Patent Application
20190022198
The present invention relates in general to methods of treating disease, disorder, condition or injury of the Central Nervous System (CNS) by activation of the choroid plexus.
Existing methods for treatment of CNS disease, such as multiples sclerosis or Alzheimer's disease, are in general unsatisfactory, basically due to the incomplete understanding of the inherent mechanisms regulating maintenance and repair of the CNS.
The brain is generally viewed as an “organ behind walls”, shielded by barriers from the peripheral immune system. Nevertheless, circulating immune cells have been repeatedly shown to be essential for central nervous system (CNS) maintenance (Moalem G, et al. (1999); Wolf S A, et al. (2009); Ziv Y, et al. (2006)). Specifically, T cells that recognize CNS antigens were reported to contribute to the functional integrity of the CNS under both normal and pathological conditions (Moalem G, et al. (1999); Ziv Y, et al. (2006); Olsson T et al. (2003)). Such CNS-specific T cells, or cytokines derived from them, were shown to support several aspects of adult brain plasticity, including hippocampus-dependent learning and memory, adult neurogenesis, and neurotrophic factor production (Ziv Y, et al. (2006)). Interestingly, T cells are rarely found in the healthy CNS parenchyma, raising several key questions as to how, where and when these cells exert their effects on the healthy CNS.
Under physiological conditions, T cells are mainly found at the borders of the CNS—the choroid plexus (choroid plexus) of the brain's ventricles, comprising the blood-cerebrospinal-fluid barrier (BCSFB), the meningeal spaces and the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) (Engelhardt B & Ransohoff R M (2005)). Strategically positioned at the lining between the CNS and the immune system, the choroid plexus, in addition to its role in generating the CSF, can enable bi-directional communication between the CNS parenchyma and the blood circulation (Emerich D F et al. (2005)) needed for brain maintenance and repair.
This picture of the mechanisms governing the maintenance and repair of the CNS is still incomplete and therefore the existing means for treating diseases of the brain leave a considerable need for improvement.
In one aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the Central Nervous System (CNS) in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to said subject a therapeutically effective amount of an active ingredient selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, thereby activating the choroid plexus of said subject and maintaining said activation by reducing immunosuppression and establishing Th1-type immune response at the choroid plexus thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid, to pass through the choroid plexus, and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury.
In another aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the CNS in a subject in need thereof having a certain level of immunosuppression in the circulation, said method comprising administering to said subject a therapeutically effective amount of an active ingredient selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient, wherein said administering is performed according to a regimen causing reduction of the level of said immunosuppression in the circulation of said subject relative to a reference, maintenance of said reduced level, and induction towards a Th1-type immune response, wherein said reduced level of immunosuppression and Th1-type immune response in the circulation indicates and ensures activation of the choroid plexus of said subject and thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid from the circulation to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury.
In a further aspect, the present invention provides the above defined methods for inhibiting neuronal degeneration in the CNS, protecting neurons from glutamate toxicity or promoting nerve regeneration in nerve tissue damaged by injury to the CNS or by a disease, disorder or condition of the CNS.
In yet another aspect, the present invention provides a vaccine for use in a method of therapeutic immunization of a mammal comprising an active ingredient selected from (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, wherein the vaccine is to be administered to thereby activate the choroid plexus of said mammal and maintain said activation by reducing immunosuppression and establishing Th1-type immune response at the choroid plexus thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid, to pass through the choroid plexus, and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury
In still another aspect, the present invention provides a vaccine for use in a method of therapeutic immunization of a mammal comprising an active ingredient selected from: (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, wherein the vaccine is to be administered according to a regimen to thereby confer reduction of the level of immunosuppression in the circulation of said mammal relative to a reference, maintenance of said reduced level and induction towards a Th1-type immune response, wherein said reduced level of immunosuppression and Th1-type immune response in the circulation indicates and ensures activation of the choroid plexus of said mammal and maintenance of said activation thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by disease, disorder, condition or injury.
In an additional aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a combination of agents selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) IFN-γ and a Th1 adjuvant; (iv) a combination of (i) with IFN-γ; and (v) a combination of (ii) with IFN-γ.
It has been found in accordance with the present invention that the choroid plexus epithelium, an active interface between the blood and the brain, is constantly populated by central nervous system (CNS)-specific effector memory type CD4+ T cells (Examples 1 and 2). It has further been found in accordance with the present invention that with aging, the antigenic specificity of such T cells is maintained, but their cytokine/chemokine balance changes towards a Th2-like epithelial inflammation, with detrimental consequences to the functioning brain (Example 3).
Our finding that the choroid plexus (CP), under physiological conditions, retains a broad repertoire of CD4+ T cell clones that recognize CNS antigens, together with the recent report that the choroid plexus contains specialized antigen presenting cells (APCs), Flt3+dendritic cells, which can actively present self-antigens and stimulate T cells (Anandasabapathy N, et al. (2011)), supports the effector function of these T cells in this compartment. These T cells, after recognition and reactivation by their cognate antigens, either enter the CSF or remain in the CP. Focusing on circulating T cells that are retained in this compartment, we envisioned that a life-long crosstalk between these cells and the CNS, needed for maintaining cognitive ability, takes place at the blood-cerebrospinal-fluid barrier (BCSFB), with the choroid plexus epithelium as the mediator.
As shown herein below, examining the local effector cytokine balance in this epithelium revealed that while both IL-4 and IFN-γ were found in the choroid plexus throughout life, the ratio increased in favor of IL-4 during aging (Example 3,
The change in local cytokine milieu at the choroid plexus of the aged mice was found here to critically affect this compartment. When not properly balanced by IFNγ, high levels of IL-4 induced the choroid plexus epithelium to produce CCL11, a chemokine that is associated with age-related cognitive impairments and accumulates at the aged CSF (Example 3). It was previously shown that cognitive tasks lead to accumulation of IL-4-producing T cells in the meningeal spaces of the brain (Derecki N C, et al. (2010)), and that CCL11 can interfere with IL-4 signaling (Stevenson N J, et al. (2009)). The fact that CCL11 was found here to be produced by the choroid plexus epithelium, and specifically in response to IL-4 stimulation, coupled with its negative effects on brain functional plasticity, supports our hypothesis that the loss of cognitive ability in old mice is a reflection of epithelium-T cell crosstalk dysregulation at the choroid plexus. Such Th2-like inflammation is known to be associated with cancer or epithelial pathologies outside the CNS, such as the lung epithelium in asthma. Intriguingly, examining the aged choroid plexus epithelium in analogy to the asthmatic Th2-inflamed lung epithelium, revealed similarities in mechanistic and functional dysregulation that may reflect common disease-like processes amenable to immunomodulation.
It has further been found in accordance with the present invention that the choroid plexus epithelium acts as a bidirectional sensory organ of the CNS, receiving danger signals from within the parenchyma, and in response, regulating trafficking and maintenance of the CNS. CD4+ T cells expressing IFN-γ, IL-4, and the transcription factor FoxP3 were found in the choroid plexus under physiological conditions, as shown herein below (Example 5). By dissecting how the different effector cytokines affect this compartment, we found IFN-γ to be a key regulatory cytokine in activating the choroid plexus epithelium to express trafficking molecules and related chemokines (Example 6). Notably, this activation of the choroid plexus was found herein to be tightly regulated through the induction of IFN-γ receptor (IFN-γR) on the epithelium by a parenchyma-derived danger signal (Example 7). In contrast, IL-4 had no noticeable effect on trafficking molecules, yet it modulated the immune milieu by upregulating Arginase-1, potentially affecting the phenotype of immune cells in this compartment (Example 6).
As an immune privileged site, the CNS has a poor tolerance for immune cell infiltration to its parenchyma, and therefore much of what we know about immune infiltration to the CNS was studied in pathological states (Engelhardt and Ransohoff, 2005). Moreover, little attention has been devoted to the distinction between pathologies that are inflammatory in their etiology, manifested by pathogenic immune cell infiltration and for which immune suppression is beneficial, versus pathologies that are of non-inflammatory etiology, and in which transient or chronic local inflammation can potentially benefit from the infiltration of resolving immune cells (Banerjee et al., 2008; Beers et al., 2008; Derecki et al., 2012; Schwartz and Shechter, 2010; Simard et al., 2006).
In the present study, we focused on the blood-cerebrospinal-fluid barrier as the portal through which leukocytes can enter the CNS under physiological conditions, without the necessity of a breached blood-brain barrier (BBB). We assumed that the site at which the immune system should sense and respond to a threat coming from the parenchyma is the choroid plexus—an epithelial tissue that serves as a filter between the blood and the CNS and—as such—can receive signals from within the CNS and from immune cells residing within it. In order to cross this epithelial barrier, immune cells must first adhere to it and negotiate the intercellular junction. In vitro studies of the basal-to-apical T cell egression process through the lung epithelium showed that ICAM-1 expression is essential for the adhesion of T cells to the epithelial cells and for their consequent transmigration, and that ICAM-1 is upregulated when the epithelium is stimulated by IFN-γ, with or without TNF-α (Miller and Butcher, 1998; Porter et al., 2008; Porter and Hall, 2009; Taguchi et al., 1998). In the present study, we found a synergistic effect between IFN-γ and TNF-α on the expression of adhesion molecules, including ICAM-1 (Example 6). Our results are in line with the reported synergistic effect of TNF-α and IFN-γ stimulation on the migratory properties of both lung (Barrett et al., 1998) and colon (Fish et al., 1999) epithelial cells. The finding in accordance with the present invention that TNF-α could upregulate the expression of the receptor for IFN-γ on epithelial cells suggests that the synergistic effect of these two cytokines is mediated by increased sensitivity of the cells to IFN-γ due to the elevation in its receptor (Example 7). The fact that in healthy animals the choroid plexus epithelium hardly expresses IFN-γ receptor in vivo, and the observation that acute CNS injury can upregulate its expression, suggest that in order to fully activate expression of trafficking molecules in response to IFN-γ stimulation, the choroid plexus epithelium must be primed by danger signals coming from the injured CNS, possibly in the form of inflammatory mediators such as TNF-α. The danger signal may originate in any assault to the CNS, such as acute injury or an inflammatory or degenerative disease.
Crossing the epithelial monolayer involves the expression of chemokines on the apical side of these cells in order to create a chemical gradient. The expression of various chemokines on the apical surface of the epithelial barrier can also control the type of cells which infiltrate to the tissue. Thus, the infiltrating cells in most pulmonary diseases are memory T cells, which express high levels of CXCR3, the chemokine receptor for CXCL9, CXCL10 and CXCL11. Interestingly, memory T cells are the primary population of T cells in the CSF under normal conditions and were suggested to infiltrate through the choroid plexus (Kivisakk et al., 2003). In addition, monocyte infiltration following traumatic brain injury correlates with increased expression and presence of CCL2 in the choroid plexus and in the CSF (Szmydynger-Chodobska et al., 2012). Our findings thus suggest that IFN-γ is needed for activation of trafficking molecules but its receptor is hardly expressed on the choroid plexus epithelium unless a danger signal such as TNF-α is sensed by it.
Epithelial cells are found in many tissues and play a role beyond trafficking. In the gut, it was shown that the M cells of the epithelial layer are responsible for transcytosis of antigens from the gut lumen to its associated immune follicles and that TGF-β and retinoic acid, which are constitutively expressed by the epithelial cells, are responsible for the generation of oral tolerance. As in the gut epithelium, the choroid plexus epithelium constitutively secretes transforming growth factor-β. (TGF-β) to the CSF. Accordingly, CSF from both rodent and human is able to inhibit T cell proliferation and the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines, in part due the presence of TGF-β. It has been found according to the present invention that the choroid plexus is enriched with Tregs (Example 5), which can further regulate the activation of immune cells. Although TGF-β alone can mediate the induction of Tregs, its combination with IL-6 can determine Th17 differentiation (Zhou et al., 2008). Therefore, the differential local expression of IL-6 and TGF-β may prove important for the immunoregulatory properties of this compartment. The fact that neither IL-17, nor its induced cytokine IL-6, had any effect on expression of leukocyte trafficking molecules on the choroid plexus, argues that induction of molecules that can potentially activate the choroid plexus to facilitate trafficking through the blood-cerebrospinal-fluid barrier is not by itself an encephalitogenic process (Example 6). Moreover, our results disclosed herein below show that IFN-γ signaling is involved in facilitation of life-long immunosurveillance through the choroid plexus under physiological conditions. Knockout of IFN-γR resulted in reduced levels of homing determinants on the choroid plexus of naïve animals relative to WT (Example 8) and impaired recovery after spinal cord injury (Example 9). In contrast, IL-17, which is known to be involved in encephalitogenic conditions of the CNS, such as experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), failed to activate the choroid plexus for trafficking. Altogether, these results substantiate our contention that the activation of the choroid plexus for trafficking is by itself not a sign of pathology. Nevertheless, although we found that IFN-γ supports non-encephalitogenic trafficking, it could lead to pathogenicity in the presence of Th-17 cells, which were barely detectable in the naïve choroid plexus. Supporting this notion is the fact that IFN-γR-KO mice fail to develop classic EAE (Lees et al., 2008). These results are also in line with the reported CCR6+ cell entry through the choroid plexus, linked with the induction of EAE (Reboldi et al., 2009), and might suggest that prior to Th-17 entry, this compartment is activated by IFN-γ. Accordingly, the activation of trafficking through the choroid plexus, which can potentially be the beginning of an inflammatory disease, does not necessarily portend to it; such an opening can serve as a gate for opportunistic cells, which cannot infiltrate by themselves, but can use the opened port to enter the parenchyma as “Trojan horses”, thus induce autoimmune disease.
