Hydrocarbon-based fuels from biomass

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION
1. Field of the Invention
The invention relates generally to biomass fuels derived from plant sources. In particular aspects, the invention relates to a terpenoid-based fuel produced by a cracking/reduction process or by irradiation. The process may be controlled to produce a biomass fuel having variable percentages of benzenoid compounds useful, for example, as per se fuels, as fuel additives or as octane enhancers for conventional gasoline fuels.
2. Description of the Related Art
Increasing attention is being focused on problems associated with diminishing supplies of fossil fuels. These problems center on economic and ecologic considerations. It is recognized that oil and gas sources are exhaustible and that world politics may seriously jeopardize attempts to manage presently identified petroleum reserves. These are strong economic factors having potential effects on many facets of business and quality of life. There is also increasing concern over the pollution generated by fossil fuel burning which causes extensive and perhaps irreversible ecological harm. Consequently, fuel performance is becoming more of a concern, since highly efficient fuels, especially for internal combustion engines, will decrease or eliminate toxic emissions and cut operation costs.
Approaches to these problems have included efforts to develop total substitutes or compatible blends for petroleum-based fuels. For example, engines will operate efficiently on natural gas or alcohol. However, this requires engine modifications that are relatively expensive and at the present considered impractical in view of present production and sheer numbers of extant engines. With pure methanol, corrosion, particularly evident in upper-cylinder wear may be a problem (Schwartz, 1986).
Biomass sources have been explored as fuel source alternatives to petroleum. Biomass is defined as organic matter obtained from agriculture or agriculture products. Many side-products of foods, for example, are inefficiently used, leading to large amounts of organic waste. Use of such waste as a fuel per se or as a blend compatible with existing petroleum based fuels could extend limited petroleum reserves, reduce organic waste and, depending on the processing of the organic waste, provide a less expensive alternate fuel or fuel blends.
One of the more common components of plants and seeds is a group of alicyclic hydrocarbons classified as terpenes. Pinene and limonene are typical examples of monocyclic terpenes. Both have been tested as fuels or fuel additives. The Whitaker reference (1922) discloses the use of a terpene, as a blending agent for alcohol and gasoline or kerosene mixtures. A fuel containing up to about 15% of steam distilled pine oil was claimed to be useful as a motor fuel. Nevertheless, pinene was useful mainly to promote soluble mixtures of ethyl alcohol, kerosene and gasoline. There were no disclosed effects on fuel properties nor was there disclosed any further processing of the pinene.
Two United States patents describe a process for purifying limonene for use as a fuel or fuel additive (Whitworth, 1989, 1990). The process includes distillation of limonene-containing oil followed by removal of water. The distilled limonene, blended with an oxidation inhibitor such as p-phenylenediamine, is claimed as a gasoline extender when added in amounts up to 20% volume. Unfortunately, in actual testing under a power load in a dynamometer, addition of 20% limonene to unleaded 87 octane gasoline results in serious preignition, casting serious questions as to its practical value as a gasoline extender.
On the other hand, Zuidema (1946) discloses the use of alicyclic olefins such as limonene, cyclohexene, cyclopentene and menthenes without modification as stabilization additives for gasoline. These compounds contain at least one double bond, a characteristic that apparently contributes to the antioxidant effect of adding these compounds to gasolines in amounts not exceeding 10% by volume.
U.S. Pat. No. 4,300,009 (Haag, 1981) is concerned with the conversion of biological materials to liquid fuels. Although relating in major part to zeolite catalytic conversion of plant hydrocarbons having weights over 150, a limonene/water feed was shown to produce about 19% toluene when pumped over a fixed bed zeolite catalyst at 482.degree. C. at atmospheric pressure. Unfortunately, monocyclic aromatic compounds were reported to comprise only about 40% of the total products, of which major components were toluene and ethylbenzene. A disadvantage with the use of zeolite catalyst was the need to fractionate the aromatic compounds from the product mixture to obtain gasoline or products useful as chemicals. Formation of undesirable coke was also disclosed as a potential problem, in view of its tendency to inactivate zeolite catalysts.
Biomass fuel extenders such as methyltetrahydrofuran (MTHF) have been tested as alternative fuels (Rudolph and Thomas, 1988), but appear to be relatively expensive as pure fuels. As an additive in amounts up to about 10%, MTHF compares favorably with tetraethyl lead.
Fuel mixtures suitable as gasoline substitutes have also been prepared by mixing various components, for example C.sub.2 -C.sub.7 hydrocarbons, C.sub.4 -C.sub.12 hydrocarbons and toluene (Wilson, 1991). Toluene, and other substituted monocyclic benzenoid compounds such as 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, 1,2,3,4-tetramethylbenzene, o-, m- and p-xylenes, are particularly desirable as octane enhancers in gasolines and may be used to supplement gasolines in fairly large percentages, at least up to 40 or 50 percent.
Generally, processes for obtaining aromatic compounds are synthetic procedures. Therefore it is relatively expensive to use aromatic liquid hydrocarbons as fuels or blends for gasoline fuels. On the other hand, a biomass source of easily isolated aromatic compounds would be less expensive, provide an efficient disposal of organic waste, and conserve petroleum reserves by extending or possibly replacing gasoline fuels. Although aromatic hydrocarbons occur naturally and are isolable from plant sources, it is impractical to isolate these compounds from biomass material because of the relatively low amounts present.
SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION
The present invention is intended to address one or more of the problems associated with dependence on fuels obtained from petroleum sources. The invention generally relates to a process of preparing hydrocarbon-based fuels from available plant components containing terpenoids. The process involves catalytic conversion of one or more terpenoid compounds under conditions that may be varied to alter the product or products produced. Such products are generally mixtures of hydrocarbons useful as fuels per se or as fuel components.
The inventors have surprisingly discovered that biomass fuels may be appreciably improved through the application of catalytic conversion process techniques, heretofore utilized in cracking methods of processing petroleum crudes and related complex mixtures of petroleum fuels. Unexpectedly, it was also found that biomass fuels may under certain conditions be converted in exceptionally high yield to aromatic hydrocarbons comprising mixtures with significant octane boosting properties.
In one aspect, the invention involves a process for the preparation of a biomass fuel that includes conversion of a suitable feedstock by metal catalysis at an elevated temperature to a mixture of hydrocarbons, then obtaining the biomass fuel from the resulting hydrocarbon mixture. The isolated product or products will be derivatives or molecularly rearranged species of the feedstock material which itself may be obtained from a wide range of biomass sources.
Such a feedstock will typically include one or more terpenoid class compounds, preferably as a major component. This is commonly the case in many plants, especially in plant seeds or in parts of plants that have a high oil content, such as skins of citrus fruits or leaves. Numerous plant source oils are suitable including a variety of fruits, particularly citrus fruits, vegetables and agriculture products such as corn, wheat, eucalyptus, pine needles, lemon grass, peppermint, lavender, milkweed, tallow beans and other similar crops. Examples of terpenoid compounds found in leaves, seeds and other plant parts include .alpha.-pinenes, limonenes, menthols, linalools, terpinenes, camphenes and carenes, for example, which may be monounsaturated or more highly unsaturated. Preferred feedstock terpenoids are monocyclic. Limonenes are particularly preferable since they are found in high quantity in many plant oils. Limonene is useful in the optically inactive DL form or as the D or L isomer.
