Patent Application
20060205033
The invention relates to the field of RNA viruses and infectious clones obtained from RNA viruses. Furthermore, the invention relates to vaccines and diagnostic assays obtainable by using and modifying such infectious clones of RNA viruses.
Recombinant DNA technology comprises extremely varied and powerful molecular biology techniques aimed at modifying nucleic acids at the DNA level and makes it possible to analyze and modify genomes at the molecular level. In this respect, viruses, because of the small size of their genome are particularly amenable to such manipulations. However, recombinant DNA technology is not immediately applicable to nonretroviral RNA viruses because these viruses do not encompass a DNA intermediate step in their replication. For such viruses, infectious clones (for instance as a DNA copy or as in vitro transcribed RNA copy or as derivative of either) have to be developed before recombinant DNA technology can be applied to their genome to generate modified virus. Infectious clones can be derived through the construction of fill-length (genomic length) cDNA (here used in the broad sense of a DNA copy of RNA and not only in the strict sense of a DNA copy of mRNA) of the virus under study after which an infectious transcript is synthesized in vivo in cells transfected with the full-length cDNA, but infectious transcripts can also be obtained by in vitro transcription from in vitro ligated partial-length cDNA fragments that comprise the full viral genome. In all cases, the transcribed RNA carries all the modifications that have been introduced to the cDNA and can be used to further passage the thus modified virus.
Infectious cDNA clones and infectious in vitro transcripts have been generated for a great number of positive strand RNA viruses (for a review see Boyer and Haenni, Virology 198, 415-426) with a genome of up to 12 kb or slightly larger. The viral genomic length of Pestiviruses seems until now the longest positive strand viral RNA genome from which infectious clones (Moormann et al., J. Vir. 70:763-770) have been prepared. Problems associated with genomic length lie not only in the difficulty of obtaining and maintaining long and stabile cDNA clones in bacteria but also in the infectivity of the initial RNA transcript of which replication in the host cell has to be achieved without the help of the normally associated viral proteins connected with viral replication. To achieve successful infection, viral transcripts must interact with viral-encoded proteins, most particularly with the viral replicase and with host cell components such as the translation machinery; therefore, the structure of viral transcripts has to mimic that of virion RNA as closely as possible. Additional problems can be found with those positive strand RNA viruses that replicate via a mechanism of subgenomic messenger RNAs transcribed from the 3′ side of the genome and with those positive strand RNA viruses that generate during replication defective interfering particles, such as naked capsids or empty shell particles, comprising several structural proteins but only a part of the genome. The presence of incomplete viral RNA fragments or of, for example, matrix or nucleocapsid proteins interacting or interfering with the viral RNA to be transcribed or to replicative intermediate RNA and disrupting its structure will abolish full-length RNA strand synthesis, and thus the generation of infectious virus comprising genomic length RNA.
“Lelystad virus” (LV), also called “porcine reproductive respiratory syndrome virus” (PRRSV, genomic length 15.2 kb), is a member of the family Arteriviridae, which also comprises equine arteritis virus (EAV, genomic length 12.7 kb), lactate dehydrogenase-elevating virus (LDV, genomic length at least 14.2 kb) and simian haemorrhagic fever virus (SHFV genomic length approximately 15 kb) (Meulenberg et al., 1993a; Plagemann and Moennig, 1993).
Recently, the International Committee on the Taxonomy of Viruses decided to incorporate this family in a new order of viruses, the Nidovirales, together with the Coronaviridae (genomic length 28 to 30 kb), and Toroviridae (genomic length 26 to 28 kb). Nidovirale represents enveloped RNA viruses that contain a positive-stranded RNA genome and synthesize a 3′ nested set of subgenomic RNAs during replication. The subgenomic RNAs of coronaviruses and arteriviruses contain a leader sequence which is derived from the 5′ end of the viral genome (Spaan et al., 1988; Plagemann and Moennig, 1993). The subgenomic RNAs of toroviruses lack a leader sequence (Snijder and Horzinek, 1993). Whereas the ORFs 1a and 1b, encoding the RNA dependent RNA polymerase, are expressed from the genomic RNA, the smaller ORFs at the 3′ end of the genomes of Nidovirales encoding structural proteins are expressed from the subgenomic mRNAs.
PRRSV (Lelystad virus), or “LV”, was first isolated in 1991 by Wensvoort et al. (1991). It was shown to be the causative agent of a new disease now generally known as a porcine reproductive respiratory syndrome, (“PRRS”). The main symptoms of the disease are respiratory problems in pigs and abortions in sows. Although the major outbreaks, such as observed at first in the US in 1987 and in Europe in 1991, have diminished, this virus still causes economic losses in herds in the US, Europe, and Asia.
