Patent Application
20240079988
The present disclosure relates to the field of power generation and, in particular, to systems, devices, and methods for the generation of power. More specifically, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to power generation devices and systems, as well as related methods, which produce optical power, plasma, and thermal power and produces electrical power via a magnetohydrodynamic power converter, an optical to electric power converter, plasma to electric power converter, photon to electric power converter, or a thermal to electric power converter. In addition, embodiments of the present disclosure describe systems, devices, and methods that use the ignition of a water or water-based fuel source to generate optical power, mechanical power, electrical power, and/or thermal power using photovoltaic power converters. These and other related embodiments are described in detail in the present disclosure.
Power generation can take many forms, harnessing the power from plasma. Successful commercialization of plasma may depend on power generation systems capable of efficiently forming plasma and then capturing the power of the plasma produced.
Plasma may be formed during ignition of certain fuels. These fuels can include water or water-based fuel source. During ignition, a plasma cloud of electron-stripped atoms is formed, and high optical power may be released. The high optical power of the plasma can be harnessed by an electric converter of the present disclosure. The ions and excited state atoms can recombine and undergo electronic relaxation to emit optical power. The optical power can be converted to electricity with photovoltaics.
Leveraging plasmas for power generation is often difficult to sustain and achieve. Not only are the plasma reactions difficult to sustain, but the high energies created by plasma have profound effect on the surrounding system often causing break down of components used to create and maintain these plasmas. Furthermore, conversion of light output from plasmas is often associated with energy losses where, for example, low energy light (e.g., infrared light) is below the bandgap of photovoltaics and therefore lost, to the system. Moreover, plasma light output to photovoltaic is often impeded by a window between reaction cells and the photovoltaic that is susceptible to certain deformations and material accumulation thereon resulting in lower delivery of light to the photovoltaic and energy loss from the system.
The present disclosure is directed to power systems that generates at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy comprising:
Power systems (herein referred to as “SunCells”) of the present disclosure may comprise:
Typically, light output from the reaction cell and/or blackbody radiator is collected in a photovoltaic for electrity generation and/or a blackbody radiator which outputs energy thermally and optically, each of which may be individually collected. In some embodiments, the system may comprise a PV window between a reaction cell comprising the second plasma and the thermophotovoltaic converter. In order to maintain energy generation, the molten metal (e.g., tin) may not wet the PV window by levarging materials, systems, and methods of the present disclosure. In some embodiments, the gas may be a reaction mixture that does not oxidize tin or provides minimal oxidation to tin (e.g., less than 10% or less than 5% or less than 1% of the molten metal in the system is not oxidized with the gas provided to the system for 12 hours). In various implementations, the PV window may comprise (or predominantly comprises) flat surfaces, the power adapter comprises a photovoltaic (PV) converter, and the PV converter comprises a flat dense receiver array panel to receive the plasma emission through the PV window with a geometry matching the PV window. These configurations may minimize reflectance of low energy light not absorbed by the photovoltaic but directed back towards the reaction cell for light recycling. In some embodiments, the PV window comprises at least one of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, and MgF2.
The high intensity environment generated by the system has profound effect on the system components. Relative dimensions, geometries, and placements of each component are all implicated in the creation of steady state plasmas. These components should be balanced in order to keep the system capable of generating the first and second plasmas. Typically, the each electrode of the two electrodes comprises a molten metal reservoir and an electrical feedthrough to supply the current only to the molten metal therein and thereby supply the ignition current. In various implementations, the system may comprise a reaction cell chamber connected to the reservoirs wherein the walls of at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are electrically isolated by at least one of a ceramic coating and a liner. In some embodiments, at least one of the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber are thermally insulated by a liner. The liner may be or comprise carbon and/or tungsten optionally coated a ceramic coating. In other embodiments, the reservoirs are electrically isolated from each other by an electrical break in at least one of the reservoirs.
The molten metal flowing between the two electrodes may be formed from dual molten metal injection systems independently in fluid communication with one or more molten metal reservoirs comprising the molten metal;
Plasma generation involving molten metal often results in coating the PV window (e.g., with molten metal, with an oxide of the molten metal) thereby preventing optical transmission to the photovoltaic converter. By minimizing this accumulation, the systems of the present disclosure may be used for many applications aside from photovoltaic conversion. For example, in some embodiments, the dual molten streams may intersect in a chamber comprising a window and light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation exits the window to heat a load. The load may be an oven chamber (or air/water/steam therein) heated by the light produced from the second plasma or the blackbody radiation. In some embodiments, the second plasma reaction occurs in a reaction chamber comprising a PV window;
Systems for removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window are also provided. These systems may comprise;
Methods are also provided. The method may, for example, generate power or produce light, or product a plasma. In some embodiments, the method comprises:
Methods are also provided. For example, the method may comprise:
The disclosure also embraces methods for removing a molten metal oxide (e.g., tin oxide) from a PV window. The method may comprise, for example, directing a deaccumulation material towards said PV window;
In some embodiments, the gas in the plasma generation cell is a mixture of hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2). For example, the relative molar ratio of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01-50 (e.g. from 0.1-20, from 0.1-15, less than 10, less than 5, less than 2, etc.). In some embodiments, the relative flow rate of oxygen to hydrogen is from 0.01-50 by volume at room temperature (e.g. from 0.1-20, from 0.1-15, less than 10, less than 5, less than 2, etc.). In certain implementations, the molten metal is gallium or tin. In some embodiments, the reaction products have at least one spectroscopic signature as described herein (e.g., those described herein and in the Appendix or SubAppendix of U.S. App. No. 62/236,198, filed Aug. 23, 2021, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety and, in particular, the spectroscopic measurements therein such as EPR and Raman of material produced by systems of the present disclosure and collected following thereof). In various aspects, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, and the walls of said reaction cell comprise a liner having increased resistance to alloy formation with the molten metal and the liner and the walls of the reaction cell have a high permability to the reaction products (e.g. stainless-steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr—Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt %)-Mo(4.86 wt %)-Zr(0.81 wt %)). The liner may be made of a crystalline material (e.g., SiC, BN, quartz) and/or a refractory metal such as at least one of Nb, Ta, Mo, or W. In certain embodiments, the second plasma is formed in a reaction cell, wherein the walls reaction cell chamber comprise a first and a second section, the first section composed of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr—Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt %)-Mo(4.86 wt %)-Zr(0.81 wt %);
The power system may comprise a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen and oxygen gases and/or water molecules and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and/or a hydrogen dissociator. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a plasma cell. The plasma cell may comprise a center positive electrode and a grounded tubular body counter electrode wherein a voltage (e.g., a voltage in the range of 50 V to 1000 V) is applied across the electrodes to induce the formation of a plasma from a hydrogen (H2) and oxygen (O2) gas mixture. In some embodiments, the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material. In certain implementations, the gas mixture supplied to the plasma generation cell to produce the first plasma comprises a non-stoichiometric H2/O2 mixture (e.g., an H2/O2 mixture having less than ⅓ mole % O2 or from 0.01% to 30%, or from 0.1% to 20%, or less than 10%, or less than 5%, or less than 3% O2 by mole percentage of the mixture) that is flowed through the plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell) to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing the reaction with sufficient exothermicity to produce the second plasma. A non-stoichiometric H2/O2 mixture may pass through the glow discharge to produce an effluence of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and with an internal energy sufficient to prevent formation of hydrogen bonds);
The power system may comprise at least one of the reaction chamber (e.g. where the nascent water and atomic hydrogen undergo the second plasma forming reaction) and/or reservoir comprising at least one refractory material liner that is resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal. The inner wall of the reaction chamber may comprise a ceramic coating, a carbon liner lined with a W, Nb, or Mo liner, lined with W plates. In some embodiments, the reservoir comprises a carbon liner and the carbon is covered by the molten metal contained therein. In various implementations, the reaction chamber wall comprises a material that is highly permeable to the reaction product gas. In various embodiments, the reaction chamber wall comprises at least one of stainless steel (e.g., Mo—Cr stainless steel), niobium, molybdenum, or tungsten.
