H4V3O8, a new vanadium(IV) oxide electroactive material for aqueous and non aqueous batteries

Abstract

A new electroactive material of formula H4V3O8 obtainable from H2V3O8 is described as well as a method for its production, an electroactive cathode coating material comprising this electroactive material, a method for its production and cathodes as well as aqueous and non aqueous, rechargeable and non rechargeable batteries comprising such cathodes.

Description

This application claims priority from European Patent Application No. 11194585.3 filed Dec. 20, 2011 and from European Patent Application No. 11195376.6 filed Dec. 22, 2011, the entire disclosure of which is incorporated herein by reference

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention concerns a new electroactive cathode material suitable for non-aqueous and aqueous rechargeable batteries.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Aqueous lithium ion batteries are currently being developed and present several advantages over conventional alkaline, nickel metal hydride (NiMH) or lead acid batteries [1]. The pH of the electrolyte used in aqueous lithium batteries is close to 7, which makes these systems inherently safer.

Though non aqueous lithium ion batteries have a better energy density because of the higher voltage available in organic electrolytes, they are hazardous, expensive and contain highly toxic chemicals in their current state. In comparison, an aqueous lithium battery is safe, cheap and environmentally friendly.

Aqueous mixed lithium/proton batteries offer the perspective of storing more energy than proton or lithium batteries do independently [2].

Synthetic or natural vanadium(IV) oxide compounds are of interest in fundamental research [3] and for industrial applications [4] because of their structural peculiarities and their extended redox properties.

H₂V₃O₈ is a known compound that has already been described in 1970 [5] and that was structurally analyzed in 1990 [6]. Its composition and structure has been modified in several ways in order to improve its use as electrode material in batteries. However, only the compounds obtained by oxidation to an all vanadium(V) oxohydroxide in which part of the hydrogen has been substituted by alcaline metal cations have been described so far [7]. So far practically no compounds obtained by reduction of H₂V₃O₈, in which the oxidation states of the vanadium are mixed 4+/5+, only 4+ or 4+/3+, have been characterized. One exception is [8], in which Li_xH₂V₃O₈ phases are described.

A V(IV) compound is known in the form of the mineral doloresite [9] that is a hydrated form of VO₂. Doloresite is of monoclinic symmetry with a=19.64±0.06, b=2.99±0.01, c=4.89±0.02 and β=103°55′±5′ [9]. Doloresite can be formulated as V₃O₄(OH)₄ or H₄V₃O₈.

Hence, it is a general object of the invention to provide a compound that can accommodate reversibly both lithium ions and protons.

DISCLOSURE OF THE INVENTION

Now, in order to implement these and still further objects of the invention, which will become more readily apparent as the description proceeds, according to a first definition, the electroactive cathode material is manifested by the features that it is H₄V₃O₈, obtainable from the precursor H₂V₃O₈(Pnma), optionally in one of its loaded/deloaded states. Such electroactive cathode material based on H₄V₃O₈ and encompassing loaded and deloaded states may also be described as Li_xH_yV₃O₈ with 2<x+y<6.8 and 0<x<4 and 0.5<y<6, with the proviso that it is not the precursor H₂V₃O₈(Pnma).

According to an alternative second definition, the electroactive cathode material is manifested by the features that it is H₄V₃O₈ in the form of a layered compound with a structure belonging to the space group Pnma (n62).

The electroactive material of the present invention is suitable for rechargeable batteries and non rechargeable batteries as well.

The H₄V₃O₈ of the present invention is structurally closely related to H₂V₃O₈(Pnma). Contrary thereto the mineral doloresite [9], although its formula may be written as V₃O₄(OH)₄ or H₄V₃O₈, possesses a different crystal structure and different physico-chemical properties and therefore is easily distinguishable from the compound of the present invention. Thus, in order to clearly distinguish doloresite from the compound of the present invention, the formula of doloresite will further on be referred to as V₃O₄(OH)₄ and the one of the present invention as H₄V₃O₈.

H₄V₃O₈ is obtainable by reduction of H₂V₃O₈ according to the following reaction:H₂V₃O₈+2e+2H+→H₄V₃O₈

Below, this reaction is called the protonation of H₂V₃O₈.