PRRSV preferentially grows in alveolar lung macrophages (Wensvoort et al., 1991). A few cell lines, such as CL2621 and other cell lines cloned from the monkey kidney cell line MA-104 (Benfield et al., 1992; Collins et al., 1992; Kim et al., 1993), are also susceptible to the virus. Some well known PRRSV strains are known under accession numbers CNCM I-1102, I-1140, I-1387, I-1388, ECACC V93070108, or ATCC VR2332,VR2385, VR2386, VR 2429, VR 2474, and VR 2402. The genome of PRRSV was completely or partly sequenced (Conzelmann et al., 1993; Meulenberg et al., 1993a, Murthaugh et al, 1995) and encodes, besides the RNA dependent RNA polymerase (ORFs 1a and 1b), six structural proteins of which four envelope glycoproteins named GP2 (ORF2), GP3 (ORF3), GP4 (ORF4) and GP5 (ORF5), a non-glycosylated membrane protein M (ORF6) and the nucleocapsid protein N (ORF7) (Meulenberg et al. 1995, 1996; van Nieuwstadt et al., 1996). Immunological characterization and nucleotide sequencing of European and US strains of PRRSV has identified minor antigenic differences within strains of PRRSV located in the structural viral proteins (Nelson et al., 1993; Wensvoort et al., 1992; Murtaugh et al., 1995).
Pigs can be infected by PRRSV via the oronasal route. Virus in the lungs is taken up by lung alveolar macrophages and in these cells replication of PRRSV is completed within 9 hours. PRRSV travels from the lungs to the lung lymphnodes within 12 hours and to peripheral lymphnodes, bone marrow and spleen within 3 days. At these sites, only a few cells stain positive for viral antigen. The virus is present in the blood during at least 21 days and often much longer. After 7 days, antibodies to PRRSV are found in the blood. The combined presence of virus and antibody in PRRS infected pigs shows that the virus infection can persist for a long time, albeit at a low level, despite the presence of antibody. During at least 7 weeks, the population of alveolar cells in the lungs is different from normal SPF lungs.
PRRSV needs its envelope to infect pigs via the oronasal route. The normal immune response of the pig entails, among other things, the production of neutralizing antibodies directed against one or more of the envelope proteins. Such antibodies can render the virus non-infective. However, once in the alveolar macrophage, the virus also produces naked capsids, constructed of RNA encapsidated by the M and/or N protein, sometimes partly containing any one of the glycoproteins. The intra- and extracellular presence of these incomplete viral particles or (partly) naked capsids can be demonstrated by electron microscopy. Sometimes, naked capsids without a nucleic acid content can be found. The naked capsids are distributed through the body by the bloodstream and are taken up from the blood by macrophages in spleen, lymphnodes and bone marrow. These naked, but infectious, viral capsids can not be neutralized by the antibodies generated by the pig thus explaining the persistence of the viral infection in the presence of antibody. In this way, the macrophage progeny from infected bone marrow cells spreads the virus infection to new sites in the body. Because not all bone marrow macrophage-lineage cells are infected, only a small number of macrophages at peripheral sites are infected and produce virus.
PRRSV capsids, consisting of ORF7 proteins only, can be formed in the absence of other viral proteins by, for instance, infection of macrophages with a chimeric pseudorabies-ORF7 vector virus. The PRV virus was manipulated to contain ORF7 genetic information of PRRSV. After 18 hours post infection, the cytoplasm of infected cells contains large numbers of small, empty spherical structures with the size of PRRS virus nucleocapsids.
The invention provides an infectious clone derived from a virus with a genomic length far exceeding the maximum genomic length of the positive strand RNA viruses from which infectious clones have been obtained so far. The experimental part hereof describes the generation of an infectious clone based on and derived from PRRSV with a genomic length of 15.2 kb but such clones can now also be obtained from LDV and SHFV that also have a genomic length of about 15 kb and from EAV, although its genome is slightly smaller, and from viruses with greater genomic length, such as the Coronaviridae or Toroviridae.
The invention also provides a method to generate infectious clones by circumventing the problems encountered in viral RNA strand synthesis associated with the presence of incomplete viral RNA fragments or of, for example, matrix or nucleocapsid proteins interacting or interfering with the to be transcribed RNA transcript or with replicative intermediate RNA, disrupting the structure that abolishes full-length RNA strand synthesis, and thus the generation of infectious virus.
The invention provides a method of generating infectious clones by transfecting a host cell that is, in essence, not susceptible to infection with the wild-type virus with a recombinant nucleic acid based on the genome of the virus followed by rescuing infectious progeny virus from the host cell by passaging to or cocultivation with cells that are susceptible to the virus. Cells that are, in essence, not susceptible may, in comparison with the cells that are routinely used for the replication of the virus under study, be only slightly susceptible or be not susceptible at all to the virus under study, but may be fully susceptible to other virus strains.
The invention provides a method to generate infectious clones by transfecting host cells that are not susceptible to infection with the wild-type virus, thus avoiding the generation of naked capsids or incomplete viral particles comprising RNA fragments and matrix or nucleocapsid proteins that interfere with viral RNA strand synthesis. Infectious virus is rescued from the thus transfected host cells by passaging to cells that are susceptible to the virus. In the experimental part, hereof, we describe how, in this way, an infectious clone of PRRSV is obtained, but the method is also applicable to other positive strand RNA viruses.
The invention also provides the possibility of generating a modified infectious clone via the further application of recombinant DNA technology. Such modifications may be single or multiple mutations, substitutions, deletions or insertions or combinations thereof that can be achieved via any recombinant DNA technology method known in the art. The present invention thus provides modified RNA viruses that can be used to investigate RNA viruses and to prepare vaccines.
