi)annually or quarterly in arrears until either maturity is reached or default occurs. In the case of default occurring prior to maturity, the protection seller pays the protection buyer the face value of the reference asset minus its post-default market value, through physical or cash settlement. Thus, the protection buyer is protected against losses in case the reference entity defaults. If the buyer owns the reference security, the CDS acts as a hedge against default: such ‘insurance against default’ was the initial motivation for introducing credit default swaps.
However, unlike insurance contracts, credit default swaps do not require exposure to the underlying credit risk: a CDS may be used to gain a synthetic exposure to the credit risk of a firm. Compared to the strategy of holding (or shorting) the corresponding bond, the CDS strategy leads to the same exposure but only requires a small amount of capital at inception, equal to the collateral or margin posted with the counterparty. Also, in instances where the underlying bond may be difficult to short, the CDS enables to take a speculative short position that benefits from a deterioration of the issuer's creditworthiness. The sheer volume of the CDS market indicates that a substantial portion of contracts are speculative; in principle, the outstanding notional of credit default swaps may even become larger than the total debt of the reference entity.
Many credit default swaps are over-the-counter (“OTC”) derivatives and are not exchange-traded. CDS markets are generally dealer markets where a few major institutions control an overwhelming proportion of the volume and post quotes for protection premiums on various reference entities.
Central counterparties (“CCPs”) have been proposed as a solution for mitigating counterparty risk and preventing default contagion in the CDS market. A clearinghouse (or central counterparty) acts as the buyer to every seller and seller to every buyer of protection, thereby isolating each clearing member firm from the default of other clearing member firms. Clearing member firms post collateral with the central counterparty and are subject to daily margin calls. This helps reduce losses in case of default and mitigates counterparty risk. Also, management of collateral and margin calls by the CCP can help reduce operational risk in the CDS market.
A clearinghouse is not an exchange: prices are still negotiated over the counter and there is no auction mechanism for price fixing. However, for the purpose of marking positions and computing margins, clearinghouse clearing member firms are required to post quotes for all instruments being cleared, which leads to some degree of price transparency.
Clearing member firms can create self-referencing risks when they have exposure to credit default swaps that reference themselves or their affiliates. There is a need in the art for improved systems and methods that allow clearinghouses to mitigating against self-referencing risks.
Embodiments of the present invention overcome problems and limitations of the prior art by providing systems and methods that may be used to efficiently determine guarantee fund values while accounting for self-referencing risk. A computer system may be programmed with computer-executable instructions to determine a guarantee fund. A base guarantee fund requirement is first determined for each clearing member firm by assuming no self-referencing risk and a predetermined number of jump to defaults of clearing member firms. Next, a self-referencing risk guarantee fund requirement is determined for each clearing member firm by considering self-referencing risks and assuming a predetermined number of jump to defaults by clearing member firms. Total guarantee fund requirement is then determined for each clearing member firm by summing the base guarantee fund and the self-referencing risk guarantee fund for each clearing member firm.
In other embodiments, the present invention can be partially or wholly implemented on a computer-readable medium, for example, by storing computer-executable instructions or modules, or by utilizing computer-readable data structures.
Of course, the methods and systems of the above-referenced embodiments may also include other additional elements, steps, computer-executable instructions, or computer-readable data structures. In this regard, other embodiments are disclosed and claimed herein as well.
The details of these and other embodiments of the present invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.
The present invention may take physical form in certain parts and steps, embodiments of which will be described in detail in the following description and illustrated in the accompanying drawings that form a part hereof, wherein:
Aspects of the present invention may be implemented with computer devices and computer networks that allow users to perform calculations and exchange information. An exemplary trading network environment for implementing trading systems and methods is shown in
The trading network environment shown in
Computer device 114 is shown directly connected to exchange computer system 100. Exchange computer system 100 and computer device 114 may be connected via a Ti line, a common local area network (LAN) or other mechanism for connecting computer devices. Computer device 114 is shown connected to a radio 132. The user of radio 132 may be a trader or exchange employee. The radio user may transmit orders or other information to a user of computer device 114. The user of computer device 114 may then transmit the trade or other information to exchange computer system 100.
Computer devices 116 and 118 are coupled to a LAN 124. LAN 124 may have one or more of the well-known LAN topologies and may use a variety of different protocols, such as Ethernet. Computers 116 and 118 may communicate with each other and other computers and devices connected to LAN 124. Computers and other devices may be connected to LAN 124 via twisted pair wires, coaxial cable, fiber optics or other media. Alternatively, a wireless personal digital assistant device (PDA) 122 may communicate with LAN 124 or the Internet 126 via radio waves. PDA 122 may also communicate with exchange computer system 100 via a conventional wireless hub 128. As used herein, a PDA includes mobile telephones and other wireless devices that communicate with a network via radio waves.