Feedstocks are generally more conveniently processed in liquid rather than solid form. Therefore, plant sources of terpenoids are usually extracted or crushed to obtain light or heavy oils. A particularly suitable oil is derived from citrus fruit, such as oranges, grapefruits or lemons. These oils are high in limonene content. Limonene feedstock oils, or for that matter any appropriate feedstock oil, need not be mixed with solvents and are conveniently directly catalytically converted and/or irradiated to provide hydrocarbon fuel mixtures.
In certain aspects, biomass-derived feedstocks are processed by metal catalyst conversion. Conversion is typically conducted at elevated temperatures in the range of 80.degree. C. up to about 450.degree. C., preferably between about 90.degree. C. to 375.degree. C. using limonene feedstock and most preferably in an inert atmosphere when high yields of monocyclic aromatic compounds are desired. When both a suitable catalyst and hydrogen are present, the catalytic conversion process leads to molecular rearrangements and hydrogenation, including intramolecular dehydrogenation ring cleavage and scission of carbon bonds.
Pressures may range from atmospheric to elevated pressures, e.g., up to 2,000 psi or above. The pressures employed determine the major products in the mixture as well as the overall mixture composition of hydrocarbons obtained. In general it has been found that pressures from atmospheric up to about 500 psi result in production of monocyclic aromatic compounds as the major product. At higher pressures, aromatic species are usually not present and major products are fully reduced alicyclic products. In general it has been found that variations in temperature, pressure and time of reaction will affect product ratio and distribution. For example, when an inert gas is used to sparge the reaction mixture and pressures are close to atmospheric, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)benzene (p-cymene) is obtained in yields close to 85%.
Catalysts employed in the process are typically hydrogenation catalysts. These may include barium promoted copper chromate, Raney nickel, palladium, platinum, rhodium and the like. In a preferred embodiment, a noble metal catalyst such as 1%-5% palladium on activated carbon is effective. However, it will be appreciated that there are other types of catalysts that might be used in this process including mixed metal, metal-containing zeolites or oganometallics. In some instances, it may be preferable to use alternate sources of hydrogen. Water or alcohols, for example, could be used as hydrogen sources.
After the catalytic conversion step, the catalyst is removed from the product mixture. In cases where a palladium on carbon catalyst is used, this is merely a matter of removing the catalyst by filtration or by decantation. Most catalysts may be regenerated or reused directly. As an optional step, an inert gas or hydrogen may be passed through the product mixture. This discourages product oxidation, especially when unsaturated compounds are present that are unusually susceptible to air oxidation. Furthermore, when high yields of monocyclic aromatic compounds are desired, as when limonene feedstock is employed, an inert gas bubbled or sparged through the reaction mixture improves yields. Nitrogen gas is preferred but other gases such as argon, xenon, helium, etc., could be used.
Reactions may be conducted on-line rather than in reactor vessels. Reaction rates and product formation would be adjusted by flow rates as well as parameters of pressure and temperature.
In usual practice, products obtained from the catalytic conversion process are distilled and may be collected over wide or narrow temperature ranges. Typically, a distillate is collected between 90.degree. and 230.degree. C. (as measured at atmospheric pressure). In a preferred embodiment, the distillate from a metal catalyzed conversion of limonene is collected between 90.degree. and 180.degree. C. The composition of this mixture will vary somewhat depending on the conditions under which the reaction is conducted; however, in general, the product mixture will include 2-3 major hydrocarbon components which may be mixed with conventional fuels such as gasoline or used without additional components as a fuel. Some of the components of the mixture, particularly aromatic species when present, may be further processed to isolate individual compounds.
Limonene is typically the major component of feedstocks from citrus oils. Under one set of selected conditions, that is, processing at 415.degree. C., 1200 psi using a 5% palladium on carbon catalyst, the major components of the collected product are cis and trans, 1methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane. Varying amounts of minor components may also be present, including hexane, 3,3,5-trimethylheptane, 1,1,5-dimethylhexyl-4-methylcyclohexane, m-methane and 3,7,7-trimethylbicyclo-4.1.0 heptane. Minor components are typically less than 5%, and more usually, 1% or less.
Biomass fuel products produced by other variations of the process described may be obtained when lower pressures are used, that is, pressures less than 500 psi or under normal atmospheric conditions. In a run at 500 psi for example, the major products are cis and trans 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidine) cyclohexane and 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene. Minor components from this reaction typically include 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexene, limonene, hexane, 3,3-dimethyloctane, 2,4-dimethyl-1-heptanol, dodecane, 3-methyl nonane and 3,4-dimethyl-1-decene. Minor products will tend to vary arising, for example, from contaminants in the feedstock or from air oxidation of primary products.
In a most preferred embodiment, limonene feedstock is heated to about 110.degree. C. at atmospheric pressure under an inert atmosphere such as nitrogen. The inert gas is bubbled or sparged through the reaction mixture during the heating process. Under these conditions, the major product, often in excess of 84%, is 1-methyl- 4-(1-methylethyl)benzene. Total minor products make up less than 1% of the product composition. The product, usually isolated by distillation, may be used directly as an octane-enhancer, as a fuel or in nonfuel applications, such as a solvent.
In another aspect of the invention, the biomass feedstock is irradiated and additionally subjected to catalytic conversion in the presence of hydrogen. The irradiation is preferably conducted with ultraviolet light in a wavelength range of 230 to 350 nanometers. In preferred practice, the irradiation is performed concurrently with catalytic conversion. The effect of the irradiation is to modify product distribution, most likely by the creation of free radicals which cause a variety of intramolecular rearrangements. Product distribution therefore may be different from the distribution obtained using only catalytic conversion. Generally used methods of irradiation include use of lamps with limited wavelength range in the ultraviolet or lamps with appropriate filters, for example 450 watt tungsten lamps with ultraviolet selective sleeves. The ultraviolet light may be directed toward a feedstock or aimed at the vapor of the reaction mixture under reflux conditions. Biomass fuel mixtures obtained from the combined irradiation/catalytic conversion typically produces mixtures in which the major components are cis and trans-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane and 1-methyl-1-(4-methylethyl) benzene. Minor components in these mixtures are typically 3,3,5-trimethylheptane, 2,6,10,15-tetramethylheptadecane, 3 -methylhexadecane, 3-methyl nonane and .beta.-4-dimethylcyclohexane ethanol. A preferred catalyst is palladium on activated carbon; however, other catalysts such as platinum, rhodium, iron, barium chromate and the like may be used.