The invention also provides infectious clones, for example, derived from Arteriviridae, such as PRRSV, which can be used as a single-purpose vaccine against the disease caused by the virus from which the infectious clone is based. For example, the infectious clone based on PRRSV can now be used to study virulence markers or serological markers of the PRRSV. Known serological markers of PRRSV are, for example, located on any of the structural proteins of PRRSV encoded by ORF2 to ORF7. They can also be found in the proteins encoded by ORF 1a and 1b.
Virulence markers are present in the ORF 1a and 1b encoding the nonstructural proteins of PRRSV but can also be found on any of the proteins encoded by ORF2 to ORF7. By modifying the genome of the infectious clone with respect to those markers, it is possible to obtain PRRSV that is not or is much less virulent than its parent strain, and/or that is modified by deleting or introducing serological markers to enable a serological differentiation between vaccinated and wild-type virus infected pigs. Such modifications are, for instance, provided by the PRRSV infectious clones in which the nucleic acid sequence encoding the ORF7 N protein is replaced by the ORF7 protein of ATCC VR2332 or LDV.
The invention also provides infectious clones, for example, derived from Arteriviridae, such as PRRSV, which can be used as a delivery system or viral vector vaccine for a wide variety of antigens. In such clones, heterologous nucleic acid sequences that do not correspond to the sequence of the virus under study are inserted. Such heterologous nucleic acid sequences can be, for example, derived from sequences encoding any antigen of choice. The antigen is a protein or peptide that can induce immunity against a pathogen. Since the virus infects macrophages and macrophage-lineage cells in bone marrow, and distributes the antigen-containing virus through its progeny cells, this viral vector vaccine infects cells central to the immune system and can present the antigens for further processing. The vector vaccine virus infects antigen presenting cells like the dendritic macrophages or the Kuppfer cells or other cells of the immune system, and can do this as an (incompletely) enveloped viral particle or as a naked capsid particle.
Since an infection with a naked capsid or an incomplete virus particle ensures a persistent infection, the immunological booster effect will cause a lifelong (because of continuous stimulation on a low level) immunity against pathogens from which the antigens are selected. The virus can be used as an antigen carrier by including in the information for epitopes of other pathogenic organisms or substances. Several of such vector vaccine viruses carrying foreign epitopic information may be mixed and administered at one time. This enables active immunity against several different antigens of one pathogen, or active immunity against several different pathogens.
The invention also provides infectious clones, for example, derived from Arteriviridae, such as PRRSV, which can be used as a dual purpose vaccine. For example, the infectious clone based on PRRSV can be used to construct a vaccine which protects against PRRSV and against another pathogen simply by combining the vector vaccine development with the development directed towards the development of a single purpose vaccine directed against PRRS. A specific dual purpose vaccine could be developed that protects against respiratory disease in pigs by inserting in the PRRS vaccine antigens derived from any of the wide variety of other respiratory pathogens that are known to infect pigs.
The invention also provides vaccines, be it single purpose, dual purpose, or vector vaccines, that are relatively safe in the sense that the vaccines cannot be shed to the environment. Safety of the vaccines (non-shedding) can be ensured by deleting the information of those viral proteins that is needed to produce enveloped, infectious virus. This virus is propagated in a cell-line that constitutively expresses the protein. Virus replicating in this complementary cell-line has a complete envelope, and is capable of infecting pig macrophages. After one replication-cycle, the progeny virus, missing the information for the envelope protein, is no longer capable of infecting other cells as an enveloped virus. Infection of macrophages in the body is still possible, as naked capsid or incomplete viral particle.
The invention also provides viral antigens and proteins that can be harvested from cell cultures infected with the modified RNA viruses according to the invention. Such antigens can be used in diagnostic assays such as ELISA's or other types of diagnostic assay known to the expert. Such assays can be used as stand-alone tests for primary diagnosis or as accompanying tests to be applied in animal populations that have been vaccinated with a discriminating or marker vaccine based on the modified RNA viruses according to the invention.
The production of cDNA clones from which infectious RNA can be transcribed in vitro has become an essential tool for molecular genetic analysis of positive-strand RNA viruses. This technology is applicable to positive-strand RNA viruses whose RNA genomes may function as mRNA and initiate a complete infectious cycle upon introduction into appropriate host cells. For a number of viruses, infectious clones have been described that facilitate studies on the genetic expression, replication, function of viral proteins and recombination of RNA viruses (for a review, see, Boyer and Haenni, 1994). In addition, these clones can be considered for the development of new viral vectors and vaccines. An infectious cDNA clone has not been described for Arteriviruses so far. We report here the generation of an infectious clone of PRRSV and its first application in the generation of chimeric PRRSV viruses.