H₄V₃O₈ can be synthesized starting from H₂V₃O₈, a proton source and a reducing agent. The reaction is suitably carried out in a solvent, preferentially water, and preferably in water at a pH of, or close to, 7. The temperature can be varied in a broad range of usually 90 to 10° C. but is preferably performed in a range of 20 to 30° C., most preferred at about 25° C.

In principle any proton source can be used in combination with any strong reducing agent. Some examples for suitable proton sources and reducing agents are

• • ascorbic acid (presumably predominantly proton source) and hydrazine (N₂H₄.H₂O) (reducing agent)
  • ascorbic acid (may act as both, proton source and reducing agent)
  • zinc (reducing agent) and sulphuric acid (proton source)

If needed in order to achieve the desired pH, a base may be added such as aqueous NH₄OH.

In batteries the reduction or oxidation of the transition metal is accompanied by the insertion respectively the deinsertion of protons or alkaline cations or alkaline earth cations. This mechanism ensures the charge conservation within the electroactive material.

In rechargeable batteries, the reversibility, efficiency and extent of the ion insertion represent the critical parameters of the electroactive material. In this regard, and based on experimental support, H₄V₃O₈ appears a good candidate as cathodic material in non aqueous lithium batteries.

In the scope of the present invention the reversible intercalation of 2.3 Li⁺ eq. in H₄V₃O₈ was demonstrated. Hitherto performed investigations suggest that similar performances could be obtained in non aqueous sodium batteries.

An additional benefit of the materials of the present invention is that they can be used for forming the electroactive material coating of a current collector or guidewire (further on referred to as current collector only) in mere admixture with conductive carbon, e.g. Super P® Li carbon black (TIMCAL®), i.e. no binder is necessary to provide a sufficiently stable coating. This advantage in forming the electroactive electrode material is assumed to be at least in part due to the fibrous structure of the H₄V₃O₈.

The electroactive material of the present invention is in the form of nanoparticles, in particular nanofibers or microfibers, i.e. elongated particles with one dimension exceeding the other dimensions for at least about 20 times. Preferred dimensions of nanofibers/microfibers are a width of less than 200 nm, preferably about 100 nm and a length of up to about 100 μm, preferably about 10 μm.

Usual particle sizes for non elongated particles, e.g. the conductive particles such as the conductive carbon black and—if the optional conductive binder particles are present—the binder particles are e.g. <500 nm, in particular nanoparticles having an average particle size in the range of 5 to 500 nm, preferably in the range of 5 to 400 nm, more preferred in the range of 20 to 300 nm.

For Super P® Li (TIMCAL) an average primary particle size from TEM pictures of 40 nm is reported by the manufacturer.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The invention will be better understood and objects other than those set forth above will become apparent when consideration is given to the following detailed description thereof. Such description makes reference to the annexed drawings, wherein:

FIG. 1 shows mass loss as a function of the temperature in the thermogravimetric experiment. The data were recorded at a heating ramp of 10 K/min from RT to 600° C.

FIG. 2 shows the XRD pattern of H₄V₃O₈ synthesized electrochemically from H₂V₃O₈ at 100 A/kg (NH4Cl aqueous electrolyte and zinc anode).

FIG. 3 shows the XRD patterns of H₄V₃O₈ obtained by various different procedures. From top to bottom: synthesis with hydrazine/ascorbic acid, electrochemical synthesis, synthesis with ascorbic acid/ammonium hydroxide, synthesis with Zn/H₂SO₄.

FIG. 4 shows the XRD pattern of H₄V₃O₈ synthesized with ascorbic acid and ammonium hydroxide.

FIG. 5 shows Rietveld refinement of H₄V₃O₈(Pnma)

FIG. 6 shows the XRD pattern of H₅V₃O₈ synthesized electrochemically at 100 A/kg (NH₄Cl aqueous electrolyte and zinc anode).

FIG. 7 shows the XRD pattern of H₆V₃O₈ synthesized electrochemically 100 A/kg (NH₄Cl aqueous electrolyte and zinc anode).