Since our initial demonstration that T cell-mediated immunity supports hippocampus-dependent cognitive ability, we suspected that the significance of our findings would be in their potential relevance to aging (Ron-Harel N & Schwartz M (2009)). The present study provides evidence of a mechanism connecting aging of the immune system with aging of the CNS, and identifies the choroid plexus as a site of constant dialogue between CNS-specific T cells and the brain, demonstrating that this dialogue is altered with age. We further show that restoring the Th1/Th2 balance to that of young animals (having a Th1 phenotype) has the potential to partially restore memory function (Example 4,
In addition, the results of this study provide experimental support for a dialogue that takes place between the circulating immune system and the choroid plexus epithelium. We found this epithelial-T cell crosstalk to facilitate the activation of the choroid plexus and to enable CNS maintenance and immune trafficking. Moreover, this study emphasizes that the mere activation of the choroid plexus for trafficking is not a sign of a beginning of a disease; the effector phenotype of the immune cells and the state of the parenchyma critically determine the outcome.
The present inventors also show herein that, even though CNS parenchyma of mSOD1 mice (a model for human amyotrophic lateral sclerosis) shows signs of local inflammation, their choroid plexus is not activated to enable immune cell trafficking; however, the choroid plexus is amenable to activation as inferred by the fact that IFN-γ treatment of choroid plexus cultures elevated the expression of trafficking molecules of the choroid plexus cultures, suggesting that the choroid plexus of mSOD1 mice has the ability to respond to effector T cell-derived cytokines (Examples 12 and 13). It is further shown herein that immunomodulation of the choroid plexus epithelium of mSOD mice with a Th1-adjuvant, CpG, causes upregulation of all trafficking molecules tested (Example 14). The upregulation of the trafficking molecules enables the transfer of the beneficial T cells from the circulation to the CSF and the CNS parenchyma. Indeed, induction of monophasic (self-resolving mild inflammatory) EAE in wild type mice by immunization with a myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptide (together with low levels of M. tuberculosis) induced the expression of the trafficking molecule ICAM-1 by the choroid plexus epithelium and infiltration of CD4+ T cells to the CSF (Example 15) and the ventral horn gray matter, the area where motor neurons reside (Example 16).
The level of Treg cells in the choroid plexus is a function of the level of this cell type in the circulating immune system, such as the spleen and is critical for its function. For example, depletion of Fox3P+ Treg cells in mice causes the activation of the choroid plexus for trafficking (Example 10). It is also shown herein (Example 18) that daily injection of the immune-modulator Copolymer 1 to 5XFAD mice (a mouse model for human Alzheimer's disease), causes enrichment of FoxP3+ Treg cells in the spleen and does not improve the cognitive function of the mice. The reason seems to be that the high level of Treg cells in the circulation and at the choroid plexus (inferred by the high level in the spleen) suppresses the expression of trafficking molecules and denies the entry of Th1 cells to the damaged brain. Copolymer 1 is a random non-pathogenic synthetic copolymer, a heterogeneous mix of polypeptides containing the four amino acids L-glutamic acid (E), L-alanine (A), L-tyrosine (Y) and L-lysine (K) in an approximate ratio of 1.5:4.8:1:3.6, but with no uniform sequence. Copolymer 1 acts as a low-affinity antigen that activates a wide range of self-reacting T cells, resulting, when given at low frequency, in neuroprotective autoimmunity that is effective against both CNS white matter and grey matter degeneration.
This shows that there is room for therapeutic intervention aimed at activating the choroid plexus (characterized by expression of trafficking molecules) by for example immunization with a CNS-specific antigen (to direct the leukocytes to the area of damage in the CNS) and a Th1-adjuvant (to induce the proliferation of Th1-type IFN-γ producing CD4+ cells and thus steer the immune-response towards a beneficial Th1 phenotype) to enable Th1-type CD4+ cells and other beneficial leukocytes to infiltrate the damaged CNS and promote healing.
In accordance with the above and the findings of the present invention, there are several ways to restore/rejuvenate the choroid plexus; either by restoring the Th1/Th2 balance (and reducing the level of immunosuppression at the choroid plexus) or by restoring the epithelium tissue itself. Restoration of the cytokine milieu may be accomplished, for example by induction of homeostatic-driven proliferation of T cells (Example 4) or T-cell vaccination with a CNS-specific antigen or a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide, using Th1 biased adjuvant.
Thus, in one aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the Central Nervous System (CNS) in a subject in need thereof, comprising administering to said subject a therapeutically effective amount of an active ingredient selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, thereby activating the choroid plexus of said subject and maintaining said activation by reducing immunosuppression and establishing Th1-type immune response at the choroid plexus thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid, to pass through the choroid plexus, and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury.
The use of CpG for treatment of a disorder characterized by the presence of a pathological protein aggregate or neo-epitope is disclosed in WO 01/97785. Thus, in certain embodiments, a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient is administered provided that when said subject is afflicted with a disorder characterized by the presence of a pathological protein aggregate or neo-epitope, said Th1 adjuvant is not CpG. Examples of such disorders, as defined in US 2010/0297108, include neurodegenerative diseases, such as Alzheimer Disease, Down's syndrome, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, mixed dementia, or inclusion body myositis, glaucoma, or arteriosclerosis associated amyloidoses, or other forms of amyloidoses comprising fibrillaric proteins derived from at least one of the following precursor proteins SAA (Serum-Amyloid-Protein A), AL (k or I-light chains of Immunoglobulins), AH (gl Ig-heavy chains), ATTR (Transthyretin, Serum-Prealbumin), AApo-A-1 (Apolipoprotein AI), AApoA2 (Apolipoprotein A2), AGel (Gelsolin), ACys (Cystatin C), ALys (Lysozyme), AFib (Fibrinogen), Beta-amyloid (Amyloid precursor protein), Beta-amyloid2M (beta2-microglobulin), APrP (Prion protein), ACa1 (Procalcitonin), AIAPP (islet amyloid polypeptide); APro (Prolactin), Alns (Insulin); AMed (Lactadherin); Aker (Kerato-epithelin); ALac (Lactoferrin), Abri (AbriPP), ADan (ADanPP); or AANP (Atrial natriuretical peptide), or neurodegenerative diseases characterized by the deposition of abnormally aggregated forms of endogenous proteins including but not limited to beta-amyloid in Alzheimer's disease, Down's syndrome, cerebral amyloid angiopathy, hereditary cerebral hemorrhage with amyloidosis Dutch type and Icelandic type alpha-synuclein in Parkinson's disease, Alzheimer's disease, dementia with lewy body, multiple system atrophy; Prion protein in Creutzfeldt-lakob disease and related prion diseases, Huntingtin in Huntington's disease, tau or other neurofibrillary tangle-related proteins in tauopathies including progressive supranuclear palsy (PSP), cortico-basal degeneration (CBD), agyrophilic grain disease (AGD), fronto-temporal dementia (FTD), frontotemporal dementia with Parkinsonism (FTDPI7), Pick bodies in Pick's disease, ataxin in Spinocerebellar ataxia, copper/zinc super oxide dismutase in amyotrophic lateral sclerosis and TDP-43 in frontotemporal lobar degeneration and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis.
It is known that intense stimulation of the immune system by repeated immunization may, after a brief activation towards Th1 response and lowering of the level of regulatory T cells, raise the level of regulatory T cells and impose immunosuppression (Lalive et al., 2011), which leads to deactivation of the choroid plexus and reduction or stop of cell trafficking from the circulation via the choroid plexus and into the CNS.
Furthermore, it has been found herein that daily administration of Copolymer 1 to 5XFAD mice causes increase in the level of Treg cells in the spleen and has no beneficial effect on mental cognitive performance, while administration of Copolymer 1 on a weekly basis resulted in at least a transient decrease in the level of Treg cells in the spleen and marked improvement in mental cognitive performance (Example 18). It is therefore expected that the immunization that activates the choroid plexus, as reflected for example by the decreased ratio of Treg cells to IFN-γ producing Th1 cells relative to the ratio before immunization, will fade upon repeated immunization and the choroid plexus will become immunosuppressed as evidenced by an increased ratio. It is therefore important to ensure maintenance of the activation of the choroid plexus in order to provide continuing cell trafficking and accumulation of immune cells with a healing phenotype in the damaged or senescent CNS.
The combined findings of the present invention leads to the understanding that a regimen of administration of the active ingredient as defined herein can be established on an individual basis, i.e. a decision whether to repeat administration of the active ingredient can be reached based on the information gathered from monitoring one or more parameters reflecting the degree of immunosuppression and the Th1/Th2 balance in the choroid plexus in an individual being treated. The level of the immunosuppression measured in the individual can be compared with a reference that may be, but is not limited to, the level of immunosuppression in the individual before the last administration of the active ingredient, or it may be a predetermined reference based on the level of immunosuppression in a population of individuals in need of treatment according to the present invention that are responding well to the treatment, or the level of immunosuppression in a population of healthy individuals. In this respect, depending on the change in the level of immunosuppression and/or Th-phenotype relative to the reference, a decision can be made whether to repeat the administration of the active ingredient or wait and continue the monitoring.
Thus, in another aspect, the present invention provides a method for treating a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the CNS in a subject in need thereof having a certain level of immunosuppression in the circulation, said method comprising administering to the subject a therapeutically effective amount of an active ingredient selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient, wherein said administering is performed according to a regimen causing reduction of the level of said immunosuppression in the circulation of said subject relative to a reference, maintenance of said reduced level, and induction towards a Th1-type immune response, wherein said reduced level of immunosuppression and Th1-type immune response in the circulation indicates and ensures activation of the choroid plexus of said subject and thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid from the circulation to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury.
The invention further contemplates combining the administration of the agents in (i) to (iv) in the above described methods with administration of IFN-γ.
In one embodiment, the method comprises: (a) administering the active ingredient of (i), (ii) or (iii) to the subject in need; and (b) determining said regimen by: (i) monitoring immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 balance in the subject by measuring in a blood sample obtained from the subject, within a predetermined time-period following the administering, one or more parameters reflecting a degree of immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 balance in the choroid plexus in the subject; and (ii) comparing the one or more parameters measured in (b) (i) with the reference and determining whether the one or more parameters is different from the reference; and (c) deciding, based on the relation of the one or more parameters measured in (b) (i) to the reference, whether to repeat treatment and monitoring by repeating steps (a) and (b) or to continue monitoring by repeating only step (b).
In certain embodiments, the level of immunosuppression in the choroid plexus is reflected in the level of Treg cells in the circulation of the subject. This level is understood to undergo variations in response to events that affect the immune system. For example, disease may increase the level of Treg cells in the circulation and activation of the immune system by immunization may reduce the level of immunosuppression relative to the situation in disease. The level of Treg cells in the circulation may easily be measured by determining the level of CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ cells or CD4+CD25+ FoxP3− cells by conventional methods such as, but not limited to fluorescence activated cell sorting (FACS), flow cytometry or real-time PCR.
In certain embodiments, the Treg cells inhabiting the choroid plexus, the CNS or the circulation are CD4+CD25+FoxP3+ cells or CD4+CD25+ FoxP3− cells.