Cells and Viruses
The Ter Huurne strain of PRRSV (or LV) (deposited at CNCM, Paris, under accession number I-1102) was isolated in 1991 (Wensvoort et al., 1991) and was grown in primary alveolar macrophages or in CL2621 cells. Passage 6 of the Ter Huure strain (TH) was used in this study as well as a derivative of this strain, LV4.2.1, which was adapted for growth on CL2621 cells by serial passage. Alveolar macrophages were maintained in RPMI 1640 growth medium (Flow), whereas CL2621 cells were maintained in Hank's minimal essential medium (Gibco-BRL/Life technologies). BHK-21 cells were maintained in Dulbecco's minimal essential medium. For transfection experiments, BHK-21 cells were grown in Glasgow minimal essential medium (GIBCO-BRL/Life Technologies Ltd), according to the method of Liljeström and Garoff (1993).
Isolation of Viral RNAs
Intracellular RNA was isolated from alveolar macrophages or CL2621 cells 24 hours after infection with PRRSV at a multiplicity of infection of 1, as described earlier (Meulenberg et al., 1993a). In order to isolate virion genomic RNA, virions were purified on sucrose gradients as described by van Nieuwstadt et al. (1996) and were resuspended in TNE (0.01 M Tris-HCl, pH 7.2, 0.1 M NaCl, 1 mM EDTA). One ml of Proteinase K buffer (100 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.2, 25 mM EDTA, 300 mM NaCl, 2% (w/v) SDS) and 0.4 mg Proteinase K (Boehringer Mannheim) was added to one ml of purified PRRSV virions (108 TCID50). This reaction mixture was incubated at 37° C. for 30 min. The RNA was extracted once with phenol/chloroform (1:1) and precipitated with ethanol. The RNA was stored in ethanol at −20° C. One tenth of this RNA preparation was used in Reversed Transcription (RT) reactions.
Cloning of the 5′ and 3′ Germini of the PRRSV Genome.
The 5′ end of the viral genome of PRRSV was cloned using a modified single strand ligation to single-stranded cDNA procedure (SLIC; Edwards et al., 1991). One tenth of the virion RNA, prepared as described above, was used in a RT reaction with primer 11U113 (5′ TACAGGTGCCTGATCCAAGA 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 1) which is complementary to nucleotides 1232 to 1251 of the genome. The RT reaction was performed in a final volume of 20 ml, as described earlier (Meulenberg et al., 1993b). Subsequently, 2 ml 6M NaOH was added to the RT-reaction and the RNA was hydrolyzed for 30 min at 37° C. The single strand cDNA was purified using the high pure PCR Product Purification Kit of Boehringer Mannheim. The purified cDNA was precipitated with ethanol, resuspended in TE, and ligated to an anchor primer ALG3 (5′CACGAATTCACTATCGATTCTGGATCCTTC 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 2). This primer contains an EcoRI, ClaI, and BamHI site, and its 3′ end is modified with an amino blocking group to prevent self-ligation. The single strand cDNA product was ligated to 4 pmol ALG3 in 50 mM Tris-HCl (pH 8.0), 10 mM MgCl2, 10 mg/ml BSA, 25% PEG, 1.0 mM Hexamine Cobaltchloride, 40 mM ATP, and 0.5 ml (10 U) T4 RNA ligase (New England Biolabs), overnight at room temperature. One third of the ligation reaction was used as template in a PCR with primers LV69 (5′ AGGTCGTCGACGGGCCCCGTGATCGGGTACC 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 3) and ALG4 (5′ GAAGGATCCAGAATCGATAG 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 4). Primer LV69 is complementary to nucleotides 594 to 615 of the LV genome, whereas ALG4 is complementary to anchor primer ALG3. The PCR conditions were as described in Meulenberg et al. (1993b) and the obtained product was digested with EcoRI and SalI and cloned in pGEM-4Z. A similar strategy was used to clone the 5′ terminus of the LV genome from intracellular LV RNA. For these experiments 10 mg of total cellular RNA isolated from CL2621 cells infected with LV was used. The 5′ cDNA clones were sequenced and one clone, pABV387, containing an extension of 10 nucleotides compared to the published PRRSV sequence (Meulenberg et al., 1993a), was used for further experiments.
A 3′ end cDNA clone containing a long poly(A) tail was constructed by reverse transcription of LV RNA with primer LV76 (5′ TCTAGGAATTCTAGACGATCG(T)40 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 5), which contains an EcoRI, XbaI, and PvuI site. The reversed transcription reaction was followed by a PCR with primers LV75 (5′ TCTAGGAATTCTAGACGATCGT 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 6), which is identical to LV76 except for the poly(T) stretch, and 39U70R (5′ GGAGTGGTTAACCTCGTCAA 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 7), a sense primer corresponding to nucleotides 14566-14585 of the LV genome and containing a HpaI site. The resulting PCR products were digested with HpaI and EcoRI and cloned in cDNA clone pABV39 restricted with the same enzymes (
Sequence Analysis.
Oligonucleotide sequences were determined with the PRISM™ Ready Reaction Dye Deoxy™ Terminator Cycle Sequencing Kit and Automatic sequencer of Applied Biosystems.