FIG. 8 shows the XRD patterns of H₄V₃O₈, H₅V₃O₈, and H₆V₃O₈ (from top to bottom) synthesized electrochemically at 100 Ah/kg (NH4Cl aqueous electrolyte and zinc anode).

FIG. 9 shows the XRD pattern of H₄V₃O₈ synthesized with hydrazine and ascorbic acid

FIG. 10 shows the XRD pattern of the residue obtained after completed thermal decomposition of H₄V₃O₈ in the thermogravimetric experiment.

FIG. 11 shows the XRD pattern of H₄V₃O₈ synthesized with zinc and sulphuric acid.

FIG. 12 shows the galvanostatic discharge curve of H₄V₃O₈ in a non aqueous Lithium battery setup at 50 A/kg.

FIG. 13 shows the galvanostatic charge-discharge of Li_2.8H₄V₃O₈ in a non aqueous lithium battery setup at 50 A/kg.

FIG. 14 shows the galvanostatic discharge-charge curve of H₂V₃O₈ to H₆V₃O₈ at 100 A/kg in aqueous electrolyte (3M NH4Cl and Zn anode).

FIG. 15 shows the galvanostatic discharge-charge curve of H₂V₃O₈ to Li_2.8H₂V₃O₈ (obtained electrochemically as demonstrated in FIG. 13 at 100 A/kg in aqueous lithium battery (3M LiCl and Zn anode).

FIG. 16 shows the galvanostatic discharge of Li_2.8H₂V₃O₈ to Li_2.8H_3.9V₃O₈ in aqueous electrolyte (3M NH4Cl and Zn anode).

FIG. 17 shows a SEM micrograph of H₄V₃O₈ fibers.

FIG. 18 shows XRD pattern of H₂V₃O₈ (top) and H₄V₃O₈ (bottom).

Unless otherwise specified, the conditions are those described in the examples below.

MODES FOR CARRYING OUT THE INVENTION

The basic material of the invention is H₄V₃O₈ obtainable from H₂V₃O₈, in particular by a method comprising treating H₂V₃O₈ with a proton source and a reducing agent in a solvent.

Suitable proton sources and the reducing agents are e.g.

(i) ascorbic acid, or

(ii) ascorbic acid and hydrazine (N₂H₂.H₂O), or

(iii) zinc and H₂SO₄.

A suitable and preferred solvent is water, in particular water at a pH of 5 to 8, much preferred close to 7. The reaction temperature may practically vary from 100° C. to 0° C., preferably 80 to 10° C., however the treatment is usually performed at a temperature of 20 to 30° C., in particular about 25° C.

A H₄V₃O₈ produced as outlined above, was found to have refined cell parameters determined by Rietveld refinement for orthorhombic H₄V₃O₈(Pnma, n62) ofa=16.3306b=3.7642c=9.2705

wherein the Rietveld refinement is performed using the refined cell parameters for orthorhombic H2V3O8(Pnma, n62) of a=17.1885, b=3.5796 and c=9.249 as starting point.

The H₄V₃O₈ produced as mentioned above is in the form of fibers having a width of less than 200 nm, preferably about 100 nm and a length of up to about 100 μm, preferably about 10 μm.

Such H₄V₃O₈ may be subjected to lithiation/delithiation and/or protonation/deprotonation thereby resulting in a compound that may be described by the general formula Li_xH_yV₃O₈, wherein 2<x+y<6.8 and 0<x<4 and 0.5<y<6. Such compound is e.g. obtainable by electrochemistry.

H₄V₃O₈ as well as Li_xH_yV₃O₈, wherein 2<x+y<6.8 and 0<x<4 and 0.5<y<6 may be used as electroactive material in aqueous and non aqueous rechargeable and non rechargeable batteries. The presently preferred starting material for producing an electrode, however, is H₄V₃O₈. Indeed, as the cell parameters change only very little as the result of the lithium intercalation/deintercalation, this material has a good stability over various intercalation/deintercalation cycles since few mechanical work has to be performed and therefore the electrode coating remains intact.

If the electroactive material after synthesis has too large particles, e.g. fibers, it may be gently pestled before use. Gently in this connection means that the pestling conditions shall be chosen such that the particle sizes are reduced to the desired sizes only. Suitable conditions can easily be determined by the skilled person.