The power system may comprise a condenser to condense molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber. In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise a vacuum line wherein the condenser comprises a section of the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump that is vertical relative to the reaction cell chamber and comprises an inert, high-surface area filler material that condenses the molten metal vapor and metal oxide particles and vapor and returns them to the reaction cell chamber while permitting the vacuum pump to maintain a vacuum pressure in the reaction cell chamber.
The power system may comprise a blackbody radiator and a window to output light from the blackbody radiator. Such embodiments may be used to generate light (e.g., used for lighting).
In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise a gas mixer for mixing the hydrogen and oxygen gases and a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner and/or a hydrogen dissociator. For example, the power system may comprise a hydrogen and oxygen recombiner wherein the hydrogen and oxygen recombiner comprises a recombiner catalytic metal supported by an inert support material.
The power system may be operated with parameters that maximize reactions, and specifically, reactions capable of outputting enough energy to sustain plasma generation and net energy output. For example, in some embodiments, the pressure of the vessel during operation is in the range of 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr. In certain implementations, the hydrogen mass flow rate exceeds that of the oxygen mass flow rate by a factor in the range of 1.5 to 1000. In some embodiments, the pressure may be over 50 Torr and may further comprise a gas recirculation system.
In some embodiments, an inert gas (e.g., argon) is injected into the vessel. The inert gas may be used to prolong the lifetime of certain in situ formed reactants (such as nascent water).
The power system may comprise a water micro-injector configured to inject water into the vessel such that the plasma produced from the energy output from the reaction comprises water vapor. In some embodiments, the micro-injector injects water into the vessel. In some embodiments, water is flowed towards the biased crossing molten streams as a vapor. In some embodiments, water is produced in the glow discharge cell. In some embodiments, water vapor is present in the gas mixture. In some embodiments, humid air is used in gas resulting in delivery of water to the reaction cell. In some embodiments, the H2 molar percentage for generation of the second plasma is in the range of 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of the water vapor (e.g., the water vapor injected by the micro-injector, the water present in the effluence of the glow discharge cell).
The power system may further comprise a heater to melt a metal (e.g., tin or gallium or silver or copper or combinations thereof) to form the molten metal. The power system may further comprise a molten metal recovery system configured to recover molten metal after the reaction comprising a molten metal overflow channel which collects overflow from the non-injector molten metal reservoir.
The molten metal injection system may further comprise electrodes in the molten metal reservoir and the non-injection molten metal reservoir; and the ignition system comprises a source of electrical power or ignition current to supply opposite voltages to the injector and non-injector reservoir electrodes; wherein the source of electrical power supplies current and power flow through the stream of molten metal to cause the reaction of the reactants to form a plasma inside of the vessel.
The source of electrical power typically delivers a current electrical energy sufficient to cause the reactants to react to form the second plasma. In certain embodiments, the source of electrical power comprises at least one supercapacitor. In various implementations, the current from the molten metal ignition system power is in the range of 10 A to 50,000 A.
Typically, the molten metal pump system is configured to pump molten metal from a molten metal reservoir to a non-injection reservoir, wherein a stream of molten metal is created therebetween. In some embodiments, the molten metal pump system is one or more electromagnetic pumps and each electromagnetic pump comprises one of a
In various implementations, the non-injector reservoir is aligned above (e.g., vertically with) the injector and the injector is configured to produce the molten stream orientated towards the non-injector reservoir such that molten metal from the molten metal stream may collect in the reservoir and the molten metal stream makes electrical contact with the non-injector reservoir electrode; and wherein the molten metal pools on the non-injector reservoir electrode. In certain embodiments, the ignition current to the non-injector reservoir may comprise:
The ignition current density may be related to the vessel geometry for at least the reason that the vessel geometry is related to the ultimate plasma shape. In various implementations, the vessel may comprise an hourglass geometry (e.g., a geometry wherein a middle portion of the internal surface area of the vessel has a smaller cross section than the cross section within 20% or 10% or 5% of each distal end along the major axis) and oriented in a vertical orientation (e.g., the major axis approximately parallel with the force of gravity) in cross section wherein the injector reservoir is below the waist and configured such that the level of molten metal in the reservoir is about proximal to the waist of the hourglass to increase the ignition current density. In some embodiments, the vessel is symmetric about the major longitudinal axis. In some embodiments, the vessel may an hourglass geometry and comprise a refractory metal liner. In some embodiments, the injector reservoir of the vessel having an hourglass geometry may comprise the positive electrode for the ignition current.