In certain embodiments, “the anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype” are IL-10 producing cells, such as activated M2-machrophages, CD4+CD25+Foxp3+ Treg cells or CD4+CD25+ FoxP3−Treg cells (see Example 17,
The terms “Th1/Th2 balance”, “Th-phenotype” and “Th1/Th2 status”, are used interchangeably herein, and refer to the predominant immune response or immune status in terms of Th1-type cells (characterized by production of cytokines typical for Th1 response, such as IFN-γ) or cytokine milieu (IFN-γ) or Th2-type cells (characterized by production of cytokines typical for Th2 response, such as IL-4) or cytokine milieu (IL-4). In addition to cytokine production profiles, there are a number of cell surface markers proposed to differentiate Th1 vs. Th2 subtypes. For example, Th1 cells express both components of IL-12 receptor chains (beta 1 and alpha. Only Th2 cells appear to express a fully functional IL-1 receptor, and ST2L/T1, a newly discovered IL-1 RI-like molecule, is found on Th2 cells only. Chemokine receptors CXCR3 and CCR5 are characteristic of Th1 cells, while CXCR4, CCR3, CCR4, CCR7 and CCR8 are associated with Th2 cells. CD30, a member of the TNF superfamily, is associated with Th2 cells.
The term “circulation” as used herein refers to the circulating immune system, i.e. the blood, spleen and lymph nodes. It is a well-known fact in the field of immunology that the cell population profile in the spleen is reflected in the cell population profile in the blood (Zhao et al., 2007). Furthermore, daily administration of the immune-modulating drug Copolymer 1 raises the level of Treg cells in the blood of the subjects receiving the daily injections (Lalive et al., 2011). It has also been shown by the inventors of the present invention that daily administration of Copolymer 1 to mice raises the level of Treg cells in the spleen of the mice receiving the daily injections (Example 18). Therefore, data showing changes in the immune cell population in the spleen in response to immunization or disease reflect the changes occurring in the immune cell population in the blood, which in turn indicates the changes taking place in the choroid plexus.
In one embodiment, the parameter measured in a blood sample from the subject is: (i) a ratio of CD4+ Treg cells to CD4+ effector T cells; (ii) a level of CD4+ Treg cells; (iii) a level of IFN-γ producing CD4+ cells; (iv) a ratio of CD4+ Treg cells to IFN-γ producing CD4+ T cells; (v) a proliferative response of peripheral mononuclear cells to a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; or (vi) any combination of (i), (ii), (iii), (iv) and (v).
The effector T cells measured are CD4+ cells that may be T-Bet+ thus producing IFN-γ or they may be T-Bet− that do not produce IFN-γ.
The IFN-γ producing CD4+ cells may be CNS-specific as it has been shown in accordance with the present invention that the CD4+ cells at the choroid plexus are predominantly CNS-specific (Example 2,
As mentioned above, the parameter indicating a Th1-type immune response may be a predominating level of IFN-γ producing CD4+ cells, while the parameter indicating a Th2-type immune response may be a predominating level of IL-4 producing CD4+ cells.
In one embodiment, the reference is selected from the group consisting of (a) a parameter measured in the most recent blood sample obtained from said subject before said administering, said parameter indicating a degree of immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 status in the choroid plexus in said subject. In certain cases, the reference is the parameter measured before initiation of treatment of the subject, i.e. a base-line degree of immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 status in the subject that is in need of treatment and before the treatment starts; (b) a parameter indicating the degree of immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 status in the choroid plexus characteristic of a population of subjects afflicted with a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the CNS responding well to said administering, wherein said parameter is measured in blood samples obtained from said subjects; or (c) a parameter indicating the degree of immunosuppression and/or Th1/Th2 status in the choroid plexus characteristic of a population of healthy subjects, wherein said parameter is measured in blood samples obtained from said subjects. In particular, the reference is measured in a blood sample obtained from said subject before said administering in (a).
The monitoring is thus used to determine whether treatment and monitoring should be repeated or only monitoring should be continued/repeated. For example, but limited thereby, if the reference is the base-line level of ratio of Treg to effector T cells of the subject in need of treatment before treatment has been initiated (measured at the first instance of monitoring), and the subject has been administered the active ingredient once (the first administration), then treatment and monitoring will be repeated if the parameter measured at the second instant of monitoring (measured after the first administering of the active ingredient) is similar to or higher than the base-line reference. The subsequent monitoring will compare the parameter measured after the second administration of the active ingredient with the last parameter measured, which is now the new reference. This cycle is repeated until the treatment is discontinued. If the parameter measured after the first administration, on the other hand, is lower than this base-line reference, then the subject will not receive an additional dose of the active ingredient but will only be monitored a second time, and then a new decision is made. In this case, the subsequent monitoring will compare the parameter with the base-line reference. It is also contemplated that the subsequent monitoring will compare the parameter measured at the second monitoring with the parameter measured at the previous monitoring (that was made without treatment), which is now the new reference. The aim is to keep the parameter below the base-line reference.
If the reference used is a parameter indicating the degree of immunosuppression/Th-phenotype in the choroid plexus characteristic of a population of subjects afflicted with a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the CNS responding well to said administering, wherein said parameter is measured in blood samples obtained from said subjects; or a parameter indicating the degree of immunosuppression, Th-phenotype, or both, in the choroid plexus characteristic of a population of healthy subjects, wherein said parameter is measured in blood samples obtained from said subjects, then treatment and monitoring will be repeated if the parameter measured subsequent to treatment in a blood sample obtained from the subject in need of treatment is above said reference. If, on the other hand, the parameter measured after administration of the active ingredient to the subject is equal to or lower than this reference, then only monitoring is repeated and no administration of the active ingredient is performed.
In certain embodiments, the parameter measured is the ratio of Treg cells to effector CD4+ T cells in a blood sample obtained from said subject, said reference is the most recent ratio measured in said subject before said administering the active ingredient, and (i) said treatment and monitoring is repeated when the ratio is substantially similar to or higher than the reference; or (ii) said monitoring is repeated when the parameter is lower than the reference value.
In certain embodiments, the predetermined time-period between monitoring and administration of the active ingredient is between 1 and 16 weeks. In particular, the predetermined time-period may be 2, 3, 4, 5 or six days; or 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 15 or 16 weeks.
The term “substantially similar” as used herein refers to a difference between two values that is not larger than 5% of larger value or a difference that is not statistically significant when analyzed using accepted statistical methods (for example, but not limited to, Student's t-test, with α=0.05).
It has also been found in accordance with the present invention that injection of CpG into normal healthy mice resulted in that the choroid plexus upregulated both genes that are required for immune cell trafficking in this compartment (IFNgR, ICAM-1, MadCAM-1) and neurotropic factors needed for central nervous system (CNS) repair (IGF-1, BDNF). Injection of CpG to animals 1 day before performing spinal cord injury (SCI) resulted in that CpG significantly upregulated both trafficking and neurotropic molecules. Thus, the Th1 adjuvant augments the choroid plexus's ability to let beneficial Th1 type CD4+ T cells and other anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid pass through and enter the CNS parenchyma, home to the injured site and assist in the healing of the injured tissue.
Thus, in certain embodiments, the Th1 adjuvant comprises an agonist of TLR3, 4, 5, 7, 8 or 9; or an antagonist of TLR2 or neutralizing antibody directed to TLR2. For example, the TLR agonist may be an agonist of TLR9, such as a CpG or stabilized immune modulatory RNA (SIMRA). In particular, as shown below in the Examples, the CpG may be of class B, for example ODN1826. The Th1 adjuvant of the present invention may also be a CpG in combination with a cationic peptide of the sequence KLKL5KLK (SEQ ID NO: 2). The TLR agonist may be an agonistic antibody, i.e. an antibody that binds to and activates the TLR.
The terms “CpG”, “CpG oligodeoxynucleotides” and “CpG ODN” are used interchangeably herein and refer to short single-stranded synthetic DNA molecules that contain a cytosine triphosphate deoxynucleotide (“C)” followed by a guanine triphosphate deoxynucleotide (“G”). The “p” refers to the phosphodiester link between consecutive nucleotides, although some ODN have a modified phosphorothioate (PS) backbone instead.
The TLR3 agonists may be selected from e.g. double-stranded RNA (dsRNA), a molecular pattern associated with viral infection, or a synthetic analog thereof, such as polyinosine-polycytidylic acid (poly(I:C)).
The agonist of TLR 4 may be MPL (3-O-desacyl-4′-monophosphoryl lipid) optionally in combination with alum (A504).
The TLRS agonist may be flagellin, e.g. flagellin purified from B. subtilis (Gram+) or S. typhimurium (Gram-) bacteria.
The TLR 7/8 agonist may be a single stranded RNA or a small synthetic molecule such as imidazoquinoline or a nucleoside analog, e.g. Gardiquimod, Imiquimod and R848 (resiquimod).
In certain embodiments, the Th1 adjuvant comprises a combination of an agonist of TLR 3 with an agonist of TLR 8, or a combination of an agonist of TLR 4 with an agonist of TLR 8. In addition, the Th1 adjuvant of the present invention may be an agonist of retinoic acid inducible gene I (RIGI) or an agonist of dectin-1.
The term “central nervous system (CNS)-specific antigen” as used herein refers to an antigen of the central nervous system that specifically activates T cells such that following activation the activated T cells accumulate at a site of injury or disease in the CNS of a patient, or at the choroid plexus. The CNS-specific antigens and analogs thereof, the peptides derived from CNS-specific antigens or from analogs thereof, and analogs or derivatives of said peptides, include, but are not limited to, the agents described in U.S. Pat. No. 7,560,102 and PCT Publications WO 99/60021 and WO 02/055010 of the applicant, all these applications being herewith incorporated by reference as if fully disclosed herein.
In certain embodiments, the active ingredient is a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent from a CNS-specific antigen of mammal, preferably human, origin, selected from the group consisting of myelin basic protein (MBP; SEQ ID NO: 3); myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG; SEQ ID NO: 5); proteolipid protein (PLP; SEQ ID NO: 4); myelin-associated glycoprotein (MAG); S-100; β-amyloid; Thy-1; a peripheral myelin protein including P0, P2 and PMP22; neurotransmitter receptors including acetylcholine receptor; and the protein Nogo including Nogo-A, Nogo-B and Nogo-C and the Nogo receptor.
As mentioned above, the induction of monophasic EAE in wild type mice with a MOG peptide activates the choroid plexus, as indicated by the increase in infiltrating T cells in the CSF (Example 15), and to the ventral horn gray matter, the area where motor neurons reside (Example 16), relative to naïve or ovalbumin (OVA)-immunized mice.
Thus, in certain embodiments, the active ingredient is a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide. The peptide may be an immunogenic epitope or a cryptic epitope derived from said CNS-specific antigen. As used herein, the term “a peptide derived from an CNS-specific antigen” relates to a peptide that has a sequence comprised within the CNS-antigen sequence. For example, the peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen may be selected from MBP11-30, MBP51-70, MBP83-99, MBP87-99, MBP91-110, MBP131-150, MBP151-170 or MBP84-104, MOG35-55 or MOG92-106, or PLP139-151, or PLP178-191.
In certain embodiments, the peptide is MOG35-55.
In a further embodiment, the agent is an analog of a CNS-specific antigen peptide obtained by modification of a self-peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen, which modification consists in the replacement of one or more amino acid residues of the self-peptide by different amino acid residues or by deletion or addition of one or more amino acid residues, said modified CNS peptide still being capable of recognizing the T-cell receptor recognized by the self-peptide but with less affinity (hereinafter “modified CNS peptide”, “altered peptide” or “analog of CNS-specific peptide”).
Furthermore, the invention also comprises chemical derivatives of the peptides of the invention including, but not being limited to, esters of both carboxylic and hydroxy groups, amides, and the like.
The modified CNS peptide may be immunogenic but not encephalitogenic. The most suitable peptides for this purpose are those in which an encephalitogenic self-peptide is modified at the T cell receptor (TCR) binding site and not at the MHC binding site(s), so that the immune response is activated but not anergized. The invention also encompasses peptides derived from any encephalitogenic epitopes in which critical amino acids in their TCR binding site but not MHC binding site are altered as long as they are non-encephalitogenic and still recognize the T-cell receptor.
In one embodiment, the modified peptide is derived from the residues 86 to 99 of human MBP by alteration of positions 91, 95 or 97 as disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,948,764. In another embodiment, the modified peptide is a peptide disclosed in WO 02/055010, derived from the residues 87-99 of human MBP, in which the lysine residue 91 is replaced by glycine (G91) or alanine (A91), or the proline residue 96 is replaced by alanine (A96), or the serine residue 45 of the peptide MOG35-55 is replaced with aspartic acid (MOG-45D). A further possibility is that the modified peptide is an analog of the peptide 95-117 of PLP.
In certain embodiments, the modified CNS-peptide is selected from the peptides MBP87-99 (G91), MBP87-99 (A91), MBP87-99 (A96) and MOG35-55 (D45).
In certain embodiments, the Th1 adjuvant is a CpG. In other embodiments, the active ingredient comprises the peptide MOG35-55 and the Th1 adjuvant CpG.