The electroactive material is used in mixture with nanoparticulate conductive material, in particular conductive carbon black. Optionally, but not necessarily also preferably nanoparticulate binder may be present, however since a mixture consisting of electroactive material and conductive carbon black proved to be sufficiently stable to be used without usual binder component, such binary composition is preferred.

Suitable binders (if using binders is desired) are e.g. polyvinylidene fluoride, or an electrically conducting nanoparticulate binder, such as PEDOT (Poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene).

As indicated above, H₄V₃O₈ may be produced from H₂V₃O₈ by a method wherein H₂V₃O₈ is treated with a proton source and a reducing agent in a solvent. Preferred conditions have already been defined above.

As an alternative that, however, is less preferred, H₄V₃O₈ may be obtained electrochemically from H₂V₃O₈, e.g. at 100 A/kg in an aqueous electrolyte (e.g. 3 M NH₄Cl) and with e.g. Zn as anode.

Also encompassed by the present invention are an electroactive cathode material containing or consisting of an electroactive compound as defined above and a nanoparticulate conductive material, in particular conductive carbon black and a cathode comprising a current collector coated with such electroactive cathode material.

Such cathode may be produced in that electroactive material as defined above is mixed and homogenized with conductive carbon black, optionally followed by gentle pestling and/or solvent evaporation to obtain desired fibre dimensions and viscosity, coating a current collector and drying.

Good mechanical stability is e.g. obtained by mixing the electroactive material with conductive carbon black, e.g. Super P® Li conductive carbon black (TIMCAL), in a 7:3 weight-ratio in a solvent, for example tetrahydrofuran (THF). One should not that a great many other solvents could alternatively be used. Suitable solvents can be organic as well as inorganic, protic as well as aprotic. Homogenization may occur during mixing or subsequent to the mixing, e.g. by ultrasound. Such homogenization usually is only performed for from a few seconds to a few minutes. Indeed, mixing for too long can damage the material.

In order to obtain a coating composition that may be used for coating a current collector, some of the solvent, e.g. THF may be evaporated during pestling. A suitable current collector is a titanium current collector, although other inert conductive materials may be used. The coating or the electrode, respectively, may be dried in air, pressed by hand to further compact the coating and to improve the drying, and further dried in vacuum. During this final drying, the environment (gas phase) is preferably renewed by performing at least two, preferably at least three purges. The time usually needed for the final drying with the mentioned minimal number of purges usually is around 30 minutes

Such electrodes are suitable for being used in non aqueous or aqueous lithium batteries.

A suitable electrolyte for a non aqueous lithium battery is e.g. an electrolyte consisting of 1M LiPF₆ in a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate (e.g. 1:1 or 2:1 by weight). Suitable anodes are lithium metal or an anode comprising as electroactive anode material vanadium nitride or vanadium carbide but much preferred vanadium nitride, in particular nanoparticulate vanadium nitride or carbide, preferably vanadium nitride (VN_X) of type VN, i.e. with x=1, much preferred with rock-salt structure. Such preferred nitrides and carbides are generally referred to as interstitial nitrides and carbides.

Suitable separators are e.g. polymer fibre sheet materials such as microporous polypropylene sheets. Examples of suitable separators are e.g. a Celgard® polypropylene separator and/or a silica foam separator and/or a nylon sheet material.

The cathode may be prepared as described above and then further processed into a cell by covering the electrode with at least one separator and then filling the cell with electrolyte, completing the cell with an anode and then tightly closing the cell.

A suitable electrolyte for an aqueous lithium and proton battery is e.g. an electrolyte comprising a soluble lithium salt like LiCl, LiNO₃ or LiOH, or an acid, e.g. an electrolyte consisting of either 3M LiCl or 5M LiNO₃ or 3M NH₄Cl, for a lithium ion cell or a proton cell, respectively. The electrolyte solutions preferably are degassed, e.g. by ultrasound.

A zinc plate may be used as anode and reference electrode. Other suitable anodes are Manganese, Aluminium, Iron, Chromium or another element with a reduction potential smaller than −0.3 Volt.