In yet another aspect, the invention is directed to hydrocarbon mixtures such as obtained by the above described processes. Under selected conditions of reaction with a predominantly limonene feedstock, for example 500 psi, the product mixture will be chiefly hydrocarbons having formulas typically C.sub.10 H.sub.14, C.sub.10 H.sub.18, and C.sub.10 C.sub.20. Under the particular conditions used in a preferred embodiment, that is, temperature of 260.degree. C., atmospheric pressure and a limonene feedstock, products typically include 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidene) cyclohexene, and 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane and are typically obtained in a ratio of about 50:9:41. This mixture in combination with traditional gasoline fuels, for example, 87 octane gasoline, will boost octane when added in relatively low percentages. It may also be added to gasoline in amounts of 25% of total volume without detrimentally effecting engine performance. The C.sub.10 H.sub.20 component of the mixture is a substituted cyclohexane and has been identified as having the formula 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane, in cis and trans forms. The C.sub.10 H.sub.14 major components are substituted benzenoid compounds typically having the structure 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene, although other substituted benzenes may be obtained depending on the conditions under which the process is conducted. The C.sub.10 H.sub.18 component is typically a substituted cycloolefin, such as 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidene) cyclohexene.
In yet another aspect of the invention the biomass fuel produced by one or more of the foregoing processes may be used to increase octane and reduce emissions when blended with conventional gasolines and used in an internal combustion engine. The hydrocarbons or hydrocarbon mixture produced by the process combine with petroleum fuels, gasoline or diesel, for example, and may be used in amounts up to at least 25% by volume. Additionally, the hydrocarbon mixture or biomass product may be used alone to operate an internal combustion engine.
In still another aspect of the invention, an engine may be operated by supplying it with a hydrocarbon mixture produced by the process described. Purified limonene feedstocks, for example, when subjected to catalytic conversion at temperatures near 105.degree. C. and ambient pressure produce products composed mainly of monocyclic aromatic compounds. By varying the reaction conditions, for example, increasing pressure or increasing the temperature, 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene is produced in yields of 30 to 84%. These various mixtures may be used directly or mixed in various amounts with gasoline, thus providing fuels which may be used to operate a combustion engine, for example an automobile engine.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS
FIG. 1(a-f) shows the structures of some of the hydrocarbons produced by cracking/hydrogenation of limonene.
FIG. 2(a-b) shows the GC/MS of trans-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane. Panel A is the mass spectrum of a standard sample. Panel B shows is one of the compounds produced by the cracking/hydrogenation of limonene.
FIG. 3(a-b) shows the GC/MS of cis 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane. Panel A is the mass spectrum of a standard sample. Panel B shows one of the compounds produced by the cracking/dehydrogenation of limonene.
FIG. 4(a-b) shows the GC/MS of 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene. Panel A is the mass spectrum of a standard sample. Panel B shows one of the major products produced by cracking/dehydrogenation of limonene under low pressure conditions.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF PREFERRED EMBODIMENTS
This invention concerns a novel process for producing various hydrocarbon fuels from biomass feedstocks, typically plant extracts. Feedstocks are obtainable from a wide variety of plant sources such as citrus peels or seeds of most plant species. Oils are preferred as they have a high terpenoid content. Simple extraction methods are suitable, including use of presses or distillations from pulp material. Table 1 provides an illustrative list of plant sources for terpenoids and related compounds, including species and description of specific parts. While the list may appear extensive, it will be appreciated that biomass sources are ubiquitous and range from common agricultural products such as oranges to more exotic sources such as tropical plants.
TABLE 1__________________________________________________________________________BOTANICAL LISTPlant Oils Consisting of Terpenes or Terpene-derived Chemical ComponentsUseful as Fuel AdditivesPlant Name Botanical Species Chemical Components__________________________________________________________________________Angelica Angelica archangelica L. phellandrene, valeric acidAnise Pimpinella anisum L. anethole, methylchavicol, anisaldehydeAsarum Asarum canadense L. pinene, methyleugenol, borneol, linaloolBalm Malissa officinalis L. citralBasil Ocimum basilicum L. methylchavicol, eucalyptol, linalool, estragolBay or Myrcia Pimenta acris Kostel. eugenol, myrcene, chavicol, methyleugenol, methylchavicol, citral, phellandreneBergamot Citrus aurantium L. (bergamia) linalyl acetate, linalool, limonene, dipentene, bergapteneBitter orange Citrus aurantium L. (Rutaceae) limonene, citral, decyl aldehyde, methyl anthranilate, linalool, terpineolCajeput Melaleuca leucadendron L. eucalyptol (cineol), pinene, terpineol, valeric/butryic/benzoic aldehydesCalamus Acorus calamus L. (Araceae) asarone, calamene, calamol, camphene, pinene, asaronaldehydeCamphor Cinnamomum pamphora T. safrol, camphor, terpineol, eugenol, cineol, pinene, phellandrene, cadineneCaraway Carum carvi L. (Umbelliferae) cavone, limoneneCardamom Elettaria cardamomum Maton eucalyptol, sabinene, terpineol, borneol, limonene, terpinene, 1-terpinene, 1-terpinene-4-olCedar Thuja occidentalis L. pinene, thujone, fenchoneCelery Apium graveolens L. limonene, phenols, sedanolide, sedanoic acidChenopodlum Chenopodlum ambrosioides L. ascaridole, cymene, terpinene, limonene, methadieneCinnamon Cinnamomum cassia Nees cinnamaldehyde, cinnamyl acetate, eugenolCitronella Cymbopogon nardus L. geraniol, citronellal, capmhene, dipentene, linalool, borneolCopalba Copalba balsam caryophyllene, cadineneCoriander Coriandrum sativum L. linalool, linalyl acetateCubeb Piper cubeba L. dipentene, cadinene, cubeb camphorCumin Cuminum cyminum L. cuminaldehyde, cymene, pinene, dipenteneCypress Cupressus sempervirens L. furfural, pinene, camphene, cymene, terpineol, cadinene, cypress camphorDill Anethum graveolens L. carvone, limonene, phellandreneDwarf pine Pinus montana Mill pinene, phellandrene, sylvestrene, dipentene, cadinene, bornyl acetateneedleEucalyptus Eucalyptus globulus pinene, phellandrene, terpineol, citronellal, geranyl acetate, eudesmol, piperitoneFennel Foeniculum vulgare Mill anethole, fenchone, pinene, limonene, dipentene, phellandreneFir Abies alba Mill pinene, limonene, bornyl acetateFleabane Conyza canadensis L. limonene, aldehydesGeranium Pelargonium odoratissimum Ait. geraniol esters, citronellol, linaloolGinger Zingiber officinaie Roscoe Zingiberene, camphene, phellandrene, borneol, cineol, citralHops Humulus lupulus L. humulene, terpenesHyssop Hyssopus officinalis L. pinene, sesquiter penesJuniper Juniperus communis L. pinene, cadinene, camphene, terpineol, juniper camphorLavender Lavandula officinalis Chaix linalyl esters, linalool, pinene, limonen, geaniol, cineolLemon Citrus limonum L. limonene, terpinene, phellandrene, pinene, citral, citronellal, geranyl acetateLemon grass Cymbopogon citratus citral, methylheptenone, citronellal, geraniol, limonene, dipenteneLevant Artemisia maritima eucalyptolwormseedLinaloe Bursera delpechiana linalool, geraniol, methylheptenoneMarjoram Origanum marjorana L. terpenes, terpinene, terpineolMyrtle Myrtus communis L. pinene, eucalyptol, dipentene, camphorNiaouli Melaleuca viridiflora cineol, terpineol, limonene, pineneNutmeg Myristica fragrans Houtt