One or more market makers 130 may maintain a market by providing bid and offer prices for a derivative or security to exchange computer system 100. Exchange computer system 100 may also exchange information with other trade engines, such as trade engine 138. One skilled in the art will appreciate that numerous additional computers and systems may be coupled to exchange computer system 100. Such computers and systems may include clearing, regulatory and fee systems. Coupling can be direct as described or any other method described herein.
The operations of computer devices and systems shown in
Of course, numerous additional servers, computers, handheld devices, personal digital assistants, telephones and other devices may also be connected to exchange computer system 100. Moreover, one skilled in the art will appreciate that the topology shown in
Given their important role as a bulwark against counterparty risk and contagion, Clearing houses or central counterparties (“CCPs”) use stringent risk management procedures to ensure their own stability, including in stress scenarios when a large dealer may default. Risk management of central counterparties is currently done at several levels:
Margin requirements are typically designed to cover short term losses, which may arise from CDS spread volatility or from losses due to the default of the underlying reference entity of the CDS (referred to as “jump-to-default” or “JTD”). CDS spreads are observed to be highly volatile and exhibit large fluctuations and margin levels should account for this “heavy-tailed” nature of the risk. It is generally desirable for margin requirements to be very responsive to short term, e.g. over 5 days or less, market fluctuations.
Computing appropriate jump-to-default requirements for clearing members may be based on loss given default, not on expected loss as is often done in current OTC margin agreements. For a stand-alone ‘naked’ single name CDS, this would lead to a large collateral requirement, which would strongly discourage the protection seller. For a CDS portfolio, however, it may be feasible to require that the margin covers the loss given a fixed number of defaults in the portfolio over the risk horizon (usually a few days).
Whereas margin concerns the short term risk of each clearing member's portfolio, the guarantee fund may address systemic risk or “tail” risk faced by the CCP. Tail risk is the possibility of an investment's value moving more than three standard deviations from the mean being greater than what may be shown in a normal distribution and generally refers to portfolios with distributions of returns that do not follow a normal or expected pattern. Guarantee fund requirements are generally not viewed as an additional margin: the guarantee fund's main role may be to mutualize extreme losses in excess of margin. Such extreme losses typically occur in the event of the default of a clearing member and arise from the cost of liquidating its position. The level of the guarantee fund may be fixed in order to cover liquidation costs in extreme but plausible scenarios. Currently it is recommended to require a CCP to dispose of sufficient funds to cover losses due to default of any single clearing member, but regulators have considered, in practice, two or more dealer defaults in some cases.
Central counterparties may stress test their risk management system in order to assess the adequacy of the level of margin and guarantee fund requirements. The outcome of the stress test largely depends on the configuration of portfolios of clearing members: a market where most clearing members/dealers have are large net protection buyers or sellers represents a different risk than a market where most clearing members have well-balanced long-short portfolios. Therefore a meaningful stress test needs to consider different portfolio configurations for clearing members and identify (plausible) worst case scenarios from the viewpoint of the central counterparty's risk. For example, one could simulate plausible portfolio configurations for clearing members and consider, across the simulated scenarios, the cost of liquidating each dealer's portfolios in case of their default. This cost, net of collateral, which may include margin, determines the risk posed by the dealer to the CCP and its allocation to the guarantee fund should be determined accordingly.
A clearing house is a central counterparty to each of the clearing member firms and has exposure to the risk of their default. To address this counterparty credit risk, a clearing house may require clearing member firms to provide collateral for their obligations under cleared CDS transactions, and may have rules that mutualize the risk of a clearing member firm default across all clearing member firms. Each clearing member firm, therefore, may be required to both post margin and make contributions to a guarantee fund. Each clearing member firm may be required to make an initial, uniform contribution to the guarantee fund, as well as contributions made on an ongoing basis based on the clearing member firm's actual and anticipated CDS position exposures. A clearing house may also contribute to the guarantee fund. As a result, the guarantee fund may grow in proportion to the position risk associated with the aggregate volume of CDS cleared by the clearing house.
If a clearing member firm defaults, the clearing house may draw on the margin collateral the clearing member firm has posted. If that is insufficient, the clearing house may then look to the defaulting clearing member firm clearing member firm's guarantee fund contribution. The clearing house may use other guarantee fund contributions to satisfy any remaining obligations of the defaulting clearing member firm. If the total guarantee fund is inadequate to cover losses on the defaulted obligations, the clearing house may have the ability to assess an additional guarantee fund contribution from all non-defaulting clearing member firms, subject to certain limitations in the clearing house's rules.
As described above, guarantee funds, along with margin accounts, are part of the general CDS financial safeguards package. Guarantee funds act with margin accounts as an additional layer of protection to account for extreme market circumstances. The guarantee fund is contributed to by specific clearing members, and the fund is shared by all clearing members in a pool. The CDS guarantee fund accounts for extreme instances of risk that are not accounted for by the CDS margin model, e.g. systemic risks and/or risks to the CCP itself.