The molten metal may comprise at least one of tin, silver, gallium, silver-copper alloy, copper, or combinations thereof. In some embodiments, the molten metal has a melting point below 700° C. For example, the molten metal may comprise at least one of bismuth, lead, tin, indium, cadmium, gallium, antimony, or alloys such as Rose's metal, Cerrosafe, Wood's metal, Field's metal, Cerrolow 136, Cerrolow 117, Bi—Pb—Sn—Cd—In—Tl, and Galinstan. In certain aspects, at least one of component of the power generation system that contacts that molten metal (e.g., reservoirs, electrodes) comprises, is clad with, or is coated with one or more alloy resistant material that resists formation of an alloy with the molten metal. Exemplary alloy resistant materials are W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt %)-Mo(4.86 wt %)-Zr(0.81 wt %), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, 347 SS, Cr—Mo SS, silicide coated, carbon, and a ceramic such as BN, quartz, Si3N4, Shapal, AlN, Sialon, Al2O3, ZrO2, or HfO2. In some embodiments, at least a portion of the vessel is composed of a ceramic and/or a metal. The ceramic may comprise at least one of a metal oxide, quartz, alumina, zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride, and a glass ceramic. In some embodiments, the metal of the vessel comprises at least one of a stainless steel and a refractory metal.
In some embodiments, the power generation system generates a water/hydrogen mixture to be directed towards the molten metal cell through a plasma generation cell. In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell such as a glow discharge cell induce the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture oxygen and hydrogen); wherein effluence of the plasma generation cell is directed towards the any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir). Upon interaction of the biased molten metal with this effluence, a second plasma (more energetic than that created by the plasma generation cell) may be formed. In these embodiments, the plasma generation cell may be fed hydrogen (H2) and oxygen mixtures (O2) having a molar excess of hydrogen such that the effluence comprises atomic hydrogen (H) and water (H2O). The water in the effluence may be in the form of nascent water, water sufficiently energized and at a concentration such that it is not hydrogen bonded to other components in the effluence. This effluence may proceed in a second more energetic reaction involving the H and HOH that forms a plasma that intensifies upon interaction with the molten metal and a supplied external current through at least one of the molten metal and the plasma that may produce additional atomic hydrogen (from the H2 in the effluence) to further propagate the second energetic reaction.
In some embodiments, the power system may further comprise at least one heat exchanger (e.g., a heat exchanger coupled to a wall of the vessel wall, a heat exchanger which may transfer heat to or from the molten metal or to or from the molten metal reservoir). In some embodiments, the heat exchanger comprises one of a (i) plate, (ii) block in shell, (iii) SiC annular groove, (iv) SiC polyblock, and (v) shell and tube heat exchanger. In certain implementations, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprises conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, baffles, at least one pump to recirculate the hot molten metal from the reservoir through the heat exchanger and return the cool molten metal to the reservoir, and one or more a water pumps and water coolant or one or more air blowers and air coolant to flow cold coolant through the external coolant inlet and shell wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exists the external coolant outlet. In some embodiments, the shell and tube heat exchanger comprise conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, and a heat exchanger outlet line comprising carbon that line and expand independently of conduits, manifolds, distributors, a heat exchanger inlet line, a heat exchanger outlet line, a shell, an external coolant inlet, an external coolant outlet, and baffles comprising stainless steel. The external coolant of the heat exchanger comprises air, and air from a microturbine compressor or a microturbine recuperator forces cool air through the external coolant inlet and shell wherein the coolant is heated by heat transfer from the conduits and exists the external coolant outlet, and the hot coolant output from the external coolant outlet flows into a microturbine to convert thermal power to electricity.
In some embodiments, the power system comprises at least one power converter or output system of the reaction power output comprises at least one of the group of a thermophotovoltaic converter, a photovoltaic converter, a photoelectronic converter, a magnetohydrodynamic converter, a plasmadynamic converter, a thermionic converter, a thermoelectric converter, a Sterling engine, a supercritical CO2 cycle converter, a Brayton cycle converter, an external-combustor type Brayton cycle engine or converter, a Rankine cycle engine or converter, an organic Rankine cycle converter, an internal-combustion type engine, and a heat engine, a heater, and a boiler. The vessel may comprise a light transparent photovoltaic (PV) window to transmit light from the inside of the vessel to a photovoltaic converter and at least one of a vessel geometry and at least one baffle comprising a spinning window. The spinning window comprises a system to reduce gallium or tin oxide comprising at least one of a hydrogen reduction system and an electrolysis system. In some embodiments the spinning window comprises or is composed of quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, magnesium fluoride, or combinations thereof. In several implementations, the spinning window is coated with a coating that suppresses adherence of at least one of gallium or tin and gallium or tin oxide. The spinning window coating may comprise at least one of diamond like carbon, carbon, boron nitride, and an alkali hydroxide. In some embodiments, the positive ignition electrode (e.g., the top ignition electrode, the electrode displaced above the other electrode) is closer to the window (e.g., as compared to the negative ignition electrode) and the positive electrode emits blackbody radiation through the photovoltaic to the photovoltaic converter.
The power converter or output system may comprise a magnetohydrodynamic (MHD) converter comprising a nozzle connected to the vessel, a magnetohydrodynamic channel, electrodes, magnets, a metal collection system, a metal recirculation system, a heat exchanger, and optionally a gas recirculation system. In some embodiments, the molten metal may comprise silver. In embodiments with a magnetohydrodynamic converter, the magnetohydrodynamic converter may be delivered oxygen gas to form silver particles nanoparticles (e.g., of size in the molecular regime such as less than about 10 nm or less than about 1 nm) upon interaction with the silver in the molten metal stream, wherein the silver nanoparticles are accelerated through the magnetohydrodynamic nozzle to impart a kinetic energy inventory of the power produced from the reaction. The reactant supply system may supply and control delivery of the oxygen gas to the converter. In various implementations, at least a portion of the kinetic energy inventory of the silver nanoparticles is converted to electrical energy in a magnetohydrodynamic channel. Such version of electrical energy may result in coalescence of the nanoparticles. The nanoparticles may coalesce as molten metal which at least partially absorbs the oxygen in a condensation section of the magnetohydrodynamic converter (also referred to herein as an MHD condensation section) and the molten metal comprising absorbed oxygen is returned to the injector reservoir by a metal recirculation system. In some embodiments, the oxygen may be released from the metal by the plasma in the vessel. In some embodiments, the plasma is maintained in the magnetohydrodynamic channel and metal collection system to enhance the absorption of the oxygen by the molten metal.
The molten metal pump system may comprise a first stage electromagnetic pump and a second stage electromagnetic pump, wherein the first stage comprises a pump for a metal recirculation system, and the second stage that comprises the pump of the metal injector system.