camphene, pinene, dipentene, borneol, terpineol, geraniol, safrol, myristicinOrange Citrus aurantium limonene, citral, decyl aldehyde, methyl anthranilate, linalool, terpineolOriganum Origanum vulgare L. carvacrol, terpenesParsley Petroselinum hortense apiol, terpene, pinenePatchouli Pogostemon cablin patchoulene, azulene, eugenol, sesquiterpenesPennyroyal Hedeoma pulegioides pulegone, ketones, carboxylic acidsPeppermint mentha piperita L. menthol, menthyl esters, menthone, pinene, limonene, cadinene, phellandrenePettigrain Citrus vulgaris Risso linalyl acetate, geraniol, geranyl acetate, limonenePimento Pimenta officinalis Lindl. eugenol, sesquiterpenePine needle Pinus sylvestris L. dipentene, pinene, sylvestrene, cadinene, bornyl acetateRosemary Rosmarinus officinalis L. borneol, bornyl esters, camphor, eucalyptol, pinene, campheneSantal Santalum album L. santalolSassafras Sassafras albidum safral, eugenol, pinene, phellandrene, sesquiterpene, camphorSavin Juniperus sabina L. sabinol, sabinyl acetate, cadinene, pineneSpike Lavandula spica L. eucalyptol, camphor, linalool, borneol, terpineol, camphene, sesquiterpeneSweet bay Laurus nobilis L. eucalyptol, eugenol, methyl chavicol, pinene, isobutyric/isovaleric acidsTansy Tanacetum vulgare L. thujone, borneol, camphorThyme Thymus vulgaris L. thymol, carvacrol, cymene, pinene, linalool, bornyl acetateValerian Valeriana officinalis L. bornyl esters, pinene, camphene, limoneneVetiver Vetiveria zizanioides vetivones, vetivenols, vetivenic acid, vetivene, palmitic acid, benzoic acidWhite cedar Thuja occidentalis L. thujone, fenchone, pineneWormwood Artemisia absinthium L. thujyl alcohol, thujyl acetate, thujone, phellandrene, cadineneYarrow Achillea millefolium L. cineol__________________________________________________________________________
The invention has been illustrated with purified limonene but purification of biomass feedstock should not be critical in that the inventors have found that crude plant oil extracts, for example, may be used as feedstocks. The presence of other hydrocarbons and hydrocarbon derivatives may alter products and product ratios to some extent depending on the composition of feedstock and processing conditions; however, where alicyclic compounds are initially present as major components, the disclosed process is expected to provide hydrocarbon mixtures analogous to those obtained with limonene feedstocks.
The high yield of a substituted benzene from the catalytic conversion of limonene is an unexpected result. The disclosed process therefore offers a plant source for high yield of aromatic hydrocarbons and a method to convert plant hydrocarbons directly to fuel or fuel additive products.
The inventors have recognized that the carbonaceous compounds predominating in many biomass sources up until now have been of limited use as practical fuels, i.e., gasolines and the like, unless modified to render compatible with existing fuels. Ideally, fuel compatibles should improve fuel properties. The relatively simple disclosed process provides mixtures of hydrocarbon-type compounds that are gasoline fuel compatible and also improve fuel properties. The mixtures can be separated into individual components, e.g., by fractional distillation, or used in cuts as fuels per se or fuel additives.
The biomass fuel source may be any one or more of several sources. Preliminary treatment may involve crushing, pressing, squeezing or grinding the biomass to a sufficiently liquid state so that effective contact with a catalyst is possible. Orange peels, used as a source of limonene by the inventors, can be ground, then pressed with roller presses under relatively high pressure, e.g., up to 10,000 psi, to obtain an oil that is 60-70% limonene. As a practical matter, it is not necessary to purify or dry such a crude oil before processing. The inventors did in fact purify crude limonene from orange oil by a distillation process, but on a large scale and in economic terms, separation or removal of undesired components is more efficiently performed after obtaining a product mixture. The presence of small amounts of nonhydrocarbons, heterocyclic compounds and inorganic material generally has little effect on product performance or may be easily removed from the final product.
Feedstock, or in simple terms, the starting material, is catalytically converted to product. The process bears some similarity to cracking, although generally lower temperatures are used and no additives such as water need be included. Although "cracking" has long been used in the petroleum industry to "break up" heavy petroleum crudes such as sludges and heavy oils, the inventors have found that a similar process may be applied to simple plant-derived hydrocarbons to produce novel fuel components. Cracking as generally employed in the petroleum industry, involves heating heavy crudes at relatively high temperatures, often in the presence of a catalyst. Depending on the nature of the catalyst, the length of time of heating, temperature, pressure, etc., various molecular rearrangements occur, including breaking of bonds, isomerizations and cyclizations, leading frequently to lower molecular weight products.
While variations of cracking are routinely considered for processing of petroleum crudes, the inventors have discovered that when cracking methods are used on a single component, a mixture of reaction products is obtained which unexpectedly enhance gasoline octane and/or act as a fuel extender. This is somewhat surprising since products resulting from heating limonene, for example, in the presence of a catalyst are not much different in molecular weight from the starting material. Thus when limonene is heated to about 370.degree. C. in the presence of a metal catalyst the consequence is broken bonds, rearranged double bonds, and, when hydrogen is present, reduction of unsaturated compounds. At lower temperatures, e.g., 105.degree. C., predominating products appear to arise from rearrangements rather than bond scission. At lower temperatures, an aromatic ring compound, a benzene derivative is commonly the main product from catalytic conversion of limonene. It is likely that this mononuclear aromatic species results from some mechanism that isomerizes the external double bond of limonene into the ring, then dehydrogenates to fully aromatize the ring. In any event, the reaction process has been shown to give efficient production of 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene from limonene with yields exceeding 84% achieved in a single step process.
There are many ways one could run the reaction that converts limonene, or other like compounds or mixtures, to compounds that make useful fuels or fuel additives. The process is essentially a single-step operation. As one example, one simply places limonene in a suitable vessel, adds a catalyst such as platinum or palladium on carbon, then heats the oil to about 90.degree.-180.degree. C. An inert gas or, alternatively, hydrogen may be passed through the mixture. The reaction is monitored over some period of time, e.g., about two hours for reactions on the scale of about 2 liters and depending on the amount of catalyst, size of vessel, etc. Monitoring by gas chromatography, for example, is by withdrawing some liquid from the reaction vessel and injecting directly onto the column of a gas chromatograph. When desirable compounds have formed, the reaction may be terminated. This is done by removing the hydrogen source if hydrogen is used, cooling the oil, filtering off the catalyst, if necessary, and then purifying any product desired.
Products are generally isolated by distillation which is rapid and simple. It may be done from the same process vessel as the catalytic conversion, thus utilizing a batch process. If this route is taken, catalyst should be removed as it might explode or catch fire if hydrogen gas is adsorbed on its surface, as is the case with platinum on carbon. But catalysts that are readily removed may be used, for example, an immobilized catalyst which is lifted from the reaction vessel. In any event, the product is generally a liquid which may be fractionally distilled into single or mixtures of products based on relative boiling points.