Some of the disclosed embodiments relate to a method for calculating a value, i.e. the size or magnitude, such as in dollars, of a CDS guarantee fund, such as more optimal size thereof, e.g. a size more reflective of the true risk, or each member's contribution thereto, thereby reducing or minimizing the burden on clearing member firms while adequately ensuring that risks are covered. Some of the disclosed embodiments utilize a generalized approach to avoid too many risk scenarios while still accounting for all relevant possible portfolio constructions.
Other methods of calculating the guarantee fund may rely on the CDS margin model which is used to calculate the margin necessary to cover short term losses and/or risks limited to a individual clearing member firm. In applying the CDS margin model to sizing the guarantee fund, extreme scenarios may be used to calculate maximum loss and/or the model analysis may be applied over a longer period of time, e.g. greater than 5 days. However, such use of the margin model may drastically overestimates the size of the guarantee fund due to double-counting certain risks, i.e. those risks having a significant amount of multi-collinearity, that is, a high degree of dependence or correlation, and, therefore, may result in being too punitive on the clearing member firm s. In other words, using a method which is based on non-unique sources of risk and does not factor out correlated risks may result in double and triple counting.
A stress model may be used for determining a size of a guarantee fund associated with a cleared credit portfolio. The stress model may be an extension of the margin model, where the stress spread risk requirement may be calculated from a higher percentile of the P&L distribution across scenarios (e.g., VaRq, where q=99.75%). In the calculation, a number of entities may be considered for the jump-to-default. For example, two entities may be considered in the jump-to-default calculations. Similarly, the JTH spread may be computed from a lower (e.g., 0.05%) percentile of the high correlation scenarios. The spread risk requirement is the maximum of the base, basis and system stress VaR, where αstress=1. Further, the stress volatility forecast may be chosen to be the maximum of the (99.75% percentile of historical EWMA volatility) and (2.3 times the most recent EWMA volatility). In some cases, the interest rate risk requirement may be computed from the 0.25% and the 99.75% percentile of historical log changes of the 5-year point on the IR curve.
The stress model of the RMCC, as implemented using a clearinghouse computing system, may allow for a comprehensive set of scenarios. Parameter sets used with the stress model may be used to cover “extreme but plausible scenarios.” For example, these scenarios may be used to address low probability, but high impact risk factors resulting from certain situations. By combining the margin model and the stress model in the RMCC, use of both the margin model and the stress model may be simple and intuitive and results may be easy to replicate by end users.
The risk model may be used to analyze and/or model statistical features of credit spread movements for one or both of single name CDS and CDS indices. For example, the RMCC may allow for time series analysis of different risk factors (e.g., spread log changes, etc.) associated with a particular CDS product and/or with a portfolio of CDS products. For single name CDS products, the risk factors may include par spreads at fixed benchmark tenors (e.g., 1 year, 3 year, 5 year, 7 year, 10 year, etc.). For CDS indices, the risk factors may include par spreads of synthetic on the run or off the run (OTR) indices (e.g., OTR−k (k=0, 1, . . . ) at a fixed maturity) that may be interpolated at fixed benchmark tenors to preserve stationarity. For the RMCC, salient characteristics of risk factors may include autocorrelations that may be non-uniform across entities and tenors, heteroscedasticity, varying degrees of heavy tails that may be observed but have statistically weak asymmetry, stable average correlations (e.g., Single name-Single name, Single name-Index, Index-Index, and the like). In some cases, the characteristics may have strong correlations across tenors, strong dependence across on-the-run and off-the-run indices of the same index family, an index on a constituent basis, a breakdown of correlations in distressed markets and or jumps which may be defaults (jump-to-default) and/or drastic improvements (e.g., a jump to health) in credit quality.
In some cases, the RMCC may be modeled using a risk modeling computing system that may be associated with a financial institution and/or a clearinghouse. The risk modeling computing system may be configured to store models in a data repository and/or another non-transitory memory device as instructions and/or other information (e.g., parameters, CDS market information, CDS index information, CDS single name information, and/or the like. For example, the risk modeling computing system may include one or more computing devices configured to retrieve the instructions and/or other information from the data repository and/or non-transitory memory device via a network to generate a risk model for use as the RMCC by a risk model generator. In some cases, the risk model generator may design the RMCC using one or more different model types, such as a factor model or a scenario based model. Each model has associated advantages and disadvantages. For example, factor models may be simple and easy to calibrate, but may provide incoherent modeling of portfolio benefits. For example, the factor model may include rule based correlation offsets. However, these offsets may not be readily extendible to new risk factors which may be introduced to the model over time. Factor based models also may rely on a decomposition model for efficiency, for both basis and curve decomposition, but may be prone to double counting of risk associated with the portfolio.