Construction of Full-Length Genomic cDNA Clones of PRRSV.
cDNA clones generated earlier to determine the nucleotide sequence of the genome of LV (Meulenberg et al., 1993a), were ligated together at convenient restriction sites as shown in
A 5′ cDNA clone, containing the T7 RNA polymerase promoter directly fused to the 5′ terminus of the LV genome, was amplified by PCR from pABV387 with primers LV83 (5′ GAATTCACTAGTTAATACGACTCACTATAGATGATGTGTAGGGTATTCC 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 12) and LV69. LV83 is composed of, in order from 5′ to 3′, an EcoRI and SpeI site, a T7 RNA polymerase promoter sequence, a single G for initiation of transcription, and nucleotides 1 to 19 of the LV genome. The PCR fragment was cloned in the EcoRI and SalI site of pOK12, resulting in pABV396. The correct sequence of pABV396 was assessed by oligonucleotide sequencing. Subsequently, the LV cDNA fragments of pABV331 and pABV369 were excised with ApaI and BamHI, and were ligated to pABV396, digested with ApaI and BamHI. Finally, the resulting 5′ cDNA fragments were cloned into pABV401 and pABV402, using the SpeI site upstream of the T7 RNA polymerase promoter and the unique PmlI site at position 5168 in the viral genome. In this way, genome-length cDNA clones were obtained as corresponding to viruses resembling the parent strain and to chimeric viruses comprising foreign open reading frames.
Production of Mutant Viruses Containing a PacI and/or SwaI Site
To introduce a unique PacI site in the genome-length cDNA clone directly downstream of the ORF7 gene, the T and A at nucleotides 14987 and 14988 were both replaced by an A in a PCR using sense primer LV108 (5′ GGAGTGGTTAACCTCGTCAAGTATGGCCGGTAAAAACCAGAGCC3′) (SEQ ID NO: 13) with antisense primer LV 112 (5′CCATTCACCTGACTGTTTAATTAACTTGCACCCTGA3′) (SEQ ID NO: 14) and sense primer LV111 (5′TCAGGGTGCAAGTTAATTAAACAGTCAGGTGAATGG 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 15) with LV75. Similarly, a unique SwaI site was created by changing the G at position 14980 for a T, and the T at position 14985 for an A by PCR with primers LV108 and LV110 (5′CCTGACTGTCAATTTAAATTGCACCCTGAC 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 16) and primers LV109 (5′GTCAGGGTGCAATTTAAATTGACAGTCAGG 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 17) and LV111. The PCR fragments were ligated in pABV395 using the created PacI and SwaI site and flanking HpaI and XbaI sites, resulting in pABV427 and pABV426, respectively. This fragment was then inserted in pABV414 using the same unique HpaI and XbaI sites, resulting in pABV437 and pABV442 (see,
In Vitro Transcription and Transfection of RNA
Plasmids pABV414, pABV416, containing the full-length genomic cDNA fragment of LV, were linearized with PvuI, which is located directly downstream of the poly(A) stretch. Plasmid pABV296, which consists of ORF4 in Semliki Forest virus (SFV) expression vector pSFV1 (Meulenberg et al., 1997), was linearized with SpeI and served as control for in vitro transcription and transfection experiments. The linearized plasmids were precipitated with ethanol and 1.5 mg of these plasmids was used for in vitro transcription with T7 RNA polymerase (plasmids pABV414, pABV416) or Sp6 RNA polymerase (pABV296), according to the methods described for SFV by Liljeström and Garoff (1991 and 1993). The in vitro transcribed RNA was precipitated with isopropanol, washed with 70% ethanol and stored at −20° C. until use. BHK-21 cells were seeded in M6 wells (approximately 106 cells/well) and transfected with 2.5 mg RNA mixed with 10 ml lipofectin in optimem as described by Liljeström and Garoff (1993). Alternatively, RNA was introduced in BHK-21 cells by electroporation. In this case, 10 mg in vitro transcribed RNA or 10 mg intracellular LV RNA was transfected to approximately 107 BHK-21 cells using the electroporation conditions of Liljeström and Garoff (16). The medium was harvested 24 hours after transfection and transferred to CL2621 cells to rescue infectious virus. Transfected and infected cells were tested for expression of LV-specific proteins by an immuno peroxidase monolayer assay (IPMA), essentially as described by Wensvoort et al. (1986). Monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) 122.13, 122.59, 122.9 and 122.17, directed against the GP3, GP4, M and N protein (van Nieuwstadt et al., 1996) were used for staining in the IPMA.
Reconstruction of the 5′ Terminal Sequence of the Genomic RNA of LV.
Although the infectivity of in vitro-transcribed RNAs with truncated 5′ ends have been reported (Davis et al. 1989, Klump et al., 1990), it is generally admitted that the entire viral sequence, including the utmost 5′ and 3′ end, are required to obtain infectious clones. To clone the 5′ end of the LV genome, a modified single strand ligation to single-stranded cDNA (SLIC; Edwards et al., 1991) procedure was used. Both intracellular RNA isolated from CL2621 cells infected with LV and LV RNA from purified virions was reverse transcribed using primer LV69, which was complementary to the 5′ end of ORF1A. The first strand cDNA product was ligated to an anchor primer ALG3 of which the 3′ end was blocked for self ligation. The ligated products were amplified by PCR and cloned. Twelve clones, derived from LV intracellular RNA and resulting from two independent PCRs, and fourteen clones derived from virion RNA and resulting from two independent PCRs were sequenced. From these 26 cDNA clones, 22 clones contained an extension of 10 nucleotides (5′ ATGATGTGTA 3′) (SEQ ID NO: 18) compared to the cDNA sequence, published previously (Meulenberg et al., 1993a), whereas four clones lacked one to three nucleotides at the 5′ end of this additional sequence (Table 1). This led us to conclude that these ten nucleotides represent the utmost 5′ end of the LV genome and were therefore incorporated in the genome-length cDNA clone.