The following is a description of the analytical methods used including the dynamometer and test engine set up for determining fuel properties.
Chromatography
Gas chromatography was conducted using a Hewlett-Packard 5890 Series II gas chromatograph equipped with a Hewlett-Packard Vectra 386/25 for data acquisition; gas chromatography/mass spectrometry was performed using a Hewlett-Packard 5971A MSD with a DB wax 0.25 mm i.d. 1 .mu. capillary column.
Dynamometer
The dynamometer used for testing was purchased from Super Flo (Colorado Springs, Colo.), model SF 901 with a full computer package which included a Hewlett-Packard model Vectra ES computer. Standard heat exchangers were added. Data were recorded using a HP model 7475A X-Y plotter.
Test Engine
The test engine was constructed from high nickel alloy Bowtie blocks (General Motors, Detroit, Mich.) with stainless steel billet main caps, block machined to parallel and square to the main bearing bore with dimensions set and honed with a torque plate. Tolerances were 0.0001 inch on the cylinder diameters and tapers. Pistons, purchased from J & E (Cordova, Calif.) were machined to a wall tolerance of 0.003 inch. Pistons and connecting rod pins were fit to a tolerance of 0.0013 inch. The pistons were lined up in the deck blocks (9" in depth) at zero deck. Bottom assembly was blueprinted to tolerances of 0.0001 inch.
The engine was an 8-cylinder Pontiac with raised port cylinder heads. These were ported, polished and flowed by Racing Induction Systems (Connover, N.C.) for even fuel distribution. Camshafts were tested for 1850-7200 rpms at 106.degree. intake centerline to 108.degree. intake center line.
The examples which follow are intended to illustrate the practice of the present invention and are not intended to be limiting. Although the invention is demonstrated with highly purified limonene feedstocks, the starting material used in the disclosed process is not necessarily limited to a single compound, or even to terpenoid compounds. A wide range of hydrocarbon feedstocks could be used, including waste hydrocarbons from industrial processes. One value of the process lies in the potential to utilize biomass sources, often considered waste products, in providing fuels from sources independent of petroleum interests.
Many variations in experimental conditions are possible, leading to numerous product combinations. Differences in temperature and pressure (compare Examples 1, 2, 4 and 5) will determine the type and yield of products obtained.
EXAMPLE 1
Catalytic Conversion of Limonene to Aromatic-Rich Product (Method A)
600 ml of purified d-limonene was placed in a 1-liter flask with 12.5 g of 1% Pd on carbon. The mixture was heated to 105.degree. C. for 2 hr at ambient pressure while bubbling nitrogen through the solution. After cooling to room temperature, the catalyst was removed by filtration. The clear, colorless liquid was distilled at atmospheric pressure and the fraction boiling between 175.degree.-178.degree. C. collected as a clear colorless liquid which had a specific gravity of 0.85 g/ml. Gas chromatographic analysis of the collected product showed two peaks. Mass spectrometry of the product components and comparison with published libraries of known compounds were used to identify 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)benzene and 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)cyclohexene as the products. Structures are shown in FIG. 1. Mass spectra are shown in FIG. 2. Table 1, showing relative amounts of the mixture components, indicates product composition is over 80% 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)benzene and 17% 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)cyclohexene. Minor amounts of 1-methyl-4-(1methylethyl)cyclohexane and trace amounts, less than 1%, of other hydrocarbon components were also detected.
TABLE 1______________________________________Composition of Products Formed in the CatalyticReactions of d-Limonene ProductChemical Name Formula (%)______________________________________t-MMEC.sup.1 C.sub.10 H.sub.20 2c-MMEC.sup.2 C.sub.10 H.sub.201-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexene C.sub.10 H.sub.18 171-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene C.sub.10 H.sub.14 81______________________________________ .sup.1 t-MMEC = trans1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane .sup.2 c-MMEC = cis1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane
EXAMPLE 2
Catalytic Conversion of Limonene to Saturated Hydrocarbon Products (Method B
2.0 liters of purified limonene was placed in a 4.2 liter stainless steel cylinder with 40 g of 5% Pd on carbon. Initial pressure was 1200 psi with heating at 365.degree.-370.degree. C. for five hours. Pressure increased to 1750 psi during heating and fell to 500 after the cylinder was cooled to room temperature. Specific gravity of the product mixture was 0.788 g/ml. Mass spectrometric/gas chromatographic analysis showed two major products: 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane (cis and trans isomers). Trace amounts (<0.01%) included hexane, 3,3,5-trimethyl heptane, 1-(1,5-dimethylhexyl)-4-methyl-cyclohexane, 1S,3R-(+)- and 1S,3S-(+)-m-menthane and cyclohexanepropanoic acid.
Product composition is shown in Table 2.
TABLE 2______________________________________Composition of Products Formed in the CatalyticReactions of d-Limonene ProductChemical Name Formula (%)______________________________________3,3,5-trimethyl heptane C.sub.10 H.sub.22 traceDMHMC.sup.1 C.sub.15 H.sub.30 tracet-MMEC.sup.2 C.sub.10 H.sub.20 69.58c-MMEC.sup.3 C.sub.10 H.sub.20 30.14(1S, 3R)-(+)-m-menthane C.sub.10 H.sub.20 traceCyclohexanepropanoic acid C.sub.9 H.sub.16 O.sub.2 trace(1S, 3S)-(+)-m-menthane C.sub.10 H.sub.20 trace______________________________________ .sup.1 DMHMC = (1(1,5-dimethylhexyl)-4-methyl cyclohexane .sup.2 t-MMEC = trans1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane .sup.3 c-MMEC = cis1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane
EXAMPLE 3
Engine Tests on 87 Octane Gasoline Blended with Limonene
Gasoline obtained locally from retail gasoline stations was tested on a dynamometer constructed and set up as described for the test engine. Exxon 87 octane gasoline was used as a control. Test samples were prepared by adding 5%, 10% or 20% limonene to Shamrock 87 octane gasoline. All samples were run under the same test conditions. Results of these tests are shown in Tables 3-6.
Table 3 shows the results of dynamometer tests with Exxon 87 octane gasoline. Engine knock sufficient to cause automatic shutdown of the test dynamometer described in Example 1, occurred above 3250 rpm.
Tables 4-6 show the effect of adding increasing amounts of limonene to Shamrock 87 octane gasoline. As shown in Table 4, engine shutdown occurred above 3000 rpm with the addition of 5% limonene and above 2250 rpm with 10% Limonene. In the presence of 20% limonene, serious preignition occurred shortly after starting at 2000 rpm, causing automatic shutdown of the test engine. Preignition was severe, causing explosive knocking just prior to shutdown.
Cylinder temperature, indicated from thermocouple measurements on each cylinder, showed a tendency to decrease when the biomass fuel mixture was added to gasoline. This indicated a decrease in heat of combustion.