Scenario based models may be considered to be comprehensive models due to explicit correlation modeling performed as part of the scenario based model. As such, scenario based models may be more easily extended to new risk factors. Due to availability of historical data, the scenario based models (e.g., a historical model, a Monte Carlo model, etc.) may need to be implemented parsimoniously. Further, scenario based models may be more complex than other model types and, as such, may be more difficult to calibrate. However, scenario-based models may offer greater stability of modeling parameters through the use of correlations and distributions.
Self-referencing risk may result from a clearing member firm having a net short protection position in a single CDS or a group of CDSs of itself and/or its affiliates. If the clearing member firm defaults, the clearing member firm may not be a position to make a required payment. Self-referencing risks can be created when a clearing member firm has a position in a basket of CDSs that includes a CDS that references the clearing member firm or one or more affiliates of the entity. Baskets may be used to synthetically create a desired position with a side effect of creating self-referencing risk. In accordance with embodiments of the invention, clearinghouses may determine and require clearing member firms to pay a self-referencing risk guarantee fund to account for self-referencing risks. The self-referencing risk guarantee fund may be in addition to the base guarantee fund described above.
Row 206 lists stress requirements for each clearing member firm that are calculated to cover losses during a stress or shock condition, such as a crash in the market. The stress requirements in row 206 assume that none of the portfolios of the clearing member firms include self-referencing risks. Row 208 includes the portfolio residual lost (PRL) used to calculate the base guarantee fund in accordance with an embodiment of the invention. The PRLbase is calculated for each clearing member firm by subtracting the margin requirement in row 204 from the stress requirement in row 206. Row 210 lists weights for the base guarantee fund Wbase. Each weight may be calculated by dividing a PRLbase by a sum of all of the PRLbase values in row 208. The Wbase for CMF1, for example, is calculated as $1200/($1200+$600+$100+$100). In alternative embodiments, weights for the base guarantee fund may be calculated according to PRLbase values that are averaged over a predetermined time period, such as a month.
Chart 200 also includes rows for calculating a self-referencing risk guarantee fund. Row 212 includes a stress requirement StressSRR for each clearing member firm that are calculated to cover losses during a stress or shock condition that involves self-referencing risks. Row 214 includes the portfolio residual lost with self-referencing risk PRLSRR for each of the clearing member firms. The PRLSRR is calculated for each clearing member firm by subtracting the margin requirement in row 204 from the stress requirement in row 212.
Next, for each clearing member firm a difference between the portfolio residual lost ΔPRLSRR is calculated in row 216. The ΔPRLSRR values in row 216 are calculated by determining differences between PRLbase and PRLSRR.
Row 218 lists weights for the self-referencing risk guarantee fund WSRR. Each weight may be calculated by dividing a sum of all of the ΔPRLSRR values in row 216 by an individual ΔPRLSRR value in row 216. The WSRR for CMF1, for example, is calculated as $900/($900+$450+$900+$0).
For each clearing firm member a self-referencing risk guarantee fund SRRGFi and a base guarantee funds BGFi are calculated in rows 220 and 222, respectively. The calculations for the SRRGFi values begin by first selecting a predetermined number of the highest values from row 216. In the example shown, two values are selected because it is unlikely that more than two clearing member firms would default. The top two values in row 216 are $900 and $900 and total to $1,800. Each SRRGFi value is determined by multiplying a corresponding WSRR by the $1,800 total.
The calculations for the BGFi values begin by first selecting a predetermined number of the highest values from row 208. In the example show, two values are selected because it is unlikely that more than two clearing member firms would default. The top two values in row 208 are $1,200 and $600 and total to $1,800. Each BGFi value is determined by multiplying a corresponding Wbase by the $1,800 total. Finally, total guarantee fund GFi values are calculated in row 224 by summing values in rows 220 and 222.
In step 510 self-referencing risk guarantee fund weights are assigned to each clearing member firm. The self-referencing risk guarantee fund weights may be based on each clearing member firm's difference in portfolio residual losses as a percentage of the total differences of the portfolio residual losses for the clearing member firms. Finally, a self-referencing risk guarantee fund amount is determined for each clearing member firm in step 512. Step 512 may include multiplying a self-referencing risk guarantee fund guarantee fund weight for each clearing member firm by the total self-referencing risk guarantee fund amount.
The processes shown in
The present invention has been described herein with reference to specific exemplary embodiments thereof. It will be apparent to those skilled in the art, that a person understanding this invention may conceive of changes or other embodiments or variations, which utilize the principles of this invention without departing from the broader spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. All are considered within the sphere, spirit, and scope of the invention.
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| 20170061541 A1 | Mar 2017 | US |