The reaction induced by the reactants produces enough energy in order to initiate the formation of a plasma in the vessel. These measurable spectroscopic signatures and reaction may be used to identify the nature of the second plasma. For example, the reactions may produce a hydrogen product characterized as one or more of:
fluxon quantum numbers mΦ=1, 2, 3;
E
Raman
=ΔE
J=0→J′
+E
S/O,rot
+E
Φ,rot=11701 cm−1+m528 cm−1+mΦ31 cm−1,
E
Raman
=ΔE
J=0→J′
+E
S/O,rot
+E
Φ,rot=7801 cm−1(13,652 cm−1)+m528 cm−1+mΦ3/246 cm−1,
corresponding spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling were also observed with the pure, concerted, and double transitions;
E
Raman
=ΔE
J=0→3
+ΔE
J=0→1
+E
S/O,rot
+E
Φ,rot=13,652 cm−1+m528 cm−1+mΦ31 cm−1);
E
Raman
=ΔE
J=0→J′
+E
S/O,rot
+E
Φ,rot=8776 cm−1(14,627 cm−1)+m528 cm−1+mΦ31 cm−1,
E
Raman
=ΔE
J=0→J′
+E
S/O,rot
+E
Φ,rot=10,239 cm−1+m528 cm−1+mΦ3/246 cm−1,
wherein spin-orbital coupling and fluxon coupling are also observed with both the pure and concerted transition;
These reactions may produce a hydrogen product characterized as one or more of:
In some embodiments, the hydrogen product formed by the reaction comprises the hydrogen product complexed with at least one of (i) an element other than hydrogen, (ii) an ordinary hydrogen species comprising at least one of H+, ordinary H2, ordinary H−, and ordinary H3+, an organic molecular species, and (iv) an inorganic species. In some embodiments, the hydrogen product comprises an oxyanion compound. In various implementations, the hydrogen product (or a recovered hydrogen product from embodiments comprising a getter) may comprise at least one compound having the formula selected from the group of:
The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the disclosure and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the disclosure. In the drawings:
Disclosed herein are power generation systems and methods of power generation which convert the energy output from reactions involving atomic hydrogen into electrical and/or thermal energy. These reactions may involve catalyst systems which release energy from atomic hydrogen to form lower energy states wherein the electron shell is at a closer position relative to the nucleus. The released power is harnessed for power generation and additionally new hydrogen species and compounds are desired products. These energy states are predicted by classical physical laws and require a catalyst to accept energy from the hydrogen in order to undergo the corresponding energy-releasing transition.
A theory which may explain the exothermic reactions produced by the power generation systems of the present disclosure involves a nonradiative transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen to certain catalysts (e.g., nascent water). Classical physics gives closed-form solutions of the hydrogen atom, the hydride ion, the hydrogen molecular ion, and the hydrogen molecule and predicts corresponding species having fractional principal quantum numbers. Atomic hydrogen may undergo a catalytic reaction with certain species, including itself, that can accept energy in integer multiples of the potential energy of atomic hydrogen, m·27.2 eV, wherein m is an integer. The predicted reaction involves a resonant, nonradiative energy transfer from otherwise stable atomic hydrogen to the catalyst capable of accepting the energy. The product is H(1/p), fractional Rydberg states of atomic hydrogen called “hydrino atoms,” wherein n=½, ⅓, ¼, . . . , 1/p (p<137 is an integer) replaces the well-known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states. Each hydrino state also comprises an electron, a proton, and a photon, but the field contribution from the photon increases the binding energy rather than decreasing it corresponding to energy desorption rather than absorption. Since the potential energy of atomic hydrogen is 27.2 eV, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m·27.2 eV for another (m+1)th H atom [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, posted at https://brilliantlightpower.com/book-download-and-streaming/ (“Mills GUTCP”)]. For example, a H atom can act as a catalyst for another H by accepting 27.2 eV from it via through-space energy transfer such as by magnetic or induced electric dipole-dipole coupling to form an intermediate that decays with the emission of continuum bands with short wavelength cutoffs and energies of
In addition to atomic H, a molecule that accepts m·27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule by the same energy may also serve as a catalyst. The potential energy of H2O is 81.6 eV. Then, by the same mechanism, the nascent H2O molecule (not hydrogen bonded in solid, liquid, or gaseous state) formed by a thermodynamically favorable reduction of a metal oxide is predicted to serve as a catalyst to form H (¼) with an energy release of 204 eV, comprising an 81.6 eV transfer to HOH and a release of continuum radiation with a cutoff at 10.1 nm (122.4 eV).
In the H-atom catalyst reaction involving a transition to the
state, m H atoms serve as a catalyst of m·27.2 eV for another (m+1)th H atom. Then, the reaction between m+1 hydrogen atoms whereby m atoms resonantly and nonradiatively accept m·27.2 eV from the (m+1)th hydrogen atom such that mH serves as the catalyst is given by
And, the overall reaction is
The catalysis reaction (m=3) regarding the potential energy of nascent H2O [R. Mills, The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Physics; September 2016 Edition, posted at https.//brilliantlightpower.com/book-download-and-streaming/] is
And, the overall reaction is
After the energy transfer to the catalyst (Eqs. (1) and (5)), an intermediate
is formed having the radius of the H atom and a central field of m+1 times the central field of a proton. The radius is predicted to decrease as the electron undergoes radial acceleration to a stable state having a radius of 1/(m+1) the radius of the uncatalyzed hydrogen atom, with the release of m2·13.6 eV of energy. The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the
intermediate (e.g. Eq. (2) and Eq. (6)) is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy
given by
and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff Here the extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the H*[aH/4] intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E=m2·13.6=9·13.6=122.4 eV (10.1 nm) [where p=m+1=4 and m=3 in Eq. (9)] and extending to longer wavelengths. The continuum radiation band at 10.1 nm and going to longer wavelengths for the theoretically predicted transition of H to lower-energy, so called “hydrino” state H(¼), was observed only arising from pulsed pinch gas discharges comprising some hydrogen. Another observation predicted by Eqs. (1) and (5) is the formation of fast, excited state H atoms from recombination of fast H+. The fast atoms give rise to broadened Balmer α emission. Greater than 50 eV Balmer α line broadening that reveals a population of extraordinarily high-kinetic-energy hydrogen atoms in certain mixed hydrogen plasmas is a well-established phenomenon wherein the cause is due to the energy released in the formation of hydrinos. Fast H was previously observed in continuum-emitting hydrogen pinch plasmas.