TABLE 3__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60 F. dry air Test #113Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .740 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 326.3 124.3 17.4 84.7 87.2 52.5 166.1 14.5 .44 77 193 0 6.412250 340.0 145.7 20.7 87.3 87.1 61.6 192.7 14.4 .44 77 194 0 6.352500 338.9 161.3 24.3 86.6 86.4 66.8 212.5 14.6 .43 77 196 0 6.322750 343.2 179.7 28.1 87.5 86.0 72.1 236.2 15.0 .42 77 197 0 6.313000 349.8 199.8 32.1 88.2 85.6 80.3 259.5 14.8 .42 77 199 0 6.233250 352.6 218.2 36.4 89.0 85.2 88.4 283.9 14.7 .42 77 200 0 6.243500 39.7 26.5 41.1 14.4 36.8 11.3 49.3 20.0 .47 77 204 0 9.47__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .740 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1300 1290 1160 1220 1210 110 1180 12201310 1270 1160 1220 1210 130 1210 12501300 1260 1170 1220 1220 160 1230 12801290 1270 1180 1240 1230 110 1260 13001300 1270 1200 1270 1250 460 1270 13101310 1280 1220 1290 1270 600 1290 13201260 1260 1180 1240 1230 350 1240 12701210 1190 1130 1150 1180 320 1190 12201180 1140 1090 1090 1130 300 1160 1190__________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 4__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60 F. dry air Test #114Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .747 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 326.3 124.3 17.4 84.7 87.2 52.5 166.1 14.5 .44 77 193 0 6.412250 342.5 146.7 20.7 86.9 87.1 62.1 191.8 14.2 .44 77 186 0 6.272500 345.4 164.4 24.3 87.5 86.6 69.8 214.7 14.1 .44 77 185 0 6.262750 349.8 183.2 28.1 86.9 86.2 73.5 234.4 14.6 .42 77 185 0 6.143000 354.5 202.5 32.1 87.5 85.8 81.0 257.7 14.6 .42 77 184 0 6.113250 39.2 24.3 36.4 13.3 37.6 9.6 42.5 20.3 .44 77 185 0 8.87__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .747 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1120 1100 980 990 1010 420 1110 10901170 1130 1030 1050 1050 240 1150 11401190 1150 1070 1090 1090 170 1190 11901220 1190 1110 1150 1140 160 1230 12301250 1220 1150 1200 1180 110 1240 12501190 1190 1100 1130 1120 110 1180 12001120 1110 1030 1020 1050 200 1100 11201060 1040 990 990 1010 1020 1040 1050__________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 5__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60 F. dry air Test #115Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .755 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.61 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 327.6 124.8 17.4 86.5 87.3 54.4 169.6 14.3 .46 77 190 0 6.522250 341.5 146.3 20.7 87.0 87.1 61.8 191.9 14.3 .44 77 193 0 6.292500 36.8 17.5 24.3 17.3 39.6 8.9 42.6 22.0 .56 77 195 0 12.302750 2.1 1.1 28.1 8.4 .0 8.5 22.7 12.3 .00 77 196 0 .003000 2.2 1.3 32.1 3.7 .0 .0 11.0 .0 .00 77 197 0 .003250 2.3 1.4 36.4 2.3 .0 2.3 7.4 14.8 .00 77 199 0 .00__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .755 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.61 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1300 1270 1140 1200 1210 330 1220 12401300 1260 1160 1210 1210 120 1230 12601240 1230 1110 1150 1160 110 1190 12101180 1180 1070 1090 1110 110 1140 11601110 1100 1020 1050 1060 100 1060 10901040 1030 970 1000 1010 130 990 1020__________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 6__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60 F. dry air Test #116Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .768 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 331.7 126.3 17.4 84.7 87.4 52.6 166.2 14.5 .44 77 190 0 6.312250 37.0 15.9 20.7 17.5 41.1 9.0 38.6 19.7 .62 77 194 0 12.222500 2.0 1.0 24.3 6.1 .0 .0 14.9 .0 .00 77 194 0 .002750 2.1 1.1 28.1 3.4 .0 .0 9.1 .0 .00 77 194 0 .003000 2.2 1.3 32.1 2.2 .0 .0 6.4 .0 .00 77 196 0 .00__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .768 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .35 Barometric Pres.: 29.62 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 358.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1270 1250 1130 1180 1190 240 1170 12001210 1210 1090 1120 1130 110 1120 11601140 1130 1040 1070 1080 110 1050 10901070 1040 990 1020 1010 100 990 10301000 980 930 970 950 100 930 970__________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 4
Irradiation/Catalytic Conversion of Limonene (Method C)
600 ml of purified limonene, b.p. 175.degree.-177.degree. C., was placed in a 1-liter three-necked glass flask equipped with a temperature probe and a gas inlet tube. 10 g of 5% Pd/C was added to the flask, hydrogen gas was bubbled into the mixture and the limonene heated to reflux for 2 hr. An ultraviolet lamp (Spectroline providing 254 nm light) was placed on top of the reflux column so that light impinged vapor produced by heating the pot liquid to distillation temperature. The distillate was collected over a temperature range of 140.degree.-180.degree. C. and analyzed by gas chromatography/mass spectrometry. Fragmentation products included C.sub.5 and C.sub.6 fragments and C.sub.10 H.sub.20 compounds. The latter were identified as cis and trans-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane and 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene, structures shown in FIG. 1. Product distribution and identified products are shown in Table 7.
TABLE 7______________________________________Composition of Products Formed in the CatalyticReaction of d-Limonene with UV Irradiation Composi-Chemical Name Formula tion (%)______________________________________3,3,5-trimethyl heptane C.sub.10 H.sub.22 <14-methyl-2-propyl 1-pentanol C.sub.9 H.sub.20 O <1Dodecane C.sub.12 H.sub.26 <13-methyl nonane C.sub.10 H.sub.22 1.4trans-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane C.sub.10 H.sub.20 25.1cis-1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane C.sub.10 H.sub.20 21.51-methyl-4-(1-methylethylidene)-cyclohexane C.sub.10 H.sub.18 18.7cis-4-dimethyl cyclohexaneethanol C.sub.10 H.sub.20 O 2.81-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene C.sub.10 H.sub.14 30.2______________________________________
EXAMPLE 5
Catalytic Conversion of Limonene (Method D)
A biomass fuel mixture was obtained using a variation of the preparation of Example 1. Table 8 shows the product distribution of products produced from the reaction which was conducted by adding 40 g of barium-promoted copper chromite (35 m.sup.2 /g, 9.7% BaO) to 2.0 liters of purified limonene. The limonene was charged into a 4.2 liter metal cylinder, evacuated and pressurized with hydrogen gas at 500 psi. The mixture was heated to 230.degree. C. for 3 hr. The cylinder was cooled with a stream of liquid nitrogen, opened and the liquid bubbled with hydrogen gas, catalyst removed and the mixture distilled. The distillate was collected over a range of 110.degree.-180.degree. C.
Mixture components were 45% C.sub.10 H.sub.14 and about 55% C.sub.10 H.sub.20 with trace amounts of 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-cyclohexene, cis-p-menth-8(10)en-ol, 3-methyl nonane and 1-methyl-3-(1-methylethyl) benzene as determined by gas chromatography.