Construction of Genome-Length cDNA Clones of LV
In order to construct a genome-length cDNA clone of LV, cDNAs that were isolated and sequenced previously (Meulenberg et al., 1993a) were joined at shared restriction enzyme sites, according to the strategy depicted in
Infectivity of LV RNA
LV, preferentially, grows in porcine alveolar macrophages. Thus far, cell line CL2621 or other clones derived from the monkey kidney cell line MA104, are cell lines which have been shown to propagate LV (Benfield et al., 1992; Collins et al., 1992; Kim et al., 1993). Therefore, CL2621 cells were used to determine the optimal conditions for transfection of LV RNA.
RNA isolated from CL2621 cells infected with LV was transfected to CL2621 cells at different doses using different methods, such as lipofectin, lipofectamin, DEAE-dextran and electroporation. Cells were screened for cythopathic effect and plaques until 7 days post transfection, but these signs of infectious virus could not be detected. In addition, no LV-specific antigens could be detected in IPMA using LV-specific MAbs. RNA transcribed in vitro from pABV296 was used as control in these experiments. Plasmid pABV296 consists of the ORF4 gene encoding GP4 inserted in expression vector pSFV1 (Meulenberg et al., 1997).
The transfection efficiency of the pABV296 RNA was tested by staining of the transfected cells in IPMA with GP4-specific MAbs. The highest transfection efficiency, resulting in 0.01% positive CL2621 cells, was obtained by electroporation, whereas 80-90% positive cells were obtained using similar conditions with BHK-21 cells.
These results indicated that CL2621 cells were not suitable for transfection experiments, whereas the BHK-21 cells (not susceptible to infection with wild-type virus) surprisingly appeared very suitable. Therefore BHK-21 cells were used to test the infectivity of LV RNA. Two mg of RNA isolated from CL2621 cells infected with LV was transfected to approximately 106 BHK-21 cells with lipofectin, according to the conditions described for SFV (Liljeström and Garoff, 1993).
Twenty-four hours after transfection, cells were stained with LV-specific MAb 122.17 directed against the N protein of LV. Approximately 3-10 individual cells were stained positive, but no infectious centers or plaques suggesting cell to cell spread were observed. Transfection of the control RNA transcribed from pABV296 resulted in 60-70% positive BHK-21 cells using these conditions. The supernatant of the BHK-21 cells transfected with intracellular LV RNA and pABV296 RNA were transferred to CL2621 cells.
After 3 to 4 days, plaques were observed in the cells that were incubated with the supernatant from BHK-21 cells transfected with intracellular LV RNA, but not in those incubated with supernatant from BHK-21 cells transfected with pABV296 RNA. The plaques were positively stained with LV-specific MAbs in IPMA. Similar results were obtained when RNA isolated from purified virions of LV was used. Furthermore, the number of positively stained cells increased 2 to 4 fold when cells were transfected by electroporation.
These data indicated that LV can not infect BHK-21 cells because, most likely, they lack the receptor for LV. However, once the genomic RNA has been introduced in BHK-21 cells, new infectious virus particles are being produced and excreted into the medium. Reinfection of already transfected BHK-21 cells with these particles being naked capsids or fully or partly enveloped particles is again not possible.
In Vitro Synthesis of Infectious RNA.