It is a well-established fact in the field of immunology that active and passive immunization, wherein an antigen or antigen-specific immune-cells are administered, respectively, results in the same kind of immune response. For example, active immunization of a mammal with the CNS-specific antigenic peptide MOG35-55 will induce a similar response as the immunization with MOG35-55-specific T cells.
In some embodiments, the active ingredient is a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells generated by ex vivo expansion of T cells in the presence of a CNS-specific antigen; or CNS-reactive T cells generated by expansion of T cells in the presence of a CNS-specific antigen and activated towards a Th1 phenotype ex vivo, as a sole active ingredient.
The CD4+ T cells of Th1 phenotype may be generated by contacting the CD4+ T cells with CNS-specific activated antigen-present cells, IFN-γ or other relevant cytokines or relevant TLR agonists or antagonists.
In certain embodiments, the CD4+ T cells administered to the subject in need thereof are syngeneic or autologous.
The induction of homeostatic-driven proliferation of T cells can be accomplished by irradiation and bone marrow transplantation or administration of chemotherapeutic drugs such as alkylating agents, antimetabolites, anthracyclines, plant alkaloids, or topoisomerase inhibitors.
The term non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant as used herein refers to an adjuvant that stimulates the immune system and directs the differentiation of the immune cells towards the Th1 phenotype, but excluding the Th17 phenotype. Thus, this agent stimulates the cellular immune response without causing encephalitis. As the use of this term is somewhat unorthodox, and since the term actually refers to the adjuvant's encephalitogenic activity only when given in combination with a CNS-specific antigen, the term is used interchangeably herein with the term “a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from . . . .” The agent may be a CNS specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide, or CNS-reactive T cells. The term “weakly encephalitogenic” refers to encephalitogenic activity that causes monophasic encephalomyelitis, i.e. transient encephalitis that spontaneously resolves, or that causes weakly symptomatic disease as measured by time of onset or mean maximum disease score. An agent may easily be shown to be weakly encephalitogenic by showing that the induced encephalomyelitis is monophasic, or by measuring time of onset or mean maximum disease score by using methods well known in the art (e.g. Oliver et al., 2003). In mice for example, time of onset may be assessed by comparing the time of onset of EAE caused by the agent suspected as “weakly encephalitogenic” with the time of onset of EAE caused by agents known to be highly encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic and showing that the time of onset is after that of the highly encephalitogenic agent and approximately simultaneously with that of the weakly encephalitogenic agent. For example, a weakly encephalitogenic agent may cause the onset of EAE to occur on day 18 on average with a range of 11 to 28 days after initial immunization with the agent. Furthermore, the mean maximum disease score of the allegedly weakly encephalitogenic agent can similarly be assessed by comparing it with mean maximum disease score of known highly encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic agents and showing that the mean maximum disease score of the allegedly weakly encephalitogenic agent is lower than that of the known highly encephalitogenic agent and similar to the known weakly encephalitogenic agent. Thus, the mean maximum disease score of the allegedly weakly encephalitogenic agent may be around 1.7 with a range of 0.5-2.5.
As mentioned above, it has been found in accordance with the present invention that re-establishment of a Th1/Th2 phenotype typical for young animals at the choroid plexus by injection of a non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant (in this case CpG) into aging healthy animals improves their cognitive abilities. It has also been found herein that administration of CpG augments the immune system's natural capability of treating injury and neurodegeneration in the CNS by upregulating both trafficking and neurotropic molecule at the choroid plexus and thus increasing leukocyte recruitment to the injured spinal cord or neurodegenerative brain in ALS. It seems as if the neurodegenerative disease is not capable in itself of activating the choroid plexus and therefore a therapeutic window of opportunity exists that can be realized by the administration of a non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant such as CpG that efficiently activates the choroid plexus and facilitates access of beneficial immune cells to the diseased CNS.
It has further been found, in accordance with the present invention, that vaccinating mSOD1 mice with the NS-specific antigen MOG35-55 causes elevation in the number of regulatory T cells in the spinal cord of the treated mice relative to untreated mice. Further, these mice had a longer life span compared to untreated mice (Example 17).
The vaccination with the NS-specific antigen elicited a Th1 immune response that induced the expression of trafficking molecules by the CP (Example 17) enabling infiltration of leukocytes to the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF), and initiated an active programmed immune response that began with inflammation, and was followed by an anti-inflammatory resolution process. This response was manifested by transient symptoms of encephalomyelitis that were correlated spatially and temporally with an increase in regulatory T cells in the spinal cord of the immunized mSOD1 mice, leading to a significant increase in survival of these mice compared with unimmunized mSOD1 mice.
Thus, in certain embodiments, the method of the present invention is beneficial for treating a disease, disorder or condition of the CNS selected from the group consisting of a neurodegenerative disease, disorder or condition selected from the group consisting of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease and Huntington's disease; primary progressive multiple sclerosis; secondary progressive multiple sclerosis; a retinal degeneration disorder selected from the group consisting of age-related macular degeneration and retinitis pigmentosa; anterior ischemic optic neuropathy; glaucoma; uveitis; depression; stress; and Rett syndrome. In particular, the present invention is beneficial for amyotrophic lateral sclerosis. The method of the present invention may also increase the life span of a subject with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis
In certain embodiments, the method of the present invention is useful for treating an injury of the CNS selected from spinal cord injury, closed head injury, blunt trauma, penetrating trauma, hemorrhagic stroke, ischemic stroke, cerebral ischemia, optic nerve injury, myocardial infarction, organophosphate poisoning and injury caused by tumor excision.
In certain embodiments, the method of the present invention is beneficial for improving CNS motor and/or cognitive function, for example for alleviating age-associate loss of cognitive function, either in diseased subjects or subjects free of a diagnosed disease. The method is also efficacious for alleviating loss of cognitive function resulting from acute stress.
In certain embodiments, the cognitive function is learning, memory or both. In other embodiments, the memory is hippocampal-dependent memory, explicit memory, episodic free recall, recollection of source of remembered fact, memory of details of context in which an event occurred, or working memory.
The method of the present invention is also useful for inhibiting neuronal degeneration in the central nervous system (CNS), protecting neurons from glutamate toxicity or promoting nerve regeneration in nerve tissue damaged by injury to the CNS or by a disease, disorder or condition of the CNS.
In certain embodiments, the nerve regeneration is associated with hippocampal plasticity.
The term “CNS function” as used herein refers to CNS motor functions, such as controlling motor function and auditory and visual responses, maintaining balance and equilibrium, movement coordination, the conduction of sensory information and controlling such autonomic functions as breathing, heart rate, and digestion, and to CNS cognitive functions, inter alia, receiving and processing sensory information, thinking, learning, memorizing, perceiving, producing and understanding language.
In another aspect, the present invention provides a vaccine for use in a method of therapeutic immunization of a mammal comprising an active ingredient selected from (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said non-encephalitogenic Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, wherein the vaccine is to be administered according to a regimen to thereby confer reduction of the level of immunosuppression in the circulation of said mammal relative to a reference, and maintenance of said level, wherein said reduced level of immunosuppression in the circulation reflects, i.e. indicates or corresponds to, activation of the choroid plexus of said mammal and maintenance of said activation thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by disease, disorder, condition or injury.
In still another aspect, the present invention provides a vaccine for use in a method of therapeutic immunization of a mammal comprising an active ingredient selected from: (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient provided that when said subject is afflicted with Alzheimer's disease, said Th1 adjuvant is not CpG, wherein the vaccine is to be administered according to a regimen to thereby confer reduction of the level of immunosuppression in the circulation of said mammal relative to a reference, maintenance of said level, and induction towards a Th1-type immune response, wherein said reduced level of immunosuppression and Th1-type immune response in the circulation indicates and ensures activation of the choroid plexus of said mammal and maintenance of said activation thus allowing either anti-inflammatory immune cells or immune cells which acquire a healing phenotype at the cerebrospinal fluid to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by disease, disorder, condition or injury.
In an additional aspect, the present invention relates to a pharmaceutical composition comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a combination of agents selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) IFN-γ and a Th1 adjuvant; (iv) a combination of (i) with IFN-γ; and (v) a combination of (ii) with IFN-γ.
The present invention further contemplates methods for determining a need for administration of an active ingredient to a subject in need of treatment of a disease, disorder, condition or injury of the CNS by activating the choroid plexus of said subject and maintaining activation thereof by reducing immune-suppression and establishing Th1-type immune response at the choroid plexus, thereby allowing Treg cells and macrophages to pass through the choroid plexus and accumulate at a site of damage in the CNS caused by said disease, disorder, condition or injury, wherein said active ingredient is selected from the group consisting of (i) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and an agent selected from a CNS-specific antigen, a peptide derived from a CNS-specific antigen or from an analog thereof, or an analog or derivative of said peptide; (ii) a non-encephalitogenic or weakly encephalitogenic combination of a Th1 adjuvant and CNS-reactive T cells; (iii) CNS-reactive T cells having a Th1 phenotype as sole active ingredient; or (iv) a Th1 adjuvant as a sole active ingredient, the method comprises determining said need for administration by: (i) monitoring immunosuppression and/or Th-phenotype in the subject by measuring in a blood sample obtained from the subject, within a predetermined time-period following the administering, one or more parameters reflecting a degree of immunosuppression and Th1/Th2 balance in the choroid plexus in the subject; and (ii) comparing the parameter measured with the reference and determining whether the parameter is different from the reference; and (c) deciding, based on the relation of the parameter measured in (i) to the reference, whether to repeat treatment and monitoring or whether to only continue monitoring (without further administering of the active ingredient).
The term “treating” as used herein refers to means of obtaining a desired physiological effect. The effect may be therapeutic in terms of partially or completely curing a disease and/or symptoms attributed to the disease. The term refers to inhibiting the disease, i.e. arresting its development; or ameliorating the disease, i.e. causing regression of the disease.
Methods of administration include, but are not limited to, parenteral, e.g., intravenous, intraperitoneal, intramuscular, subcutaneous, mucosal (e.g., oral, intranasal, buccal, vaginal, rectal, intraocular), intrathecal, topical and intradermal routes. Administration can be systemic or local.
The term “carrier” refers to a diluent, adjuvant, excipient, or vehicle with which the active agent is administered. The carriers in the pharmaceutical composition may comprise a binder, such as microcrystalline cellulose, polyvinylpyrrolidone (polyvidone or povidone), gum tragacanth, gelatin, starch, lactose or lactose monohydrate; a disintegrating agent, such as alginic acid, maize starch and the like; a lubricant or surfactant, such as magnesium stearate, or sodium lauryl sulphate; and a glidant, such as colloidal silicon dioxide.
The determination of the doses of the active ingredient to be used for human use is based on commonly used practices in the art, and will be finally determined by physicians in clinical trials. An expected approximate equivalent dose for administration to a human can be calculated based on the in vivo experimental evidence disclosed herein below, using known formulas (e.g. Reagan-Show et al. (2007) Dose translation from animal to human studies revisited. The FASEB Journal 22:659-661). According to this paradigm, the adult human equivalent dose (mg/kg body weight) equals a dose given to a mouse (mg/kg body weight) multiplied with 0.081.
The invention will now be illustrated by the following non-limiting examples.
Animals.
Inbred male 3 month old C57BL/6 mice were supplied by the Animal Breeding Center of the Weizmann Institute of Science. Inbred male 17-24 months old C57BL/6 mice were supplied by the National Institute on Aging (NIA; Baltimore, Md.). IFNγR1-KO mice on the B6 background were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me.). Aged mice were allowed a 1-month adaptation period following shipment from the NIA to our laboratory. The cages were placed in a light- and temperature-controlled room, and all behavioural tests were conducted during the dark hours. All animals were handled according to the regulations formulated by the Weizmann Institute's Animal Care and Use Committee, and maintained in a pathogen free environment.
Adult male and female wild-type (WT) and CX3CR1GFP/+ mice on a C57BL/6J background, and IL-4-IRES-eGFP reporter mouse model on a NOD background were supplied by Harlan Biotech (Jerusalem, Israel), and the Animal Breeding Center of The Weizmann Institute of Science. IFN-γR1-KO mice on a C57BL/6J background were purchased from the Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me.). All experiments conformed to the regulations formulated by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Preparation of Bone Marrow Chimeras.
Bone marrow (BM) chimeras were prepared by subjecting gender-matched recipient mice to lethal whole-body γ-irradiation (950 rad) while shielding the head. The mice were then reconstituted with 5×106 BM cells. In this method, 70% chimerism is achieved. In order to attain full chimerism (99%), mice were subjected to a split-dose irradiation, with sub-lethal whole-body γ-irradiation (300 rad) without head shielding 3 days prior to the lethal (950 rad) irradiation. Chimeric mice were used 6-10 weeks after BM transplantation.