EXAMPLE 6
Engine Tests on 87 Octane Gasoline Blended With Biomass Fuel or MTBE
A biomass fuel mixture was prepared under substantially the same conditions of Example 1. The mixture was added in 10% and 20% by volume to Mobil 87 octane gasoline purchased from local retail gasoline stations. Another mixture was prepared by adding methyl tert-butyl ether (MTBE) to 87 octane Mobil gasoline in 10% by volume. Dynode tests were run on all mixtures using the aforementioned test engine. Table 9 shows results of dynamometer tests on Mobil 87 octane gasoline; Table 10 shows results of addition of 10% by volume biomass fuel mixture and Table 11 results of addition of 20% of biomass fuel to the 87 octane gasoline. Not shown are results with the MTBE blend which were similar to results obtained with the blend containing 10% biomass fuel mixture.
Results showed that addition of up to 20% of the biomass generated fuel mixture caused no decrease in horsepower or torque at rpms in the range up to about 3000 rpms. Above 3000 rpms, addition of the biomass fuel mixture in about 10% by volume to the 87 octane gasoline provided about 1% increase in horsepower and torque at 4250 rpms (compare Table, third column, and Table 10, third column). Addition of 20% by volume of the biomass fuel mixture did not significantly change horsepower or torque up to about 4250 rpms when compared with 87 octane gasoline (compare Table 9, third column, and Table 11, third column). MTBE added at 10% by volume was similar in effect to the blend containing 10% biomass fuel mixture in averaging increases in horsepower of about 0.7-1.1%.
Additionally, as the amount of biomass fuel mixture added to conventional gasoline was increased, the A/F (air-to fuel ratio) ratio decreased somewhat. Cylinder temperature, measured in each cylinder by thermocouple, did not appear to be significantly affected.
TABLE 8______________________________________Composition of Products Formed in the CatalyticConversion of d-LimoneneChemical Name Formula Product (%)______________________________________t-MMTC.sup.1 C.sub.10 H.sub.20 37.6c-MMTC.sup.2 C.sub.10 H.sub.20 16.7cis-p-menth-8(10)-en-9-ol C.sub.10 H.sub.18 O <11-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)-cyclohexene C.sub.10 H.sub.18 <11-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) benzene C.sub.10 H.sub.14 45.11-methyl-3-(1-methylethyl) benzene C.sub.10 H.sub.14 13-methyl nonane C.sub.10 H.sub.22 <1______________________________________ .sup.1 t-MMTC = trans1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane .sup.2 c-MMTC = cis1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexane
TABLE 9__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60.degree. F. dry air Test#150Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .732 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.33 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 335.4. 127.7 17.3 77.8 87.2 58.4 147.1 11.6 .49 77 193 170 5.712250 339.8 145.6 20.6 79.5 86.8 67.1 168.9 11.6 .50 77 193 167 5.762500 343.5 163.5 24.1 78.9 86.3 72.9 186.3 11.7 .48 77 194 166 5.662750 348.8 182.6 27.9 79.7 85.8 82.1 207.0 11.6 .49 77 194 165 5.633000 358.1 204.6 31.8 80.8 85.6 90.2 229.0 11.7 .48 77 194 165 5.563250 366.6 226.9 36.1 81.8 85.3 99.1 251.5 11.7 .47 77 194 166 5.503500 372.1 248.0 40.7 82.9 84.9 107.8 274.3 11.7 .47 77 195 166 5.493750 374.1 267.1 46.0 83.7 84.3 113.3 296.8 12.0 .46 77 196 166 5.524000 372.3 283.5 51.6 84.0 83.5 121.9 317.6 12.0 .47 77 198 168 5.574250 375.0 303.5 57.5 85.2 82.9 134.0 342.4 11.7 .48 77 199 168 5.62__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .732 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.33 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1250 1260 1170 1190 1100 1200 1280 13101240 1250 1180 1190 1100 1230 1290 13001250 1260 1200 1140 1110 1250 1300 13001270 1260 1230 1180 1120 1280 1300 13001280 1270 1250 1160 1140 1140 1310 13101290 1290 1270 1220 1160 1330 1330 13301320 1300 1280 1270 1190 1360 1350 13601340 1320 1300 1310 1230 1380 1360 13901360 1330 1310 1330 1260 1410 1360 14101370 1360 1320 1350 1300 1440 1380 1440__________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 10__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.9 inches Hg, 60.degree. F. dry air Test#117Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .738 Air Sensor: 6.5Vapor Pressure: .85 Barometric Pres.: 29.23 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 333.4 127.0 17.3 76.4 87.2 67.2 144.2 9.9 .57 77 200 167 5.642250 339.0 145.2 20.6 79.1 86.7 95.4 168.0 8.1 .71 77 201 170 5.752500 345.1 164.3 24.1 79.1 86.3 101.6 186.7 8.4 .67 77 200 170 5.652750 350.7 183.6 27.9 79.7 85.9 112.9 206.9 8.4 .67 77 200 170 5.603000 362.4 207.0 31.8 81.0 85.7 113.8 229.3 9.3 .60 77 201 169 5.53250 369.4 228.6 36.1 81.7 85.4 124.5 250.7 9.2 .59 77 202 169 5.453500 375.8 250.4 40.7 82.7 85.0 135.2 273.3 9.3 .59 77 202 169 5.433750 379.3 270.8 46.0 83.7 84.5 141.2 296.1 9.6 .57 77 202 169 5.444000 377.2 287.3 51.6 84.1 83.7 146.6 317.5 9.9 .55 77 203 169 5.504250 379.1 306.8 57.5 85.1 83.1 159.2 341.5 9.9 .56 77 204 170 5.54__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .738 Air Sensor: 6.5Vapor Pressure: .85 Barometric Pres.: 29.23 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-cycle Spark Engine displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1270 1280 1230 1250 1140 1300 1290 13201270 1260 1240 1210 1120 1310 1300 13001280 1260 1250 1200 1130 1310 1310 13001290 1260 1260 1190 1140 1320 1290 13101300 1270 1280 1200 1150 1340 1300 13201310 1270 1300 1240 1170 1360 1320 13401330 1290 1320 1280 1200 1380 1340 13701350 1310 1330 1310 1240 1400 1350 13901370 1330 1340 1340 1270 1420 1350 14201380 1360 1350 1230 1300 1450 1380 1430__________________________________________________________________________
TABLE 11__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.9 inches Hg, 60.degree. F. dry air Test#154Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .757 Air Sensor: 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.33 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 332.4 126.6 17.3 75.8 87.1 105.1 143.1 6.3 .90 77 195 170 5.602250 336.6 144.2 20.6 78.6 86.6 111.4 167.1 6.9 .84 77 195 173 5.752500 344.4 163.9 24.1 78.8 86.3 123.4 186.1 6.9 .81 77 195 174 5.632750 349.3 182.9 27.9 79.6 85.9 145.3 206.7 6.5 .86 77 196 173 5.613000 358.2 204.6 31.8 80.8 85.6 156.0 229.1 6.7 .82 77 195 171 5.563250 367.5 227.4 36.1 81.7 85.3 158.6 251.1 7.3 .75 77 196 171 5.493500 372.0 247.9 40.7 82.7 84.9 175.2 273.5 7.2 .77 77 199 168 5.483750 375.2 267.9 46.0 83.7 84.3 184.3 296.4 7.4 .75 77 199 168 5.504000 374.1 284.9 51.6 84.0 83.6 193.8 317.6 7.5 .74 77 199 170 5.554250 375.4 303.8 57.5 85.1 83.0 199.7 341.6 7.9 .71 77 202 170 5.60__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .757 Air Sensor: 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.33 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1240 1250 1220 1230 1140 1290 1290 13401250 1250 1210 1200 1130 1300 1290 13401260 1260 1220 1180 1130 1310 1300 13401270 1270 1240 1180 1130 1320 1290 13301270 1280 1270 1220 1140 1340 1300 13401280 1290 1280 1250 1160 1360 1310 13501310 1300 1290 1270 1190 1370 1330 13601340 1320 1300 1270 1220 1390 1340 14001360 1330 1310 1230 1260 1420 1340 14201370 1360 1320 1350 1290 1450 1360 1450__________________________________________________________________________
EXAMPLE 7
Engine Tests on Biomass Fuel
A fuel mixture was obtained from 2 liters of limonene feedstock using the process of Example 1. Analysis of the mixture obtained after distillation showed 69% of a C.sub.10 H.sub.14 compound identified as 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl)benzene, about 31% of a C.sub.10 H.sub.18 compound identified as 1-methyl-4-(1-methylethyl) cyclohexene with trace amounts (less than 1% total) of m-menthane, 2,6-dimethyl-3-octene and propanone.