Additional catalyst and reactions to form hydrino are possible. Specific species (e.g. He+, Ar+, Sr+, K, Li, HCl, and NaH, OH, SH, SeH, nascent H2O, nH (n=integer)) identifiable on the basis of their known electron energy levels are required to be present with atomic hydrogen to catalyze the process. The reaction involves a nonradiative energy transfer followed by q·13.6 eV continuum emission or q·13.6 eV transfer to H to form extraordinarily hot, excited-state H and a hydrogen atom that is lower in energy than unreacted atomic hydrogen that corresponds to a fractional principal quantum number. That is, in the formula for the principal energy levels of the hydrogen atom:
where aH is the Bohr radius for the hydrogen atom (52.947 pm), e is the magnitude of the charge of the electron, and εo is the vacuum permittivity, fractional quantum numbers:
replace the well known parameter n=integer in the Rydberg equation for hydrogen excited states and represent lower-energy-state hydrogen atoms called “hydrinos.” The n=1 state of hydrogen and the
states of hydrogen are nonradiative, but a transition between two nonradiative states, say n=1 to n=½, is possible via a nonradiative energy transfer. Hydrogen is a special case of the stable states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the corresponding radius of the hydrogen or hydrino atom is given by
where p=1,2,3, . . . . In order to conserve energy, energy must be transferred from the hydrogen atom to the catalyst in units of an integer of the potential energy of the hydrogen atom in the normal n=1 state, and the radius transitions to
Hydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a suitable catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of
m·27.2 eV (14)
where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m·27.2 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.2 eV are suitable for most applications.
The catalyst reactions involve two steps of energy release: a nonradiative energy transfer to the catalyst followed by additional energy release as the radius decreases to the corresponding stable final state. Thus, the general reaction is given by
q, r, m, and p are integers.
has the radius of the hydrogen atom (corresponding to the 1 in the denominator) and a central field equivalent to (m+p) times that of a proton, and
is the corresponding stable state with the radius of
The catalyst product, H(1/p), may also react with an electron to form a hydrino hydride ion H− (1/p), or two H(1/p) may react to form the corresponding molecular hydrino H2 (1/p). Specifically, the catalyst product, H(1/p), may also react with an electron to form a novel hydride ion H− (1/p) with a binding energy EB:
where p=integer>1, s=½, ℏ is Planck's constant bar, μo is the permeability of vacuum, me is the mass of the electron, μe is the reduced electron mass given by
where mp is the mass of the proton, ao is the Bohr radius, and the ionic radius is
From Eq. (19), the calculated ionization energy of the hydride ion is 0.75418 eV, and the experimental value is 6082.99±0.15 cm−1 (0.75418 eV). The binding energies of hydrino hydride ions may be measured by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS).
Upfield-shifted NMR peaks are direct evidence of the existence of lower-energy state hydrogen with a reduced radius relative to ordinary hydride ion and having an increase in diamagnetic shielding of the proton. The shift is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eq. (7.87)).
where the first term applies to H− with p=1 and p=integer>1 for H− (1/p) and a is the fine structure constant. The predicted hydrino hydride peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary hydride ion. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H−, H, H2, or H+ alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8, −9, −10, −11, −12, −13, −14, −15, −16, −17, −18, −19, −20, −21, −22, −23, −24, −25, −26, −27, −28, −29, −30, −31, −32, −33, −34, −35, −36, −37, −38, −39, and −40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about −31.5 relative to a bare proton, may be −(p29.9+p22.74) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of ±5 ppm, ±10 ppm, ±20 ppm, ±30 ppm, ±40 ppm, ±50 ppm, ±60 ppm, ±70 ppm, ±80 ppm, ±90 ppm, and ±100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be −(p29.9+p21.59×10−3) ppm (Eq. (20)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.10% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%. In another embodiment, the presence of a hydrino species such as a hydrino atom, hydride ion, or molecule in a solid matrix such as a matrix of a hydroxide such as NaOH or KOH causes the matrix protons to shift upfield. The matrix protons such as those of NaOH or KOH may exchange. In an embodiment, the shift may cause the matrix peak to be in the range of about −0.1 ppm to −5 ppm relative to TMS. The NMR determination may comprise magic angle spinning 1H nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy (MAS 1H NMR).
H(1/p) may react with a proton and two H (1/p) may react to form H2(1/p)+ and H2 (1/p), respectively. The hydrogen molecular ion and molecular charge and current density functions, bond distances, and energies were solved from the Laplacian in ellipsoidal coordinates with the constraint of nonradiation.
The total energy ET of the hydrogen molecular ion having a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is
where p is an integer, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and p is the reduced nuclear mass. The total energy of the hydrogen molecule having a central field of +pe at each focus of the prolate spheroid molecular orbital is
The bond dissociation energy, ED, of the hydrogen molecule H2(1/p) is the difference between the total energy of the corresponding hydrogen atoms and ET
E
D
=E(2H(1/p))−ET (24)
where
H2 (1/p) may be identified by X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) wherein the ionization product in addition to the ionized electron may be at least one of the possibilities such as those comprising two protons and an electron, a hydrogen (H) atom, a hydrino atom, a molecular ion, hydrogen molecular ion, and H2 (1/p) wherein the energies may be shifted by the matrix.
The NMR of catalysis-product gas provides a definitive test of the theoretically predicted chemical shift of H2 (1/p). In general, the 1H NMR resonance of H2 (1/p) is predicted to be upfield from that of H2 due to the fractional radius in elliptic coordinates wherein the electrons are significantly closer to the nuclei. The predicted shift,
for H2 (1/p) is given by the sum of the contributions of the diamagnetism of the two electrons and the photon field of magnitude p (Mills GUTCP Eqs. (11.415-11.416)):
where the first term applies to H2 with p=1 and p=integer>1 for H2 (1/p). The experimental absolute H2 gas-phase resonance shift of −28.0 ppm is in excellent agreement with the predicted absolute gas-phase shift of −28.01 ppm (Eq. (28)). The predicted molecular hydrino peaks are extraordinarily upfield shifted relative to ordinary H2. In an embodiment, the peaks are upfield of TMS. The NMR shift relative to TMS may be greater than that known for at least one of ordinary H−, H, H2, or H+ alone or comprising a compound. The shift may be greater than at least one of 0, −1, −2, −3, −4, −5, −6, −7, −8, −9, −10, −11, −12, −13, −14, −15, −16, −17, −18, −19, −20, −21, −22, −23, −24, −25, −26, −27, −28, −29, −30, −31, −32, −33, −34, −35, −36, −37, −38, −39, and −40 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton, wherein the shift of TMS is about −31.5 ppm relative to a bare proton, may be −(p28.01+p22.56) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of 5 ppm, +10 ppm, +20 ppm, +30 ppm, +40 ppm, +50 ppm, +60 ppm, +70 ppm, +80 ppm, +90 ppm, and +100 ppm. The range of the absolute shift relative to a bare proton may be −(p28.01+p21.49×10−3) ppm (Eq. (28)) within a range of about at least one of about 0.1% to 99%, 1% to 50%, and 1% to 10%.