Adult male and female wild-type (WT) and mSOD1G93A (mSOD1) mice on a C57BL/6J background were supplied by Harlan Biotech (Jerusalem, Israel), and the Animal Breeding Center of The Weizmann Institute of Science. All experiments conformed to the regulations formulated by the Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee of the Weizmann Institute of Science.
Flow Cytometric Cell Sample Preparation and Analysis.
Prior to tissue collection, mice were intracardially perfused with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), and their blood was collected into heparin-containing tubes. Spleens were mashed with the plunger of a syringe and treated with ACK lysing buffer to remove erythrocytes. Choroid plexus tissues were isolated from the lateral, third and fourth ventricles of the brain, incubated at 37° C. for 45 minutes in PBS (with Ca2+/Mg2+) containing 400u/ml collagenase type IV (Worthington Biochemical Corporation), and then manually homogenised by pipetation. Lymph nodes were mashed with the plunger of a syringe. Spinal cords were homogenized using a software controlled sealed homogenization system (Dispomix; http://www.biocellisolation.com) followed by separation on a 40% Percoll (GE Healthcare, Sweden) gradient to eliminate residual fat tissue. All samples were stained according to the antibody manufacturers' protocols.
For intracellular staining of IFN-γ or IL-17, the cells were incubated with PMA (10 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) and ionomycin (250 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) for 6 h, and Brefeldin-A (10 pg/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) was added for the last 4 h. Intracellular labeling of cytokines was done with BD Cytofix/Cytoperm Plus Fixation/Permeabilization kit (cat. no. 555028) according to the manufacturer's protocol. Intracellular staining of FoxP3 was performed using the FoxP3 staining kit (eBioscience) according to the manufacturer's protocol. The following fluorochrome-labeled mAbs were used according to the manufacturers' protocols: FITC-conjugated anti-TCRβ, FITC-conjugated anti-CD44, PE-conjugated anti-CD4, PE-conjugated anti-IL-17A, APC-conjugated anti-IFN-γ, FITC-conjugated anti-CD45.2, Alexa-700-conjugated anti-CD45.2, Percp-Cy5.5-conjugated anti-TCRβ (all from BioLegend), and APC-conjugated anti-FoxP3 (eBioscience). Flow cytometry analysis was performed on each sample using a BD Biosciences LSRII flow cytometer, and the acquired data were analyzed using FlowJo software (Tree star). In each experiment, relevant negative control groups and single stained samples for each tissue were used to determine the populations of interest and to exclude others.
Active Immunization and Cell Isolation.
Mice were immunized subcutaneously at their flanks with either spinal cord homogenate (SCH) or ovalbumin (OVA), each emulsified in an equal volume of CFA containing 2 mg/ml M. tuberculosis. SCH was prepared by manually homogenizing the spinal cord of young C57BL/6 mice in PBS. Mice were intracardially perfused with PBS 7 days after immunization, and their spleens, bone marrow and choroid plexus (CP) were extracted and processed to single cell suspensions as described above. CD4+ cells were isolated by magnetic depletion of CD4+ T cells on a MACS column (Milteney Biotec), according to the manufacturer's protocol.
Active Immunizations with MOG Peptide and Evaluation of EAE Clinical Signs.
200 μg of either MOG35-55 (amino acid sequence—MEVGWYRSPFSRVVHLYRNGK; SEQ ID NO: 1) or ovalbumin peptides323-339 (GL Biochem (Shanghai) Ltd.) were emulsified in incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing 0.5 mg/ml M. tuberculosis (strain H37Ra; BD Diagnostics) and 200 μl were injected subcutaneously to the mice. To induce chronic EAE, mice were subcutaneously injected with 200 μg (300 μl) of MOG35-55 (GL Biochem (Shanghai) Ltd.) in incomplete Freund's adjuvant containing 2.5 mg/ml M. tuberculosis (strain H37Ra; BD Diagnostics). Pertussis toxin (300 ng; Sigma-Aldrich) was injected on the day of the immunization and again 2 days later. Clinical signs were evaluated in a blinded fashion by at least 2 investigators and recorded daily (0, healthy; 1, limb tail paralysis; 2, ataxia and/or paresis of hind limbs; 3, paralysis of hind limbs and/or paresis of forelimbs; 4, tetraparalysis; 5, moribund state or death).
Csf Collection.
CSF was collected by the cisterna magna puncture technique. In brief, mice were anesthetized and placed on a stereotactic instrument so that the head formed a 135° angle with the body. A sagittal incision of the skin was made inferior to the occiput and the subcutaneous tissue and muscle were separated, and a capillary was inserted into the cisterna magna through the dura matter lateral to the arteria dorsalis spinalis. Approximately 15 μl CSF could be aspirated from an individual mouse. The collected CSF was taken for analysis by flow cytometry.
cDNA library preparation for TCRβ sequencing. Total RNA was extracted from CD4+ T-cells, derived from naïve spleen and choroid plexus tissues of C57BL/6 mice, as well as from spleens of OVA-immunized and SCH-immunized mice. RNA was extracted using RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen) and reverse transcribed with SuperScript™ II reverse transcriptase (Invitrogen), using a primer specific for the TCRβ constant region, linked to the Solexa 3′ adapter (Cβ-3′adp). cDNA was then used as template for high fidelity PCR amplification (Phusion, Finnzymes) using a pool of 23 Vβ-specific primers, divided into five primer groups, to minimize potential for cross hybridization. Each Vβ primer was linked to a restriction site sequence for the ACUI restriction enzyme (NEB). PCR reactions were performed in duplicates, and PCR products were then pooled and cleaned using QIAquick PCR purification kit (Qiagen), followed by enzymatic digestion, in accordance with the ACUI protocol (NEB). The ACUI enzyme was used to cleave the 14 bp downstream of its binding site, enabling positioning of the Illumina sequencing primer in close proximity to the junction region and assuring sequencing of the entire variable CDR3 region. Digestion produced a 2 bp overhang for the ligation of the Illumina 5′ adapter, which was linked to a 3 bp barcode sequence at its 3′ end. Overnight ligation was performed using the T4 ligase (Fermetas) at 16° C. in accordance with the manufacturer's protocol. A second round of PCR amplification was performed (24 cycles), using primers for the 5′ and 3′ Illumina adapters. Final PCR products were run on a agarose gel (2%) and purified using the Wizard SV Gel and PCR clean-up System (Promega). Final library concentrations were measured using a nanodrop spectrophotometer. The libraries were sequenced using the Illumina instrument (Genome Analyzer II).
Computational Analysis of the TCRβ Sequencing Data.
For preprocessing of the data, we used the Smith-Waterman alignment algorithm (Smith T F & Waterman M S (1981)) to assign to each sequencing read its variable (Vβ) and joining (Jβ) gene, using germline Vβ/Jβ gene segment sequences downloaded from the IMGT database (Lefranc M P, et al. (2009)). Reads that were not assigned either a Vβ or Jβ, and other erroneous reads were eliminated. We then clustered the library-derived reads using a version of the quality threshold clustering algorithm (Heyer L J et al. (1999)), in order to correct for nucleotide copying errors (up to 2 errors for each read). The clustering procedure identified unique CDR3β clonotypes—defined as the most prevalent read found in each cluster. The clonotype sequences were then translated, and those clonotypes that lacked a stop codon in frame with the V/D/J sequences were considered for further analysis. This analysis computed statistics of V/D/J usage, statistical properties of the number of deletions and insertions of nucleotides at both VD and DJ junctions, as well as distributions of CDR3 lengths. The analysis was done using the R statistical software package (R Development Core Team, R). Frequencies of Vβ and Jβ segment usage were measured for all samples in each treatment group. Correlation coefficients were calculated, based on the sample mean of combined Vβ and Jβ usage in each group, using the data analysis program MATLAB™ (Mathworks, Natick, Mass.). Hierarchical clustering was performed, based on combined Vβ and Jβ usage, in all groups (clustergram, MATLAB™).
Primary Culture of Choroid Plexus Cells.
Mice were perfused from the left ventricle of the heart with PBS, and their CPs were removed under a dissecting microscope (Stemi DV4; Zeiss) in PBS into tubes containing 0.25% trypsin, and kept on ice. The tubes were shaken for 20 minutes at 37° C. and the tissue was dissociated by pipetting. The cell suspension was washed in culture medium for epithelial cells (DMEM/HAM's F12 (Invitrogen Corp)) supplemented with 10% FCS (Sigma-Aldrich), 1 mM 1-glutamine, 1 mM sodium pyruvate, 100 U/ml penicillin, 100 mg/ml streptomycin, 5 μg/ml Insulin, 20 μM Ara-C, 5 ng/ml sodium selenite, 10 ng/ml EGF, and cultured (˜250,000 cells/well) at 37° C., 5% CO2 in 24-well plates (Corning Incorporated) coated with poly-L-lysine (PLL; Sigma-Aldrich). After 24 hours, the medium was changed, and the cells were either left untreated, or treated with the indicated cytokines (all purchased from PeproTech): IFN-γ, IL-4, IL-10, IL-17A, GM-CSF, IL-6, IL-1β or TNF-α or their combinations for 24 h. Cell viability was quantified by Trypan blue staining after detachment of the cells with 0.25% trypsin for 10 minutes at 37° C. Neutralizing antibodies to TNF-R1 or TNF-R2 (20m/ml, BioLegend) were added 1 h prior to the addition of TNF-α (100 ng/ml). RNA was isolated using the ZR RNA microprep kit (Zymo Research) according to the manufacturer's protocol.
Transepithelial Migration Assay.
For transepithelial migration assay, CP cells were isolated as above and plated on 5-μm pore size, 6.5 mm diameter polycarbonate filters in 24-well Transwell chambers (Costar, Corning) and grown for 7 days. The medium of the upper chamber was then replaced with 100 μl of freshly isolated CD115+ monocytes (1.5×106 cells/ml in RPMI 1640 supplemented with 0.5% BSA) and the inserts were transferred to new wells containing RPMI 1640 supplemented with 0.5% BSA and 100 ng/ml CCL2 (PeproTech). The Transwells were then incubated at 37° C., 5% CO2. After 24 h the migrating cells at the lower chamber were removed using cell scraper and CD11b+ cells were quantified by flow cytometry.
Immunohistochemistry and Immunocytochemistry.
For whole mount staining of the choroid plexus, isolated tissues were fixed with 2.5% paraformaldehyde (PFA) for several hours, and subsequently transferred to PBS containing 0.05% sodium azide. Prior to staining, the dissected tissues were washed and blocked (20% horse serum, 0.3% Triton X-100, and PBS) for 1 h at room temperature with shaking. Whole mount staining with primary (in PBS containing 2% horse serum and 0.3% Triton X-100) and secondary antibodies (in PBS), was performed for 1h at room temperature, with shaking. Each step was followed by three washes in PBS. The tissues were mounted onto slides, using Immu-mount (9990402, from Thermo), and sealed with cover-slips. For staining of sectioned brains, two different tissue preparation protocols (paraffin embedded and microtomed frozen sections) were applied, as previously described (Ziv Y et al (2006b)). For immunocytochemistry, CP cells were isolated as described above and were grown on PLL coated cover slips for 7 days, replacing the medium every 3 days. Cytokines were added for the last 3 days of culture. Following 7 days of culture, the wells were washed with PBS and the cells were fixed either with 2.5% paraformaldehyde for 30 min or methanol-acetone (1:1) for 10 min at −20° C., following by 2 washing steps with PBS. For CCL11 staining, cells were treated with Brefeldin-A 2 hours prior to fixation in order to arrest protein secretion. The cover slips of the cultured CP cells were incubated with the indicated antibodies and mounted with Glycerol Vinyl Alcohol (GVA) mounting solution (Invitrogen). The following primary antibodies were used: rat anti-CD3 (Abcam); rat anti-ICAM-1 (1:100; Abcam), chicken anti-vimentin (1:500, Millipore), rabbit anti-Iba1 (1:300; Wako), goat anti-IL-10 (1:20; R&D), mouse anti-MHC-II (Abcam); mouse anti-Arginase-1 (BD Biosciences); mouse anti-Cytokeratin (Covance); rat anti-CCL11 (R&D Systems); rabbit anti-ZO-1 (Invitrogen); and rabbit anti-Claudin-1 (Invitrogen). Secondary antibodies included: Cy2/Cy3-conjugated donkey anti-rat, mouse or rabbit antibody and Cy3 conjugated donkey anti-mouse, goat, rat, chicken or rabbit (1:200; all from Jackson Immuno Research). The slides were exposed to Hoechst stain (1:2000; Invitrogen) for 1 min. Two negative controls were routinely used in immunostaining procedures, staining with isotype control antibody followed by secondary antibody, and staining with secondary antibody alone. For morphological quantification, average cross-sectional area of epithelial cells was measured following Nissl staining. Cell borders (20-25 cells per picture) were marked and the area was quantified using Image-Pro Plus software in a blinded fashion.