The cathode may be prepared as described above.

Such electrode may be further processed into a cell by covering the electrode with at least one separator (see above) and then filling the cell with electrolyte, completing the cell with an anode and then tightly closing the cell.

The invention is now further described by means of some specific examples.

Synthesis

General Procedure

H₄V₃O₈ was synthesized from H₂V₃O₈, a proton source and a reducing agent. The reaction was carried out in a solvent, preferentially water, at a variable range of temperature, preferably at 25° C.

Method #1: Ascorbic Acid and Hydrazine

200 mg of H₂V₃O₈ were dispersed in 100 ml deionized water. The resulting suspension was stirred vigorously until the suspension turned to a black-green colour indicating completion of the reaction. The pH of the suspension was brought to 9-10 by the addition of N₂H₄.H₂O. Immediately afterwards, the reaction mixture was neutralized by ascorbic acid. The green solid turned dark brown upon addition of ascorbic acid. The brown product was collected by filtration, washed twice with deionized water and once with acetonitrile. After vacuum drying for 4 h at 25° C., H₄V₃O₈ was kept in an argon-filled glove box. Approximately 20% by weight of the solid H₂V₃O₈ dissolved during the reaction and could not be recovered.

Method #2: Ascorbic Acid and Ammonia

200 mg of H₂V₃O₈ were dispersed in 100 ml deionized water. The resulting suspension was stirred vigorously until completion of the reaction (see method #1). 500 mg of ascorbic acid were added to the suspension. After 5 min, the pH was adjusted to 7 with 0.2 ml of 25% NH₄OH. The resulting mixture was warmed to 80° C. on a hotplate until the solid had turned brown, i.e. for approximately 30 min. The brown product was collected by filtration, washed twice with deionized water and once with acetonitrile. After vacuum drying for 4 h at 25° C., H₄V₃O₈ was kept in an argon-filled glove box. The reaction was quantitative.

Method #3: Zinc and Sulfuric Acid

200 mg of H₂V₃O₈ were dispersed in 75 ml deionized water. The resulting suspension was stirred vigorously until completion of the reaction (see method #1). 50 mg Zn powder were added to the suspension. The mixture was then homogenized by ultrasound for a few seconds. Subsequently, a solution of 0.045 ml 98% H₂SO₄ in 25 ml deionized water was added dropwise (approx. 1 drop every 2 seconds). The solid turned first dark blue and then brown over time. About one hour after all the sulphuric acid had been added, the pH of the reaction mixture equilibrated between 5 and 7, which indicated that all the H₂V₃O₈ had been converted to H₄V₃O₈. The brown product was collected by filtration, washed twice with deionized water and once with acetonitrile. After vacuum drying for 4 h at 25 C, the H₄V₃O₈ was kept in an argon-filled glove box. The reaction was quantitative:H₂V₃O₈(s)+Zn(s)+H₂SO₄(aq)→H₄V₃O₈(s)+ZnSO₄(aq)Elemental Analysis

All the H₄V₃O₈ samples submitted for elemental analysis contained amounts of carbon and nitrogen below 0.4% by weight. The hydrogen content was found to lie between 1.3% by weight and 1.5% by weight, which is consistent with the expectation value of 1.4% by weight for H₄V₃O₈. 0.7% by weight was found in H₂V₃O₈.

XRD Powder Analysis

The XRD (CuKa) powder pattern of H₄V₃O₈ was measured. The pattern looks related to H₂V₃O₈ but different. The patterns for different chemical synthesis and synthesis by electrochemical protonation did not differ (see FIGS. 2, 3, 4, 9, and 11)

Rietveld refinement was performed using the structure of H₂V₃O₈ [6] as a starting point (see FIG. 5). A good fit of the experimental data could be obtained. The refined cell parameters for orthorhombic H₄V₃O₈ (Pnma, n62):a=16.3306b=3.7642c=9.2705The refined cell parameters for orthorhombic H₂V₃O₈ (Pnma, n62):a=17.1885b=3.5796c=9.249

XRD pattern of differently protonated H₄V₃O₈, synthesized electrochemically at 100 A/kg (NH4Cl aqueous electrolyte and zinc anode) are shown in FIGS. 6 to 8, wherein FIG. 6 shows the XRD pattern of H₅V₃O₈, FIG. 7 of H₆V₃O₈, and FIG. 8 a comparison of the XRD pattern of H₄V₃O₈, H₅V₃O₈, and H₆V₃O₈ (from top to bottom).