Since the—to a wild-type PRRSV in essence not susceptible—BHK-21 cells were specifically appropriate for the rescue of virus from intracellular LV RNA and the susceptible CL2621 cells were not, BHK-21 cells were used to test whether RNA transcribed from the genome-length cDNA clones was infectious. Plasmids pABV414/416 were linearized with PvuI and transcribed in vitro using T7 RNA polymerase. The PvuI site is located directly downstream of the poly(A) stretch, such that the transcribed RNA contains 2 non-viral nucleotides at the 3′ end (
Growth Curves of Infectious Copy Virus Compared to Ter Huurne and LV4.2.1:
Growth Characteristics of Rescued Virus
The initial transfection and infection experiments suggested that the rescued recombinant viruses, designated vABV414 and vABV416, infect and grow equally well in porcine alveolar macrophages, but grow slower on CL2621 cells than the virus rescued from BHK-21 cells transfected with intracellular LV RNA. This intracellular LV RNA was isolated from CL2621 cells infected with LV4.2.1, which has been adapted for growth on CL2621. To study the growth properties of vABV414 and vABV416 more thoroughly, growth curves were determined in CL2621 cells and porcine alveolar macrophages and were compared with those of wild-type LV that has only been passaged on porcine alveolar macrophages (TH) and with those of LV4.2.1 grown on CL2621 cells. The growth rates of the two recombinant viruses did not differ, growing equally well regardless of whether they were derived directly from BHK-21 or further passaged on porcine alveolar macrophages (
Introduction of a Genetic Marker in the Infectious Clone of LV
To demonstrate that the genome-length cDNA clone can be used to generate mutant LV viruses, a unique PacI and SwaI site was introduced directly downstream of the ORF7 gene by PCR-directed mutagenesis (
Modern recombinant DNA technology allows us to analyze and modify genomes at the molecular level and thus gain deeper insight into their organization and expression. In the case of RNA viruses, this requires the generation of genome-length cDNA clones from which infectious transcripts can be synthesized. In most instances, a prerequisite for the construction of infectious clones is the identification of the sequences at the termini of the respective viral genome which are probably crucial for replication of viral RNA. In a previous study, it was shown that LV contains a poly(A)tail at the 3′ end (Meulenberg et al., 1993a). In the present work, the exact 5′ end of the LV genome was determined. Whereas several methods have been described to determine the 5′ end of viral genomic RNAs or mRNAs, but most of them have important limitations. For flaviruses and pestiviruses, a method has been used which is based on the circularization of genomic RNA. However, this method needs accompanying analyses to define the border between the 5′ and 3′ end of the genome. The 5′ rapid amplification of cDNA ends (5′ RACE) method is based on the addition of a homopolymeric tail with terminal deoxyribonucleotide transferase (TdT) to the first strand cDNA strand. However, the tailing reaction is rather inefficient and this method also requires additional analyses since it can not be concluded whether the first nucleotide of the tail represents the viral sequence or is already part of the enzymatically added tail. As described above, we have determined the utmost 5′ end of the viral genome by ligation of an oligonucleotide with a specified sequence to a first strand primer extension product and amplification by PCR. An extension of 10 nucleotides (ATGATGTGTA) (SEQ ID NO: 19) with respect to the published sequence was found in several independent clones and were therefore assumed to represent the utmost 5′ end nucleotides of the viral genome. Altogether, this results in a leader sequence of 221 nucleotides, which is similar in length to the leader of EAV (207 nucleotides; den Boon et al., 1991), SHFV (208 nucleotides; Zeng et al., 1995), but longer than the leader of LDV (155 nucleotides; Chen et al., 1994). However, no significant homology exists between the leader sequences of these arteriviruses.
The utmost 5′ end was incorporated in genome-length cDNA to create an infectious clone. Major problems with the generation of infectious clones concern the stability of the virus sequences when cloned in bacteria as well as the generation of the correct 5′ and 3′ termini. Although initial attempts to assemble a genome-length cDNA clone in pGEM4Z failed, the methods and principles of the present invention produced the 15,207 nucleotides long genomic cDNA fragment of LV which remained stable in low copy number plasmid pOK12. As noted above this cDNA fragment is now the longest infectious clone of a positive RNA strand virus thus far generated. Transcripts of the genomic-length cDNA clones contained a 5′ cap structure and an extra non-viral G at the 5′ end and a nonviral CG at the 3′ end, but these extensions did not abolish their infectivity. Several investigators have reported a reduced initial infection of RNA transcribed from full-length cDNA clones due to extraneous, non-authentic sequences at either the 5′ or 3′ ends or to incomplete capping. Transcripts of LV full-length cDNA lacking a cap structure were not infectious. Whereas the infectivity of transcripts of infectious cDNA clones have always been tested in cell lines that are susceptible to the virus, we were unable to demonstrate the infectivity of transcripts from genome-length cDNA clones or LV RNA isolated from CL2621 cells by transfection of these RNAs to CL2621 cells. This was due to the poor transfection efficiency in CL2621 cells, whereby viral RNA strand synthesis is probably hampered by interference or interaction with incomplete RNA fragments or capsid proteins resulting from reinfection of the CL2621 cells with defective interfering particles such as naked capsids containing only fragments of the viral genome. However, transfection of transcripts from full-length cDNA clones and intracellular LV RNA to BHK-21 resulted in the production and release of infectious virus which could be rescued in CL2621 cells. Reinfection of BHK-21 cells with naked capsids does not occur and thus does not hamper full-length viral RNA synthesis. The specific infectivity was roughly 400-1500 positive cells per mg in vitro transcribed RNA, whereas 2 to 5 positive cells were obtained per mg LV intracellular RNA. However, these specific infectivities can not be compared because only a very small fraction of the intracellular RNA isolated from LV-infected CL2621 cells represent genomic LV RNA. Furthermore, the amount of genomic RNA isolated from virions which was used for transfections was too small to allow accurate quantification.