Mutiplex Cytokine Analysis System.
CP were isolated from lateral, 3rd and 4th ventricles and pooled in groups of four, due to the limited amount of protein extracted from a single CP. The excised tissues were homogenized in PBS containing protease inhibitors (1:100; P8340, Sigma). Four freeze-thaw cycles (3 minutes each) were performed to break the cell membranes. Homogenates were then centrifuged for 10 min at 500 g, and the total protein quantities in supernatants were determined by Bradford reagent. Frozen supernatants were assayed in duplicate using Multiplex bead-based Luminex Assay (MILLIPLEX mouse cytokine/chemokine panel; Millipore), performed by outsourcing (American Medical Laboratories) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Results are expressed as picograms of protein per milligram of total tissue protein.
RNA Purification, cDNA Synthesis and Real-Time Quantitative PCR.
Total RNA of the hippocampus was extracted with TRI reagent (MRC, Cincinnati, Ohio) and was purified from the lysates and spinal cord using the RNeasy kit (Qiagen, Hilden, Germany). Total RNA of the choroid plexus was extracted using the RNA MicroPrep kit (Zymo Research). mRNA (1 μg) was converted to cDNA using High Capacity cDNA Reverse Transcription Kit (Applied Biosystems). The expression of specific mRNAs was assayed using fluorescence based real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). qPCR reactions were performed using Power SYBR Green PCR Master Mix (Applied Biosystems). Quantification reactions were performed in triplicates for each sample using the standard curve method. Glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate dehydrogenase (GAPDH), Peptidylprolyl isomerase A (PPIA), and hypoxanthine guanine phosphoribosyltransferase (HPRT) were chosen as reference genes according to their stability in the target tissue. The amplification cycles were 95° C. for 5 sec, 60° C. for 20 sec, and 72° C. for 15 sec. At the end of the assay, a melting curve was constructed to evaluate the specificity of the reaction. For some genes, the cDNA was pre-amplified in 14 PCR cycles with non-random PCR primers, thus increasing the sensitivity of the subsequent real-time PCR analysis (PreAmp Master Mix Kit, Applied Biosystems). For these genes, expression was determined using TaqMan Real-Time PCR, according to manufacturer's instructions (Applied Biosystems). All quantitative real-time PCR reactions were performed and analyzed using the 7500 Real-Time PCR System (Applied Biosystems). The following TaqMan probes were used: Mm02342430_g1 (ppia), Mm00446968_m1 (hprt), Mm00445260_m1 (il-4), Mm01168134_m1 (ifn-γ), Mm00441238_m1 (ccl11), Mm00475988_m1 (arg-1). In addition, the following primers were used:
Irradiation and Bone-Marrow Transplantation.
Aged C57Bl/6 wild-type mice were subjected to total body γ-irradiation from a cobalt source (a single dose of 950 rad), while protecting their heads to avoid radiation-induced brain damage. Transplanted BM was comprised of either whole BM, or BM depleted of T-cells, which was prepared by magnetic depletion of CD3+ cells on a MACS column (Milteney Biotec), according to the manufacturer's protocol. BM transplantation was performed on the following day, by i.v. injection of 5×106 bone-marrow cells suspended in PBS (total volume 0.15 ml). For detection of BM cells following transplantation, cells were prelabeled with carboxyfluorescein succinimidyl ester (CFSE, Molecular Probes) prior to transplantation. For labelling, 5×106 BM cells (20×106 cells/mL) were incubated in PBS (without Ca2+/Mg2+) supplemented with 5 μM CFSE (Molecular Probes) for 8 min at 25° C. Following incubation, the cells were washed with RPMI containing 8% FBS.
Radial arm water maze (RAWM).
Mice were tested for two days on 6 radial arm water maze paradigm in a water pool, as described in Alamed et al., Nat Protoc. 2006, 1(4), 1671-1679. Briefly, mice received an injection of GA as indicated in the examples. On the first day, 15 trials were performed, in trials 1, 3, 5, 7, 9 and 11 the platform was visible, and in all other trials the platform was hidden. On the second day, 12 trials were performed, all of them with hidden platform. The time required to reach the platform and the number of errors (incorrect arm entries) in 1-min time period was recorded.
Morris Water Maze.
Acquisition and probe trial were performed as previously described (Ron-Harel N, et al. (2008)). Following the probe trial, mice were given three additional trials without the platform to extinguish their initial memory of the platform's position. In the reversal phase, the platform was placed in a new location in the pool (opposite to where it was located in the acquisition phase) and the mice were given three trials per day on 2 consecutive days, conducted in a similar manner to the initial acquisition. Position and movement of the mice were recorded using an EthoVision automated tracking system (Noldus).
Isolation of Monocytes.
CD115+ monocytes were isolated as previously reported (Shechter et al., 2009). Briefly, BM cells were harvested from the femur and tibiae of naïve mice, and enriched for mononuclear cells on a Ficoll density gradient. The CD115+ BM monocyte population was isolated by MACS enrichment using biotinylated anti-CD115 antibodies and streptavidin-coupled magnetic beads (Miltenyi Biotec) according to the manufacturer's protocols. Monocyte purity was checked by flow cytometry based on CD11b reactivity and was 90%.
Statistical Analysis.
The specific tests used to analyze each set of experiments are indicated in the figure legends. Data are expressed as mean±SEM. In the graphs, y-axes error bars represent the SEM. Statistical analysis was performed using Prism 5.0 software (GraphPad Software). Means between two groups were compared with two-tailed, unpaired Student's t-test. One-way ANOVA was used to compare several groups, and the Newman-Keuls test for pairwise comparisons was used for follow-up post hoc comparison of groups. Data from behavioral tests were analyzed using two-way repeated measured ANOVA with group treatment or age and number of days as the between subject factors. All histology and behavioral experiments were conducted in a randomized and blinded fashion. Fisher's LSD or Tukey-Kramer procedure was used for follow up pairwise comparison of groups after the null hypothesis had been rejected (F<0.05). Kaplan-Meier survival curves were analyzed by Logrank test to generate an χ2 value for significance. Repeated-measures ANOVA was used for EAE scoring, with follow-up by Student's t test.
Spinal Cord Injury and Assessment of Functional Recovery.
The spinal cords of deeply anesthetized mice were exposed by laminectomy at T12, and contusive (200 kdynes) centralized injury was performed using the Infinite Horizon spinal cord impactor (Precision Systems), as previously described (Hauben et al., 2000, Ziv et al., 2006a), causing bilateral degeneration without completely severing the spinal cord. The animals were maintained on twice-daily bladder expression. Recovery was evaluated by hind-limb locomotor performance, assessed according to the open-field Basso Mouse Scale (BMS) (Basso et al., J. neurotrauma 23(5):635-59, 2006). In this scale, a nonlinear score ranging from 0 (complete paralysis) to 9 (normal mobility) is assigned, in which each possible score represents a distinct motor functional state. Blinded scoring ensured that observers were not aware of the identity of tested animals.
Using flow cytometry, we began by characterizing the T cell populations within the choroid plexus (CP). We found that, similarly to the lymph nodes, the majority (67±2.76%) of T cells found in the CPs were CD4+ cells (data not shown). Since CD4+ T cells (rather than CD8+ cells) were previously implicated in supporting CNS plasticity (Wolf S A, et al. (2009), Derecki N C, et al. (2010), Cao C, et al. (2009)) we further characterized this sub-population. We focused our interest on memory T cells, commonly divided into two subsets that express high levels of CD44, yet differ in their expression of CD62L; CD44high/CD62Lhigh are central memory T cells (TCM) that home to secondary lymphoid organs and generally have little to no effector function, while CD44high/CD62L−/low are effector memory T cells (TEM) that survey peripheral tissues, and can be locally activated to an immediate effector function upon exposure to their cognate antigen. To examine the peripheral circulating immune cell population in comparison to that within the CP, we examined the blood, lymph nodes and CPs of young (3 month old) and aged (22 month old) mice. We found that while both TEM and TCM were present in the blood and lymph nodes, in the CP, the vast majority (>95%) of memory T cells expressed TEM markers (
Sequencing of the TCR by itself cannot identify its antigenic specificity. Therefore, to identify the specificity of the T cells that reside in the CP, we developed a novel tool that allowed us to identify clonotypic enrichment of CNS-specific T cells. To this end, we created a library representing the TCRβ repertoire of CNS-specific antigens. Mice were immunized either with spinal cord homogenate (SCH), containing a wide array of CNS proteins, or, as a control, with a non-self peptide antigen derived from ovalbumin (OVA). After 7 days, RNA isolated from splenic CD4+ T cells of both groups of immunized mice, as well as from a group of non-immunized mice, was analyzed using TCR-seq, a high throughput sequencing procedure of the TCRβ CDR3 region (Freeman J D et al. (2009); Robins H S, et al. (2009); Venturi V, et al. (2011)). We also used TCR-seq to analyze the TCRβ repertoire of CP-residing T cells. Using bioinformatics tools developed in-house (see the materials and methods section for a detailed description), full characterization of each CDR3 region was achieved from individual sequencing reads, identifying V-D-J usage as well as fully characterizing the junction regions, including random nucleotide insertions and deletions. Data obtained were further analyzed by a specially designed analysis pipeline, enabling extraction of reliable quantitative information on the TCRβ repertoire composition. This pipeline provided us with a list of annotated TCRβ sequences (nucleotide and amino-acid sequences), and their relative abundance, for each sample. Once we had established the TCRβ repertoire of the spleen of animals immunized with CNS antigens, we could compare it to the repertoire of T cells isolated from CP of non-immunized animals.
The TCRβ repertoire composition of the above groups was further compared using different parameters. We observed a high level of similarity in Vβ usage between the TCRβ repertoire found in CP of naïve animals and that found in the spleens of the animals immunized with CNS antigens (SCH) (data not shown). In contrast, the CP repertoire had a much lower correlation with the repertoire found in spleens of naive mice or from animals immunized with OVA. The Jβ usage in the repertoire of the naive CP was also very similar to that of the SCH-immunized spleen cells, and less similar to the OVA-immunized or naïve spleen (data not shown).