The vibrational energies, Evib, for the ν=0 to ν=1 transition of hydrogen-type molecules H2 (1/p) are
E
vib
=p
20.515902 eV (29)
where p is an integer.
The rotational energies, Erot, for the J to J+1 transition of hydrogen-type molecules H2(1/p) are
where p is an integer and I is the moment of inertia. Ro-vibrational emission of H2 (¼) was observed on e-beam excited molecules in gases and trapped in solid matrix.
The p2 dependence of the rotational energies results from an inverse p dependence of the internuclear distance and the corresponding impact on the moment of inertia I. The predicted internuclear distance 2c′ for H2 (1/p) is
At least one of the rotational and vibration energies of H2(1/p) may be measured by at least one of electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy, Raman spectroscopy, and Fourier transform infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy. H2(1/p) may be trapped in a matrix for measurement such as in at least one of MOH, MX, and M2CO3 (M=alkali; X=halide) matrix.
In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino product is observed as an inverse Raman effect (IRE) peak at about 1950 cm−1. The peak is enhanced by using a conductive material comprising roughness features or particle size comparable to that of the Raman laser wavelength that supports a Surface Enhanced Raman Scattering (SERS) to show the IRE peak.
I. Catalysts
In the present disclosure the terms such as hydrino reaction, H catalysis, H catalysis reaction, catalysis when referring to hydrogen, the reaction of hydrogen to form hydrinos, and hydrino formation reaction all refer to the reaction such as that of Eqs. (15-18) of a catalyst defined by Eq. (14) with atomic H to form states of hydrogen having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12). The corresponding terms such as hydrino reactants, hydrino reaction mixture, catalyst mixture, reactants for hydrino formation, reactants that produce or form lower-energy state hydrogen or hydrinos are also used interchangeably when referring to the reaction mixture that performs the catalysis of H to H states or hydrino states having energy levels given by Eqs. (10) and (12).
The catalytic lower-energy hydrogen transitions of the present disclosure require a catalyst that may be in the form of an endothermic chemical reaction of an integer m of the potential energy of uncatalyzed atomic hydrogen, 27.2 eV, that accepts the energy from atomic H to cause the transition. The endothermic catalyst reaction may be the ionization of one or more electrons from a species such as an atom or ion (e.g. m=3 for Li→Li2+) and may further comprise the concerted reaction of a bond cleavage with ionization of one or more electrons from one or more of the partners of the initial bond (e.g. m=2 for NaH→Na2++H). He+ fulfills the catalyst criterion-a chemical or physical process with an enthalpy change equal to an integer multiple of 27.2 eV since it ionizes at 54.417 eV, which is 2·27.2 eV. An integer number of hydrogen atoms may also serve as the catalyst of an integer multiple of 27.2 eV enthalpy. catalyst is capable of accepting energy from atomic hydrogen in integer units of one of about 27.2 eV±0.5 eV and
In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises an atom or ion M wherein the ionization of t electrons from the atom or ion M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately one of m·27.2 eV and
where m is an integer.
In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises a diatomic molecule MH wherein the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level is such that the sum of the bond energy and ionization energies of the t electrons is approximately one of m·27.2 eV and
where m is an integer.
In an embodiment, the catalyst comprises atoms, ions, and/or molecules chosen from molecules of AlH, AsH, BaH, BiH, CdH, ClH, CoH, GeH, InH, NaH, NbH, OH, RhH, RuH, SH, SbH, SeH, SiH, SnH, SrH, TlH, C2, N2, O2, CO2, NO2, and NO3 and atoms or ions of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, Pt, Kr, 2K+, He+, Ti2+, Na+, Rb+, Sr+, Fe3+, Mo2+, Mo4+, In3+, He+, Ar+, Xe+, Ar2+ and H+, and Ne+ and H+.
In other embodiments, MH− type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos provided by the transfer of an electron to an acceptor A, the breakage of the M-H bond plus the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of electron affinity (EA) of MH and A, M-H bond energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M is approximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer. MH− type hydrogen catalysts capable of providing a net enthalpy of reaction of approximately m·27.2 eV are OH−, SiH−, CoH−, NiH, and SeH−
In other embodiments, MH+ type hydrogen catalysts to produce hydrinos are provided by the transfer of an electron from a donor A which may be negatively charged, the breakage of the M-H bond, and the ionization of t electrons from the atom M each to a continuum energy level such that the sum of the electron transfer energy comprising the difference of ionization energies of MH and A, bond M-H energy, and ionization energies of the t electrons from M is approximately m·27.2 eV where m is an integer.
In an embodiment, at least one of a molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion serves as a catalyst that accepts about m·27.2 eV from atomic H with a decrease in the magnitude of the potential energy of the molecule or positively or negatively charged molecular ion by about m·27.2 eV. Exemplary catalysts are H2O, OH, amide group NH2, and H2S.
O2 may serve as a catalyst or a source of a catalyst. The bond energy of the oxygen molecule is 5.165 eV, and the first, second, and third ionization energies of an oxygen atom are 13.61806 eV, 35.11730 eV, and 54.9355 eV, respectively. The reactions O2→O+O2+, O2→O+O3+, and 2O→2O+ provide a net enthalpy of about 2, 4, and 1 times Eh, respectively, and comprise catalyst reactions to form hydrino by accepting these energies from H to cause the formation of hydrinos.
II. Hydrinos
A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by
where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 137, is the product of the H catalysis reaction of the present disclosure. The binding energy of an atom, ion, or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule. A hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eqs. (10) and (12) is hereafter referred to as a “hydrino atom” or “hydrino.” The designation for a hydrino of radius
where aH is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer, is
A hydrogen atom with a radius aH is hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydrogen atom” or “normal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.
According to the present disclosure, a hydrino hydride ion (H−) having a binding energy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.75 eV) for p=2 up to 23, and less for p=24 (H−) is provided. For p=2 to p=24 of Eq. (19), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. Exemplary compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided herein.
Exemplary compounds are also provided comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a “hydrino hydride compound.”
Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); (d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.3 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) H3+, 22.6 eV (“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to forms of hydrogen, “normal” and “ordinary” are synonymous.