In addition, BHK-21 cells were scored for antigen production in IPMA with LV-specific MAbs, which does not necessarily correlate with production of infectious virus. This was clear from the fact that the supernatant of BHK-21 cells transfected with 2 mg intracellular LV RNA contained a higher titer of plaque forming units assayed on CL2621 cells than the supernatant of BHK-21 cells transfected with 2.5 mg transcript of full-length cDNA clones. Although it was shown previously for a number of viruses that the length of the poly(A) tail influenced the infectivity of the viral transcripts (Holy and Abouhaidar, 1993; Sarow, 1989), we did not observe any difference in infectivity between transcripts from genomic cDNA clones containing a tail of 45 or 109 residues. It might be possible that a tail of 45 A residues is above a threshold length below which stability of the corresponding transcripts will be altered. We have found a clone difference at amino acid 1084 in ORF1a, giving a PRO and LEU at a ratio of 1:1. This amino acid did not have an influence on infectivity since transcripts of full-length cDNA clones containing this LEU or PRO codon did not display any difference in infectivity of BHK-21 cells.
The genome-length infectious clone was used to generate a chimeric virus expressing the nucleocapsid protein of PRRSV strain ATCC VR2332. In addition, the genome-length infectious clone was used to generate a chimeric virus expressing the nucleocapsid protein of the mouse virus LDV. The chimeric viruses can be distinguished from parental viruses with strain-specific MAbs. They do not stain with monoclonal antibodies specifically reactive with the N (ORF7) protein of the Ter Huurne strain of PRRSV. Furthermore, the chimeric virus in which the PRRSV N protein is substituted with the LDV N protein is not reactive with porcine convalescent antibodies reactive with the PRRSV N protein. Since all PRRSV infected pigs develop antibodies directed against the PRRSV N protein, the chimeric viruses can be used for future projects using new live vaccines against PRRSV, making use of this virus as a vector system which is specifically targeted to its host cell, the alveolar lung macrophage. In this respect, it should be mentioned that initial attempts to confer protection with killed virus or recombinant subunits were disappointing. The up-to-date, only effective, vaccine against PRRS available is a modified live vaccine based on a US strain (Gorcyca, et al., 1995). However, pigs vaccinated with this modified live product can not be discriminated from pigs infected with field virus. The infectious clone of PRRSV thus provides a so-called marker vaccine by site-directed mutagenesis of the genome, such that vaccinated pigs can be distinguished from field virus-infected pigs on the basis of difference in serum antibodies. A distinguishing assay can thus be fashioned using methods known to those skilled in the art.
The infectious clone of LV, described here, is the longest infectious clone ever developed of a positive strand RNA virus and the first of the arterivirus family. The generation of this infectious clone of PRRSV opens up new opportunities for studies directed at the pathogenesis, host tropism, and replication and transcription of this virus. Arteriviruses and coronaviruses share a specific transcription mechanism also referred to as leader primed transcription which involves the generation of a so-called nested set of subgenomic RNAs containing a common 5′ leader (Spaan et. al., 1988; Plagemann and Moennig, 1991). This leader primed transcription is a complex process which is not yet fully understood. Studies of coronavirus virologist to elucidate the underlying mechanism of leader-primed transcription are restricted to analyses and site directed mutagenesis of cDNAs of defecting interfering RNAs, since the large size of the genome (28 to 30 kb) has impeded the construction of an infectious clone. The infectious clone of PRRSV thus provides a model system to study and unravel the intriguing mechanism of transcription and replication of arteriviruses and coronaviruses.
Infectious clones derived from PRRSV can also be used as a delivery system or vector vaccine virus for foreign antigens inserted in the PRRSV genome because the virus infects macrophages and macrophage-lineage cells in bone marrow and other cells of the immune system and distribute the antigen-containing virus through its progeny cells. In the specific instance of antigens containing fragments of the ORF7 or N protein of Arteriviruses or PRRSV, these antigens will be (ove)expressed at the outer side of the cell membrane of the infected cell, thereby further enhancing the immune response. Such immunological booster effects will cause a lifelong (because of continuous stimulation on a low level) immunity against pathogens. We can use the virus as an antigen carrier by building in the information for epitopes of other pathogenic organisms or substances. Several modified PRRS viruses carrying foreign epitopic information may be mixed and administered at one time. This enables active immunity against several different epitopes of one pathogen, or active immunity against several different pathogens. Safety of the modified PRRSV vaccines (such as non-shedding) can be ensured by deleting the information of those viral proteins that are needed to produce enveloped, infectious virus. This virus has to be propagated in a cell-line that constitutively expresses that envelope protein. Virus replicating in this complementary cell-line has a complete envelope and is capable of infecting macrophages in the pig. After one replication-cycle, the progeny virus, missing the information for the envelope protein, is no longer capable of infecting other cells as a fully enveloped virus. Infection of macrophages in the body is still possible as naked capsid. In this way, the vaccine will be contained to the animal that has been vaccinated and will not spread to other animals.
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1) The underlined nucleotides represent additional sequences that were not found in cDNA clones isolated and sequenced previously (Meulenberg et al., 1993a).
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 96203024.3 | Oct 1996 | EP | regional |
This application is a continuation of application Ser. No. 09/297,535 filed Oct. 12, 1999, now U.S. Pat. No. ______ which was the National Stage of International Application No. PCT/NL97/00593 filed Oct. 29, 1997.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 09874626 | Jun 2001 | US |
| Child | 11239529 | Sep 2005 | US |
| Parent | 09297535 | Oct 1999 | US |
| Child | 09874626 | Jun 2001 | US |