Next, we applied average linkage clustering on the different groups, based on the group average relative frequencies of all Vβ and Jβ segments (39 parameters overall). The naïve CP formed a distinct cluster with the SCH-immunized spleen, while the OVA-immunized spleen clustered with the naïve spleen (data not shown). Each cluster had specific enriched Vβ and Jβ segments associated with it, forming organ and immune state-specific repertoire signatures. Both correlation and clustering analyses revealed high levels of similarity in Vβ and Jβ segment usage between the repertoires of T cells residing in the naïve CP and those of T cells isolated from the spleen after immunization with CNS antigens, yet a low similarity of the CP repertoire to that of the naïve spleen, or the spleen after immunization with OVA. Finally, we examined the CP repertoire in terms of specific clones. From our TCR-seq data, we compiled a library of 2,756 TCRβ amino-acid sequences that were significantly induced in the SCH-immunized spleens compared with non-immunized spleens, and are therefore associated with SCH-specific clonal expansion. We then determined how many of the most highly expressed clones from each non-immunized or immunized tissue were found in the SCH-immunized spleen TCR library. The TCRβ repertoire of non-immunized young CP was found to be significantly enriched with CNS-specific T cells compared with the repertories found in OVA-immunized and in naïve spleens (
Having established a tool for identification of CNS-specific clonotypic enrichment, we next tested whether clonal specificity changes with age. We isolated T cells from CP and spleens of non-immunized aged mice and compared their repertoire to that of young non-immunized mice (
Our demonstration that the overall TCR specificity of the CD4+ T cells residing in the CP is maintained with age, led us to consider the possibility that aging of the CP may be associated not with changes in immune specificity, but rather with phenotype bias, such as changes in the cytokine milieu, a phenomenon established outside the CNS (Alberti S, et al. (2006); Shearer G M (1997); Rink L et al. (1998)). We therefore measured mRNA expression levels of the cytokines IFN-γ and IL-4 in the CP, representing Th1 and Th2 effector milieus, respectively. We found preferential elevation of IL-4 expression, and a decline in IFN-γ expression with aging (
To test our working hypothesis, we first examined whether the CP could serve as a source of CCL11 in aged animals. We found that CCL11 is expressed by the CP epithelium, and that its mRNA and protein levels in aged (18-20 months) mice were significantly higher than in CP of young (3 months) animals (
To further substantiate the dominance of IL-4 in the aged CP, we measured levels of arginase-1, an enzyme that is strongly linked to epithelial Th2-mediated inflammation; in cases of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD) and cystic fibrosis, increased arginase activity in the airways was shown to have detrimental effects on the airway epithelium. Moreover, chronic Th2-mediated inflammation of the airways can induce remodeling of the epithelium and contribute to a progressive decline in lung function. We found arginase-1 (arg1) mRNA and protein levels to be strongly upregulated in the aged CP (
The increased levels of IL-4 in the CP of aged mice without proper balance by IFN-γ could reflect the well-characterized alternations in circulating immune cells during aging (Alberti S, et al. (2006); Shearer G M (1997); Rink L, et al. (1998)). One way by which immunesenescence can be alleviated and memory T cells can be expanded, is the induction of lymphopenia, which is followed by homeostatic-driven proliferation (HDP) of the residual T cell population. We therefore induced HDP by irradiation of the peripheral organs while shielding the head. Since we used high-dose irradiation and aimed to induce homeostatic-driven proliferation of memory T cells that already exist in the aged mice, the hematopoietic cell lineages were restored with syngeneic (pseudo-autologous) bone marrow (BM) derived from genetically identical donors of the same age. We expected that memory T cells that are present in the aged BM would provide an additional source of memory cells, for their expansion in the aged mice under these lymphopenic conditions. To this end, we first confirmed that aged BM contains memory T cells, and determined whether their specificity resembles that of the cells found in the SCH-immunized spleen, in old spleen, and in the naïve CP. We found that, indeed, BM from aged mice contained significantly higher levels of CD4+ and CD4+/CD44high cells relative to young animals (
Based on the above results, we then adopted the same HDP procedure using pseudo-autologous aged BM (without depletion of T cells) to examine whether the peripheral immunomodulatory effects of this protocol, which leads to cognitive improvement, are related to the restoration of the IL-4/IFN-γ ratio at the CP. Aged mice were separated to two groups, one group was left untreated, whereas in the other HDP was induced using the procedure of pseudo-autologous aged BM. Before excising the CP and the hippocampi of the animals, we verified using MWM that the treatment was indeed beneficial at 8 weeks following transplantation. Similar to the reported observation that aging is associated with memory loss in ˜70% of aged mice (Whalley L J et al. (2004)), in our experiments the proportion of old animals with impaired spatial learning/memory was 74%; this deficit was significantly lowered to 45% of the animals following HDP (
Since spatial learning/memory is hippocampus dependent, we next tested whether the HDP-induced changes in the CP cytokine balance were also reflected in expression of plasticity-related molecules in the hippocampi of these mice. We found that hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor-1 (bdnf1) levels were down-regulated with age, and restored following HDP (
First, we localized the T cell populations that reside in the choroid plexus under normal conditions in wild type (WT) mice. As previously reported, CD3+ T-cells are found at the stroma of the CP epithelium. Using flow cytometry, we determined the effector potential of these T cells to secrete various cytokines, in comparison with these T cells from the spleen and the circulation. Intracellular staining of the CD4+ T cell populations showed that interferon (IFN)-γ producing T helper (Th)1 cells were present in the naive CP (
Next, we examined the CP epithelium for the expression of relevant receptors for these cytokines. The CP epithelium abundantly expressed the cytokine receptors for IL-4 and IL-10, whereas the expression of IFN-γ receptor (IFN-γR) was barely detectable (data not shown). This initial observation suggested that while IL-4 activity, through its epithelial receptor on the CP, has a constitutive role in the maintenance of this compartment, the expression of IFN-γR is subjected to regulation. If this is indeed the case, expression of IFN-γR is likely to be induced by a parenchyma-emerging danger signal, possibly as the first step in the activation of the CP epithelium in response to CNS stress or damage.
Since we found that the CP is constitutively exposed to T cell-derived cytokines, we hypothesized that such cytokines might have the potential to regulate the expression of trafficking molecules by the CP epithelium. We therefore established an in vitro model using primary cultures of murine CP cells. To verify the purity of the epithelial cultures, we isolated CP cells from mice that express GFP on their myeloid cells (CX3CR1GFP/+ mice (Jung et al., 2000)), enabling us to detect any residual myeloid cell population within the epithelial cell cultures. Immunostaining of the CP cell cultures for the epithelial cytoskeletal marker, cytokeratin, revealed their uniformity (data not shown), and quantitative analysis of the immunostained cells showed that 97.8±0.4% of the cells expressed cytokeratin, and only 2.15±0.3% of the cells were of myeloid origin, as determined by GFP expression (measured by direct counting). Following 1 week in culture, the epithelial cells established tight junctions, as shown by immunostaining for the tight junction molecule, ZO-1 (data not shown).
Pro-inflammatory cytokines, such as IL-6, IL-1β, and tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, that are elevated at the injured spinal cord (Pineau and Lacroix, 2007, Harrington et al., 2005) can potentially affect the CP via the CSF circulation. We therefore tested whether cytokines released at the injury site would affect the CP in addition to the T-cell derived cytokines. We exposed the cultured CP cells to the characteristic Th1-, Th17-, Th2- and Treg-derived cytokines, IFN-γ, IL-17, IL-4, and IL-10, respectively, and to TNF-α and IL-6. After 24 hours in culture, we examined the effect of these cytokines on the gene expression levels of specific trafficking molecules. Treatment with IFN-γ induced the upregulation of a wide array of trafficking molecules, such as intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, vascular cell adhesion molecule (VCAM)-1 (
Since inflammatory autoimmune diseases are associated with IL-17 producing cells (Th17) (Korn et al., 2009) this prompted us to test their potential effect on inducing trafficking molecules by the CP. Interestingly, we found that IL-17, but not IFN-γ, elevated the expression of the chemokine CCL20 by the CP epithelial cells (
The localization of the induced integrin receptors, ICAM-1 and VCAM-1, was tested by co-immunostaining the cultured cells for these molecules together with epithelial markers; the integrin receptors were co-localized with the CP epithelial cells, and were elevated following treatment with IFN-γ (
To gain insight regarding the mechanism underlying the synergism, described above, between TNF-α and IFN-γ, we examined their reciprocal effects on the levels of their corresponding receptors in vitro. We found that the inflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IL-1β, but not IL-6, elevated the expression of IFN-γ-receptor (IFN-γR) by the CP epithelial cells (FIG. 8A). Immunostaining of the cultured cells also showed elevation of IFN-γR following TNF-α treatment (data not shown). Notably, TNF-α-producing CD4+ T cells were not found in the naive CP (data not shown).
TNF-α receptors (TNF-R) are differentially expressed in various tissues, and were shown to mediate both inflammation and repair of the CNS. We therefore used neutralizing antibodies directed against TNF-R1 or TNF-R2 to assess which TNF-R mediates the observed elevation of IFN-γR by the CP. We found that the induction of IFN-γR by the CP was mediated by TNF-R1 signaling, as only neutralizing antibodies directed against TNF-R1 impaired IFN-γR expression (
To further substantiate the role of IFN-γ signaling in the expression of trafficking molecules by the CP epithelium in vivo, we examined the CP of IFN-γR knockout (IFN-γR-KO) mice. We found the basal expression levels of a wide array of trafficking molecules to be lower in the CP of IFN-γR deficient mice, relative to WT animals (
The reduced trafficking of leukocytes across the CP to the CSF in IFN-γR-KO animals under physiological conditions, led us to consider that such a defect might have a much more pronounced effect following injury. We subjected WT mice to a severe, well-calibrated contusive SCI at the level of T-12 (Ziv et al., 2006b), and first tested whether such injury affected the expression of IFN-γR by the CP. We found IFN-γR expression to be upregulated by the CP epithelium on day 1 and day 7 post SCI (
Importantly, the lack of activation of the CP was correlated with impaired trafficking of both CD4+ T cells and monocytes to the CSF of the injured IFN-γR-KO mice relative to WT mice after SCI (
Leukocyte trafficking across the CP to the CNS parenchyma, was further supported by the appearance of T cells in the ependymal layer of the central canal, rostral to the lesion site (data not shown), indicating their migration to the injury site through this route. Their numbers were significantly reduced in the lesion site epicenter in IFN-γR-KO mice following the injury, relative to WT mice (
DEREG mice carry a DTR-eGFP transgene under the control of an additional Foxp3 promoter, thereby allowing specific depletion of Treg by application of diphtheria toxin (DTX), as described in Lahl and Sparwasser, 2011, Methods Mol. Biol. 707:157-72. Foxp3-DTR−/− and Foxp3-DTR−/+ were injected i.p. with 8 ng/g animal weight DTX per day for 4 constitutive days. On the fifth day mice were perfused with PBS and their spleen, CP and CSF were analyzed by flow cytometry for their cellular composition. As can be seen from
The aim of this experiment was to characterize the immune system present at the CP in healthy adult mice under normal physiological conditions and its response to activation by the Th1 adjuvant CpG. C57Bl/6J male mice were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with CpG (20 ug). One or three days after the injection, mice were intracardially perfused with PBS and choroid plexus tissues were isolated from the lateral, third and fourth ventricles of the brain. Tissues were immediately placed on dry ice, and were later processed for RNA isolation. Total RNA of the choroid plexus was extracted and converted to cDNA. The expression of specific mRNAs was assayed using fluorescence based real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). As seen in
Using the same paradigm of CpG immunomodulation, we injected CpG to animals 1 day before (day −1) preforming spinal cord injury (SCI). The animals were intracardially perfused with PBS and choroid plexus tissues were isolated one day after the spinal cord injury. CpG significantly upregulated both trafficking and neurotropic molecule, pointing to beneficial activation of this compartment in an effort to increase leukocyte recruitment to the injured spinal cord (
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease in which motor neurons progressively die, leading to paralysis and death within 1 to 5 years after diagnosis. While the etiology of motor neuron degeneration in ALS remains elusive, it is considered a non-cell-autonomous disease. Like many other neurodegenerative diseases, ALS is associated with a local innate-based inflammatory response, the nature of which is not fully understood, and the mechanism underlying its effect on disease onset and progression has not been fully elucidated.
In the context of ALS, accumulated data suggest that life expectancy is shorter, and disease emerges earlier, in animals lacking CD4+ T cells. Accordingly, mutant superoxide dismutase 1 G93A (mSOD1) mice, a murine model of ALS, spontaneously develop immune deficiency along disease progression (Banerjee et al., 2008). Increased survival of mSOD1 mice has been correlated with enhanced infiltration of CD4+ T cells to the spinal cord, suggesting that the spontaneous infiltration of CD4+ T cells to the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice at early stages of the disease is not sufficient, and that boosting this process may delay disease progression. Among the CD4+ T cell subsets that were shown to mitigate this disease are effector T cells and Tregs (Banerjee et al., 2008; Beers 2011). The findings that the CP orchestrates recruitment of inflammation-resolving leukocytes to the injured CNS, together with the observation that lymphocytes are beneficial in ALS, and immune deficiency develops along disease progression, created the basis for our current hypothesis that activation of the CP for leukocyte trafficking might be dysregulated in ALS as a results of peripheral immunity dysregulation, and is amenable to immunomodulation as a therapeutic strategy.