According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (b) a hydride ion (H−) having a binding energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer from 2 to 24; (c) H4+(1/p); (d) a trihydrino molecular ion, H3+(1/p), having a binding energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer from 2 to 137; (f) a dihydrino molecular ion with a binding energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137.
According to a further embodiment of the present disclosure, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a dihydrino molecular ion having a total energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer, ℏ is Planck's constant bar, m, is the mass of the electron, c is the speed of light in vacuum, and μ is the reduced nuclear mass, and (b) a dihydrino molecule having a total energy of about
such as within a range of about 0.9 to 1.1 times
where p is an integer and ao is the Bohr radius.
According to one embodiment of the present disclosure wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary H2+, or ordinary H3+.
A method is provided herein for preparing compounds comprising at least one hydrino hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as “hydrino hydride compounds.” The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about
where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about
where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 137. A further product of the catalysis is energy. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.
In an embodiment, at least one of very high power and energy may be achieved by the hydrogen undergoing transitions to hydrinos of high p values in Eq. (18) in a process herein referred to as disproportionation as given in Mills GUTCP Chp. 5 which is incorporated by reference. Hydrogen atoms H(1/p) p=1, 2, 3, . . . 137 can undergo further transitions to lower-energy states given by Eqs. (10) and (12) wherein the transition of one atom is catalyzed by a second that resonantly and nonradiatively accepts m·27.2 eV with a concomitant opposite change in its potential energy. The overall general equation for the transition of H (1/p) to H (1/(p+m)) induced by a resonance transfer of m·27.2 eV to H (1/p′) given by Eq. (32) is represented by
H(1/p′)+H(1/p)→H+H(1/(p+m))+[2pm+m2−p′2+1]·13.6 eV (32)
The EUV light from the hydrino process may dissociate the dihydrino molecules and the resulting hydrino atoms may serve as catalysts to transition to lower energy states. An exemplary reaction comprises the catalysis H to H( 1/17) by H(¼) wherein H(¼) may be a reaction product of the catalysis of another H by HOH. Disproportionation reactions of hydrinos are predicted to given rise to features in the X-ray region. As shown by Eqs. (5-8) the reaction product of HOH catalyst is
Consider a likely transition reaction in hydrogen clouds containing H2O gas wherein the first hydrogen-type atom
is an H atom and the second acceptor hydrogen-type atom
serving as a catalyst is
Since the potential energy of
is 42·27.2 eV=16·27.2 eV 435.2 eV, the transition reaction is represented by
And, the overall reaction is
The extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the
intermediate (e.g. Eq. (16) and Eq. (34)) is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff and energy
given by
and extending to longer wavelengths than the corresponding cutoff. Here the extreme-ultraviolet continuum radiation band due to the decay of the
intermediate is predicted to have a short wavelength cutoff at E=3481.6 eV; 0.35625 nm and extending to longer wavelengths. A broad X-ray peak with a 3.48 keV cutoff was observed in the Perseus Cluster by NASA's Chandra X-ray Observatory and by the XMM-Newton [E. Bulbul, M. Markevitch, A. Foster, R. K. Smith, M. Loewenstein, S. W. Randall, “Detection of an unidentified emission line in the stacked X-Ray spectrum of galaxy clusters,” The Astrophysical Journal, Volume 789, Number 1, (2014); A. Boyarsky, O. Ruchayskiy, D. Iakubovskyi, J. Franse, “An unidentified line in X-ray spectra of the Andromeda galaxy and Perseus galaxy cluster,” (2014),arXiv:1402.4119 [astro-ph.CO]] that has no match to any known atomic transition. The 3.48 keV feature assigned to dark matter of unknown identity by BulBul et al. matches the
transition and further confirms hydrinos as the identity of dark matter.
The novel hydrogen compositions of matter can comprise:
By “other element” in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.
Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising
The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species, such as those produced during generation of the second plasma, according to the present disclosure may have a total energy greater than the total energy of a corresponding hydrogen species that has not undergone a reaction with the nascent water as described herein. The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present disclosure is also referred to as an “increased binding energy hydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p=24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of ordinary hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Eq. (19) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.
Also provided herein are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising
The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.
Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising
In an embodiment, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species chosen from (a) hydride ion having a binding energy according to Eq. (19) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 up to 23, and less for p=24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or “hydrino hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or “hydrino”); (c) hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.3 eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or “dihydrino”); and (d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.3 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or “dihydrino molecular ion”). In the disclosure, increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds is also referred to as lower-energy hydrogen species and compounds. Hydrinos comprise an increased binding energy hydrogen species or equivalently a lower-energy hydrogen species.
III. Chemical Reactor
The present disclosure is also directed to other reactors for producing increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds of the present disclosure, such as dihydrino molecules and hydrino hydride compounds. Further products of the catalysis are power and optionally plasma and light depending on the cell type. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a “hydrogen reactor” or “hydrogen cell.” The hydrogen reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos. The cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a chemical reactor or gas fuel cell such as a gas discharge cell, a plasma torch cell, or microwave power cell, and an electrochemical cell. In an embodiment, the catalyst is HOH and the source of at least one of the HOH and H is ice. The ice may have a high surface area to increase at least one of the rates of the formation of HOH catalyst and H from ice and the hydrino reaction rate. The ice may be in the form of fine chips to increase the surface area. In an embodiment, the cell comprises an arc discharge cell and that comprises ice at least one electrode such that the discharge involves at least a portion of the ice.
In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell comprises a vessel, two electrodes, a high voltage power source such as one capable of a voltage in the range of about 100 V to 1 MV and a current in the range of about 1 A to 100 kA, and a source of water such as a reservoir and a means to form and supply H2O droplets. The droplets may travel between the electrodes. In an embodiment, the droplets initiate the ignition of the arc plasma. In an embodiment, the water arc plasma comprises H and HOH that may react to form hydrinos. The ignition rate and the corresponding power rate may be controlled by controlling the size of the droplets and the rate at which they are supplied to the electrodes. The source of high voltage may comprise at least one high voltage capacitor that may be charged by a high voltage power source. In an embodiment, the arc discharge cell further comprises a means such as a power converter such as one of the present invention such as at least one of a PV converter and a heat engine to convert the power from the hydrino process such as light and heat to electricity.