XRD pattern of the residue obtained after completed thermal decomposition of H₄V₃O₈ in the thermogravimetric experiment (see below) are shown in FIG. 10.

Thermogravimetry Coupled to Mass Spectrometry

20 mg to 100 mg H₄V₃O₈ were placed in a corundum crucible inside the measurement chamber for evacuation. Heating from RT to 600° C. induced the thermal decomposition of H₄V₃O₈. H₂O with m/z=18 was detected by the mass spectrometer as the only product.

Thermogravimetry with Differential Thermoanalysis (DTA)

20 mg to 100 mg H₄V₃O₈ were placed in a corundum crucible inside the measurement chamber and the atmosphere changed to pure nitrogen. Heating from RT to 600° C. induced the thermal decomposition of H₄V₃O₈ (see FIG. 1).

The mass loss was 13% by weight, which is consistent with the loss of two water molecules per H₄V₃O₈ formula unit.

The DTA shows an exothermic peak at 430° C. The residue was analyzed by XRD powder diffraction (see FIG. 10). All the reflexes matched the pattern of VO₂ (ICSD 15889).

Electrochemistry

General Remark

H₄V₃O₈ can be successively lithiated and protonated (in any order) by changing the composition of the electrolyte (from LiCl to NH₄Cl or to organic electrolyte) to Li_xH_yV₃O₈ with 2<x+y<6.8 and 0<x<4 and 0.5<y<6.

The procedure implies disassembling the cell, rinsing the Li_xH_yV₃O₈ cathode and reassembling a cell with a fresh anode and the selected electrolyte.

H₄V₃O₈ is Li_xH_yV₃O₈ with x=0 and y=4.

Non Aqueous Lithium Battery

The galvanostatic measurements were performed in two electrodes cells connected to a potentiostat. Lithium metal was used as anode and reference electrode. The electrolyte consisted of 1M LiPF₆ in a mixture of ethylene carbonate and dimethyl carbonate (1:1 by weight). A Celgard® polypropylene separator and a silica foam separator were used.

The cathode was prepared by mixing the electroactive material with Super P®Li conductive carbon black (TIMCAL) in a 7:3 weight-ratio in THF. The mixture was homogenised a few seconds by ultrasound. Subsequently, the suspension was poured in a mortar and gently pestled until enough THF had evaporated, in order to transfer the wet solid onto a titanium current collector. The electrodes were dried in air, pressed by hand, and further dried in a transfer chamber for 2 hours in vacuum (with a minimum of 3 purges) while being transferred in said transfer chamber to an argon-filled glove box.

Such electrode may be further processed into a cell by covering the electrode with at least one separator and then filling the cell with electrolyte, completing the cell with an anode and then tightly closing the cell.

A galvanostatic discharge curve of H₄V₃O₈ in such non aqueous lithium battery setup at 50 A/kg is shown in FIG. 12 and galvanostatic charge-discharge of Li_2.8H₄V₃O₈ in such non aqueous lithium battery setup at 50 A/kg in FIG. 13.

Aqueous Lithium and Proton Battery

The galvanostatic measurements were performed in two electrode cells connected to a potentiostat. A zinc plate was used as anode and reference electrode. The electrolyte consisted of either 3M LiCl or a 3M NH₄Cl, for a lithium ion cell or a proton cell, respectively. The electrolyte solutions were degassed by ultrasound.

The cathode was prepared by mixing the electroactive material with Super P® Li conductive carbon black (TIMCAL®) in a 7:3 weight-ratio in THF. The mixture was homogenised a few seconds by ultrasound. Subsequently, the suspension was poured in a mortar and gently pestled until enough THF had evaporated, in order to transfer the wet solid onto a titanium current collector. The electrodes were dried in air, pressed by hand, and further dried at least 30 min in vacuum (with a minimum of 2 purges).