The isolated biomass fuel mixture was used to run a test engine as in Example 3. As shown in Table 12, the engine was taken up to 4250 rpms without pre-ignition.
TABLE 12__________________________________________________________________________Standard Corrected Data for 29.92 inches Hg. 60.degree. F. dry air Test#178Test: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .840 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.47 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Speed CBTrq CBPwr FHp FA A1 BSFC BSACrpm lb-Ft Hp Hp VE % ME % lb/hr scfm A/F lb/Hphr CAT Oil Wat lb/Hphr__________________________________________________________________________2000 326.0. 124.1 17.3 78.2 87.0 62.8 148.5 10.9 .54 77 191 167 5.902250 336.8 144.3 20.6 79.1 86.7 73.1 169.0 10.6 .54 77 192 171 5.782500 344.5 164.0 24.1 79.0 86.4 80.8 187.5 10.7 .53 77 193 171 5.642750 349.1 182.8 27.9 78.9 85.9 88.9 206.2 10.7 .52 77 192 171 5.563000 360.9 206.2 31.8 80.2 85.8 97.5 228.8 10.8 .51 77 195 170 5.483250 367.8 227.6 36.1 81.0 85.4 104.0 249.9 11.0 .49 77 194 169 5.423500 374.1 249.3 40.7 82.3 85.1 111.5 273.4 11.3 .48 77 195 169 5.413750 375.8 268.3 46.0 82.5 84.4 119.6 294.1 11.3 .48 77 196 170 5.414000 372.3 283.5 51.6 82.8 83.6 132.4 314.8 10.9 .30 77 198 170 5.494250 371.9 300.9 57.5 83.5 82.9 141.6 337.1 10.9 .31 77 199 169 5.54__________________________________________________________________________SF-901 Dynamometer Test DataTest: 250 RPM Step Test Fuel Spec. Grav.: .840 Air Sensor 6.5Vapor Pressure: .91 Barometric Pres.: 29.47 Ratio: 1.00 to 1Engine Type: 4-Cycle Spark Engine Displacement: 355.0 Stroke: 3.480Thermocouple Temperature1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8__________________________________________________________________________1250 1290 1180 1230 1110 1280 1230 13301250 1310 1190 1190 1090 1300 1250 13701280 1320 1210 1170 1100 1320 1260 13801270 1320 1240 1170 1120 1340 1250 13801270 1330 1260 1190 1130 1360 1260 14001250 1350 1280 1220 1150 1380 1270 14101140 1360 1280 1260 1180 1400 1290 14201270 1370 1290 1290 1210 1420 1310 14501250 1390 1290 1320 1240 1450 1300 14701370 1380 1300 1340 1270 1470 1310 1490__________________________________________________________________________
The present invention has been described in terms of particular embodiments found by the inventors to comprise preferred modes of practice of the invention. It will be appreciated by those of skill in the art that in light of the present disclosure modifications and changes can be made in the particular embodiments exemplified without departing from the intended scope of the invention. For example, numerous modifications of reaction conditions could be employed to vary product composition, including use of non-traditional catalysts, combinations of low temperatures and high pressures, oxygen or hydrogen donors added to the feedstock and the like. All such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of the claims.
REFERENCES
The references cited within the text are incorporated by reference to the extent they supplement, explain, provide background for or teach methodology, techniques and/or compositions employed herein.
1. Haag, W. O., Rodewald, P. G. and Weisz, P. B., U.S. Pat. No. 4,300,009, Nov. 10, 1981.
1. Rudolph, T. W. and Thomas, J. J., Biomass 16, 33 (1988).
2. Schwartz, S. E., Lubr. Engng. (ASLE) 42, 292-299 (1986).
3. Whitaker, M. C., U.S. Pat. No. 1,405,250, Feb. 7, 1922.
4. Whitworth, R. D., U.S. Pat. No. 4,818,250, Apr. 4, 1989.
5. Whitworth, R. D., U.S. Pat. No. 4,915,707, Apr. 10, 1990.
6. Wilson, E. J. A., U.S. Pat. No. 5,004,850, Apr. 2, (1991).
7. Zuidema, H. H., U.S. Pat. No. 2,402,863, Jun. 25, 1946.

Number	Name	Date
1405809	Whitaker et al.	Feb 1922
2211432	Palmer et al.	Aug 1940
2388100	Wadley	Oct 1945
2400012	Littmann	May 1946
2402863	Zuidema	Jun 1946
2402898	Kirkpatrick	Jun 1946
2857439	Glasebrook	Oct 1958
3270075	Derfer et al.	Aug 1966
3280207	Liquori et al.	Oct 1966
3312635	Liquori et al.	Apr 1967
4249028	Bledsoe, Jr. et al.	Feb 1981
4300009	Haag et al.	Nov 1981
4533487	Jones	Aug 1985
4548615	Lonchamp et al.	Oct 1985
4623363	Zaweski et al.	Nov 1986
4720603	Martin et al.	Jan 1988
4818250	Whitworth	Apr 1989
4915707	Whitworth	Apr 1990
4990712	Harandi et al.	Feb 1991
5004850	Wilson	Apr 1991

Hydrocarbon-based fuels from biomass

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Tanaka et al., "Hydrogenation and dehydrogenation of 4-isopropenyl-1-methylcyclo-hexene catalyzed by MgO, CaO, La.sub.2 O.sub.3, ThO.sub.2, and ZrO.sub.2," Bulletin of the Chem. Soc. Japan, 51 (12):3411-3746, 1978.
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