First, we tested by quantitative real-time PCR the expression of the intercellular adhesion molecule 1 (ICAM-1) and vascular cell adhesion molecule 1 (VCAM-1). We found that neither adhesion molecule was elevated in the CP of mSOD1 mice relative to wild type (WT) mice, and that ICAM-1 was down-regulated over the disease course (
The CP of healthy WT animals is populated by effector memory CD4+ T cells, capable of producing IFN-γ and IL-4; of these cytokines, IFN-γ was found to be essential to promote trafficking molecule expression by the CP epithelium. We therefore quantitated the levels of these cytokines in the CP of mSOD1 mice. We found a general decrease, relative to WT, in the levels of both cytokines; IFN-γ levels showed an earlier reduction starting from day 70 (
To test whether the CP of the mSOD1 mice did not lose the capacity to respond to these cytokines, we cultured CP epithelial cells from WT and mSOD1 mice, and treated them with IFN-γ or IL-4. mRNA levels of various trafficking molecules were measured 24h after the addition of cytokines, and were compared to untreated cells. IFN-γ treatment elevated the expression of trafficking molecules by both WT and mSOD1 CP cultures to a similar degree (
We examined the effects of CpG immunomodulation of the choroid plexus in mSOD1 mice. Mice were injected intraperitoneally (i.p.) with CpG (20 ug) at age 80 and 83 days, the time period of the beginning of clinical signs. Seven days following the first injection, mice were intracardially perfused with PBS and choroid plexus tissues were isolated from the lateral, third and fourth ventricles of the brain. Tissues were immediately placed on dry ice, and were later processed for RNA isolation. Total RNA of the choroid plexus was extracted and converted to cDNA. The expression of specific mRNAs was assayed using fluorescence based real-time quantitative PCR (qPCR). As seen in
Monophasic experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) creates favorable conditions for accumulation of Foxp3+ regulatory T cells in the CNS parenchyma. In addition, it was previously shown that the induction of chronic EAE activates the CP to induce leukocyte trafficking (Murugesan et al., 2012). Together, these observations prompted us to examine whether the induction of monophasic autoimmune encephalomyelitis would similarly activate trafficking of leukocytes through the CP, and if so, whether this treatment would promote entry of Tregs to the diseased CNS in ALS. We first addressed this question in WT mice by immunizing the mice with myelin oligodendrocyte glycoprotein (MOG) peptide together with low levels of M. tuberculosis; the resulting inflammation was significantly milder compared to chronic EAE induced by MOG with pertussis toxin (MOG+PTX), and spontaneously resolved after 21 days (
Based on the results above, we immunized mSOD1 mice at the age of 60 days, the asymptomatic phase, to allow the self-resolution of the autoimmune encephalomyelitis-associated inflammation to take place before the onset of the clinical symptoms of ALS. As we observed in the WT mice, immunization of mSOD1 mice caused mild and transient clinical symptoms of autoimmune encephalomyelitis (
CD4+ T cell numbers remained elevated in the spinal cord parenchyma at 28 days post immunization, after the autoimmune encephalomyelitis symptoms were resolved (
As it was previously shown that in monophasic EAE, the CNS inflammation drives the rapid activation and proliferation of Foxp3+ Tregs (O'Connor et al., 2007), we examined by flow cytometry whether Foxp3+ Tregs accumulated in the spinal cord of mSOD1 mice at day 28 post immunization, when the symptoms of the transient autoimmune encephalomyelitis were resolved. At this time point, we found a significant elevation of Tregs in both the parenchyma (
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is an irreversible, progressive brain disorder that occurs gradually and results in memory loss, behavioral and personality changes, and a decline in mental abilities. These losses are related to the death of brain cells and the breakdown of the connections between them. The course of this disease varies from person to person, as does the rate of decline. On average, AD patients live for 8 to 10 years after they are diagnosed, though the disease can last up to 20 years.
AD advances by stages, from early, mild forgetfulness to a severe loss of mental function. At first, AD destroys neurons in parts of the brain that control memory, especially in the hippocampus and related structures. As nerve cells in the hippocampus stop functioning properly, short-term memory fails. AD also attacks the cerebral cortex, particularly the areas responsible for language and reasoning. Eventually, many other areas of the brain are involved.
Copolymer 1, also called Cop 1, GA or Glatiramer Acetate, is a random non-pathogenic synthetic copolymer, a heterogeneous mix of polypeptides containing the four amino acids L-glutamic acid (E), L-alanine (A), L-tyrosine (Y) and L-lysine (K) in an approximate ratio of 1.5:4.8:1:3.6, but with no uniform sequence. Although its mode of action remains controversial, Cop 1 clearly helps retard the progression of human multiple sclerosis (MS) and of the related autoimmune condition studied in mice, EAE. One form of Cop 1, known as glatiramer acetate, has been approved in several countries for the treatment of multiple sclerosis under the trademark Copaxone® (Teva Pharmaceutical Industries Ltd., Petach Tikva, Israel).
Vaccination with Cop 1 or with Cop 1-activated T cells have been shown by the present inventors to boost the protective autoimmunity, after traumatic CNS insult, thereby reducing further injury-induced damage, and can further protect CNS cells from glutamate toxicity. Reference is made to Applicant's previous U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 09/765,301 and 09/765,644 and corresponding published International Application Nos. WO 01/52878 and WO 01/93893, which disclose that Cop 1, Cop 1-related peptides and polypeptides and T cells activated therewith prevent or inhibit neuronal degeneration and promote nerve regeneration in the CNS or peripheral nervous system (PNS), and protect CNS cells from glutamate toxicity.
Prof. Schwartz and colleagues have shown that Cop 1 acts as a low-affinity antigen that activates a wide range of self-reacting T cells, resulting in neuroprotective autoimmunity that is effective against both CNS white matter and grey matter degeneration. The neuroprotective effect of Cop 1 vaccination was demonstrated by the inventors in animal models of acute and chronic neurological disorders such as optic nerve injury, glaucoma, and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis as disclosed in the applicant's patent applications WO 01/52878, WO 01/93893 and WO 03/047500.
The use of Copolymer 1 for treatment of prion-related diseases is disclosed in WO 01/97785. Gendelman and co-workers disclose that passive immunization with splenocytes of mice immunized with Cop 1 confers dopaminergic neuroprotection in MPTP-treated mice (Benner et al., 2004).
All patents and patent applications cited herein are hereby incorporated by reference in their entirety as if fully disclosed herein.
The generation of the 5XFAD mice, a mouse model for AD has been described previously (Oakley, et al., 2006, J Neurosci 26(40): 10129-40, 2006).
In this study we were interested in clarifying whether the beneficial effect of Cop 1 on mouse models of AD is mediated by the activation of the CP and whether the frequency of immunization affect the activation.
The level of FoxP3+ cells (Tregs) gated from total CD4+ TCRβ+ T cells in spleen from 4 and 8 months old 5XFAD mice as compared to non-transgene (WT) controls was analyzed by FACS. As can be seen from
To test the effect of different regimens of administration of Cop 1, 5XFAD females were vaccinated subcutaneously (S.C.) with 100 μg Cop 1 dissolved in 200 μl PBS. Three different regimens were compared: 5XFAD+2GA were vaccinated twice, with the second injection given three days after the first; 5XFAD+5GA were vaccinated five times, twice in the first week and once a week for another three weeks, and 5XFAD+daily GA were vaccinated every day for 28 days (19B). One day after the last GA injection, mice were sacrificed and their spleens were analyzed by FACS and compared to WT and untreated 5XFAD littermates. Note the significant decrease in the fold change of FoxP3+ T cells following 2GA injections as compared to untreated 5XFAD. However, when administered daily, GA promoted the enrichment of FoxP3+ T cells in the spleens of 5XFAD mice. Radial arm water maze (RAWM) was performed to 4 groups of 8 months old mice to test mental cognitive performance. As can be seen from
200 μg of MOG35-55 (GL Biochem Ltd., Shanghai) are emulsified in 200 μl incomplete Freund's adjuvant (IFA) containing 0.5 mg/ml M. tuberculosis (strain H37Ra; BD Diagnostics), and 200 μl is injected subcutaneously to three groups of mice: WT, mSOD and 5XFAD. Control mice for each group are injected subcutaneously with PBS. At days 7, 14 and 28 post immunization, the mice are anesthetized, blood is collected into heparin containing tubes and 50 ml of each sample are treated with ACK lysing buffer (Life Technologies) to remove erythrocytes. For intracellular staining of IFN-γ (corresponding to Th1 cells) the cells are incubated with PMA (10 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) and ionomycin (250 ng/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) for 6 h, and Brefeldin-A (10 mg/ml; Sigma-Aldrich) was added for the last 4 h. Intracellular labeling is done with BD Cytofix/Cytoperm Plus Fixation/Permeabilization kit (cat. no. 555028) according to the manufacturer's protocol. For intracellular staining of Foxp3+ T regulatory cells (Tregs), the cells are stained according to manufacturer's protocol (Mouse Regulatory T Cell Staining Kit, eBioscience, cat. No. 88-8111-40). Fluorochrome-labeled mAbs are used according to the manufacturers' protocols. Flow cytometry analysis is performed on each sample using a BD Biosciences LSRII flow cytometer, and the acquired data is analyzed using FlowJo software (Tree star). The ratio between Tregs and Th1 cells is calculated for each sample.
It is expected that the ratio of Tregs to Th1 cells will be lower in treated mice 7 or 14 days following immunization, than in the control group, reflecting the reduction of immunosuppression and activation of the choroid plexus. It is also expected that 28 days following immunization, this ratio will increase relatively to the ratio calculated 7 or 14 days following immunization. The increased ratio would correspond to re-establishment of immunosuppression and closing of the choroid plexus for transfer of healing cells.
Alternatively, instead of staining for IFN-γ and Foxp3 and calculating the ratio of Tregs/Th1, the peripheral blood mononuclear cells isolated at the indicated time points are tested for their proliferative response by standard methods, such as 3H-Thymidine uptake, in the presence or absence of MOG. A positive response (a higher proliferative response in the presence of MOG compared to without MOG) indicates successful vaccination and would correspond to reduction of immunosuppression and activation of the choroid plexus.
Alzheimer's disease or aged mice are first tested and scored for their cognitive ability by the Moris Water Maze test. Acquisition and probe trial are performed as previously described (Ron-Harel et al., 2008, Rejuvenation research 11(5):903-913). Following the probe trial, mice are given three additional trials without the platform to extinguish their initial memory of the platform's position. In the reversal phase, the platform is placed in a new location in the pool (opposite to where it was located in the acquisition phase) and the mice are given three trials per day on 2 consecutive days, conducted in a similar manner to the initial acquisition. Position and movement of the mice are recorded using an EthoVision automated tracking system (Noldus). According to their cognitive ability, mice are divided into aged mice with “intact” or “impaired” memory. The group of impaired memory is divided into two groups: “treated” vs. untreated.
The treated mice are subjected to induction of homeostatic-driven proliferation of T cells and/or administered a TLR agonist of TLR3, 4, 5, 7 or 9 (but not including CpG), or a neutralizing antibody directed to TLR2, adoptive transfer of CNS+ specific T-cells, optionally activated ex vivo by CNS-specific antigenic peptides or altered peptide ligands (APLs) of the peptides, cytokines such as IFN-γ or contact with CNS-specific APCs. Appropriate controls are performed on a group of mice with impaired memory. Following the immunomodulatory treatment, mice are examined again for their cognitive scoring, this time by using a different hippocampal-dependent test (for example: object recognition task) to evaluate the effects of the treatment.
Accepted models for human disease comprising mice expressing the phenotype of Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, age-related macular degeneration, retinitis pigmentosa, anterior ischemic optic neuropathy, glaucoma, uveitis, depression or stress are used. Diseased or aged mice afflicted with disease affecting cognitive abilities are first tested and scored for their cognitive ability by the Moris Water Maze test. Acquisition and probe trial are performed as previously described (Ron-Harel N, et al., 2008, Rejuvenation research 11(5):903-913). Following the probe trial, mice are given three additional trials without the platform to extinguish their initial memory of the platform's position. In the reversal phase, the platform is placed in a new location in the pool (opposite to where it was located in the acquisition phase) and the mice are given three trials per day on 2 consecutive days, conducted in a similar manner to the initial acquisition. Position and movement of the mice are recorded using an EthoVision automated tracking system (Noldus). According to their cognitive ability, mice are divided into aged mice with “intact” or “impaired” memory.
Mice afflicted with disease affecting motor function are tested for motor function using accepted tests such as the rotarod test.
The group of impaired memory is divided into two groups: “treated” vs. untreated.
The treated mice are subjected to induction of homeostatic-driven proliferation of T cells and/or administered a TLR agonist of TLR3, 4, 5, 7 or 9 (for example CpG), or a neutralizing antibody directed to TLR2, adoptive transfer of CNS+ specific T-cells, optionally activated ex vivo by CNS-specific antigenic peptides or APLs of the peptides, cytokines such as IFN-γ or contact with CNS-specific APCs. Appropriate controls are performed on a group of mice with impaired memory. Following the immunomodulatory treatment, mice are examined again for their cognitive scoring and/or motor function, this time by using a different (hippocampal-dependent) test (for example: object recognition task) to evaluate the effects of the treatment.
The present application is a continuation that claims priority pursuant to 35 U.S.C. § 120 to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/427,089, filed on Mar. 10, 2015, a 35 U.S.C. § 371 national stage entry of International Application No. PCT/IL2013/050761, filed Sep. 10, 2013, which the United States is designated, that claims the benefit of priority from U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/779,440 filed Mar. 13, 2013 and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/699,071 filed Sep. 10, 2012, the entire contents of each and all these applications being hereby incorporated by reference herein in their entirety as if fully disclosed herein.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 61779440 | Mar 2013 | US | |
| 61699071 | Sep 2012 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 14427089 | Mar 2015 | US |
| Child | 16145641 | US |