Such electrode may be further processed into a cell by covering the electrode with at least one separator see non aqueous lithium battery above) and then filling the cell with electrolyte, completing the cell with an anode and then tightly closing the cell.

A galvanostatic discharge-charge curve of H₂V₃O₈ to H₆V₃O₈ at 100 A/kg in aqueous electrolyte (3M NH₄Cl and Zn anode) is shown in FIG. 14, a galvanostatic discharge-charge curve of H₂V₃O₈ to Li_2.8H₂V₃O₈ (obtained electrochemically as demonstrated in FIG. 13) at 100 A/kg in aqueous lithium battery (3M LiCl and Zn anode) is shown in FIG. 15 and a galvanostatic discharge curve of Li_2.8H₂V₃O₈ to Li_2.8H_3.9V₃O₈ in aqueous electrolyte (3M NH4Cl and Zn anode) is shown in FIG. 16.

While there are shown and described presently preferred embodiments of the invention, it is to be distinctly understood that the invention is not limited thereto but may be otherwise variously embodied and practiced within the scope of the following claims.

REFERENCES

• [1] Wu Li, J. R. Dahn and D. S. Wainwright, Science, 1994, vol 264(5162), 1115.
• [2] WO 9525355 (A1)
• [3] N. F. Mott, Review of Modern Physics, 1968, 40(4), 677.
• [4] U.S. Pat. No. 4,457,161.
• [5] Theobald F. and Cabala R., Comptes Rendus Hebdomadaires de l'Académie des Sciences, Série C, 1970, 270(26), 2138.
• [6] Oka Y., T. Yao and N. Yamamoto, Journal of Solid State Chemistry, 1990, 89(2), 372.
• [7] V. Legagneur, A. Le Gal La Salle, A. Verbaere, Y. Piffard and D. Guyomard, Electrochimica Acta, 2002, vol 47, 1153.
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Claims

1. H4V3O8 in the form of a layered compound with a structure belonging to a space group Pnma (n62).

2. H4V3O8 according to claim 1, wherein H4V3O8 has refined cell parameters determined by Rietveld refinement for orthorhombic H4V3O8 (Pnma, n62) of a=16.3306,b=3.7642,and c=9.2705,andwherein the Rietveld refinement is performed with refined cell parameters for orthorhombic H2V3O8 (Pnma, n62) of a=17.1885, b=3.5796, and c=9.249 as a starting point.

3. H4V3O8 according to claim 1 or 2, wherein the H4V3O8 is in form of a fiber having a width of less than 200 nm and a length of up to about 100 μm.

4. H4V3O8 according to claim 1 or 2, obtained by a method comprising treating H2V3O8 with a proton source and a reducing agent in a solvent.

5. H4V3O8 according to claim 4, wherein the proton source and the reducing agent are selected from (i) ascorbic acid,(ii) ascorbic acid and hydrazine (N2H2.H2O), or(iii) zinc and H2SO4.

6. An electroactive material in an aqueous and non aqueous battery, wherein the electroactive material comprises the compound of claim 1.

7. The electroactive material of claim 6, wherein the electroactive material is used in a mixture with a nanoparticulate conductive material.

8. A method for producing the electroactive material of claim 6 or 7, the method comprising: treating H2V3O8 with a proton source and a reducing agent in a solvent.

9. A method for producing a cathode, the method comprising: mixing and homogenizing H4V3O8 of claim 1 with conductive particles, thereby forming a first mixture;optionally gently pestling the mixture, evaporating solvent, or both gently pestling the mixture and evaporating the solvent to obtain desired fibre dimensions and viscosity, thereby forming a second mixture;coating a current collector with the first or second mixture; anddrying a coated current collect.

10. The method of claim 9, wherein the conductive particles are conductive carbon black, andH4V3O8 is mixed with the conductive carbon black in a 7:3 weight-ratio in a solvent.

11. H4V3O8 according to claim 4, wherein the solvent is water.

12. H4V3O8 according to claim 4, wherein the treating is performed at a temperature of 0 to 100° C.

13. The method of claim 10, wherein the solvent is tetrahydrofuran.