Exemplary embodiments of the cell for making hydrinos may take the form of a liquid-fuel cell, a solid-fuel cell, a heterogeneous-fuel cell, a CIHT cell, and an SF-CIHT or SunCell® cell. Each of these cells comprises: (i) reactants including a source of atomic hydrogen; (ii) at least one catalyst chosen from a solid catalyst, a molten catalyst, a liquid catalyst, a gaseous catalyst, or mixtures thereof for making hydrinos; and (iii) a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the present disclosure, the term “hydrogen,” unless specified otherwise, includes not only proteum (1H), but also deuterium (2H) and tritium (3H). Exemplary chemical reaction mixtures and reactors may comprise SF-CIHT, CIHT, or thermal cell embodiments of the present disclosure. Additional exemplary embodiments are given in this Chemical Reactor section. Examples of reaction mixtures having H2O as catalyst formed during the reaction of the mixture are given in the present disclosure. Other catalysts may serve to form increased binding energy hydrogen species and compounds. The reactions and conditions may be adjusted from these exemplary cases in the parameters such as the reactants, reactant wt %'s, H2 pressure, and reaction temperature. Suitable reactants, conditions, and parameter ranges are those of the present disclosure. Hydrinos and molecular hydrino are shown to be products of the reactors of the present disclosure by predicted continuum radiation bands of an integer times 13.6 eV, otherwise unexplainable extraordinarily high H kinetic energies measured by Doppler line broadening of H lines, inversion of H lines, formation of plasma without a breakdown fields, and anomalously plasma afterglow duration as reported in Mills Prior Publications. The data such as that regarding the CIHT cell and solid fuels has been validated independently, off site by other researchers. The formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure was also confirmed by electrical energies that were continuously output over long-duration, that were multiples of the electrical input that in most cases exceed the input by a factor of greater than 10 with no alternative source. The predicted molecular hydrino H2(¼) was identified as a product of CIHT cells and solid fuels by MAS H NMR that showed a predicted upfield shifted matrix peak of about −4.4 ppm, ToF-SIMS and ESI-ToFMS that showed H2(¼) complexed to a getter matrix as m/e=M+n2 peaks wherein M is the mass of a parent ion and n is an integer, electron-beam excitation emission spectroscopy and photoluminescence emission spectroscopy that showed the predicted rotational and vibration spectrum of H2(¼) having 16 or quantum number p=4 squared times the energies of H2, Raman and FTIR spectroscopy that showed the rotational energy of H2(¼) of 1950 cm1, being 16 or quantum number p=4 squared times the rotational energy of H2, XPS that showed the predicted total binding energy of H2(¼) of 500 eV, and a ToF-SIMS peak with an arrival time before the m/e=1 peak that corresponded to H with a kinetic energy of about 204 eV that matched the predicted energy release for H to H(¼) with the energy transferred to a third body H as reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills X Yu, Y. Lu, G Chu, J. He, J. Lotoski, “Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell”, International Journal of Energy Research, (2013) and R. Mills, J. Lotoski, J. Kong, G Chu, J. He, J. Trevey, “High-Power-Density Catalyst Induced Hydrino Transition (CIHT) Electrochemical Cell” (2014) which are herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
Using both a water flow calorimeter and a Setaram DSC 131 differential scanning calorimeter (DSC), the formation of hydrinos by cells of the present disclosure such as ones comprising a solid fuel to generate thermal power was confirmed by the observation of thermal energy from hydrino-forming solid fuels that exceed the maximum theoretical energy by a factor of 60 times. The MAS H NMR showed a predicted H2(¼) upfield matrix shift of about −4.4 ppm. A Raman peak starting at 1950 cm1 matched the free space rotational energy of H2(¼) (0.2414 eV). These results are reported in Mills Prior Publications and in R. Mills, J. Lotoski, W. Good, J. He, “Solid Fuels that Form HOH Catalyst”, (2014) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.
IV. SunCell and Power Converter
Power systems (also referred to herein as “SunCell”) that generate at least one of electrical energy and thermal energy may comprise:
The converter may be one given in Mills Prior Publications and Mills Prior Applications. The hydrino reactants such as H sources and HOH sources and SunCell® systems may comprise those of the present disclosure or in prior US Patent Applications such as Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US08/61455, filed PCT Apr. 24, 2008; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Reactor, PCT/US09/052072, filed PCT Jul. 29, 2009; Heterogeneous Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US10/27828, PCT filed Mar. 18, 2010; Electrochemical Hydrogen Catalyst Power System, PCT/US11/28889, filed PCT Mar. 17, 2011; H2O-Based Electrochemical Hydrogen-Catalyst Power System, PCT/US12/31369 filed Mar. 30, 2012; CIHT Power System, PCT/US13/041938 filed May 21, 2013; Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/IB2014/058177 filed PCT Jan. 10, 2014; Photovoltaic Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/US14/32584 filed PCT Apr. 1, 2014; Electrical Power Generation Systems and Methods Regarding Same, PCT/US2015/033165 filed PCT May 29, 2015; Ultraviolet Electrical Generation System Methods Regarding Same, PCT/US2015/065826 filed PCT Dec. 15, 2015; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT/US16/12620 filed PCT Jan. 8, 2016; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator Network, PCT/US2017/035025 filed PCT Dec. 7, 2017; Thermophotovoltaic Electrical Power Generator, PCT/US2017/013972 filed PCT Jan. 18, 2017; Extreme and Deep Ultraviolet Photovoltaic Cell, PCT/US2018/012635 filed PCT Jan. 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/US18/17765 filed PCT Feb. 12, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/US2018/034842 filed PCT May 29, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/IB2018/059646 filed PCT Dec. 5, 2018; Magnetohydrodynamic Electric Power Generator, PCT/IB2020/050360 filed PCT Jan. 16, 2020; and Magnetohydrodynamic Hydrogen Electrical Power Generator, PCT/US21/17148 filed Feb. 8, 2021 (“Mills Prior Applications”) herein incorporated by reference in their entirety.
In an embodiment, the EM pump magnets 5k4 are oriented along the same axis as the injected molten metal stream that connects two electrodes that may be opposed along the same axis as shown in
In an embodiment, the transfer of energy from atomic hydrogen catalyzed to a hydrino state results in the ionization of the catalyst. The electrons ionized from the catalyst may accumulate in the reaction mixture and vessel and result in space charge build up. The space charge may change the energy levels for subsequent energy transfer from the atomic hydrogen to the catalyst with a reduction in reaction rate. In an embodiment, the application of the high current removes the space charge to cause an increase in hydrino reaction rate. In another embodiment, the current applied across the molten metal circuit such as an arc current causes the reactants such as water to be extremely elevated in temperature. The high temperature may give rise to the thermolysis of the water to at least one of H and HOH catalyst. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture of the SunCell® comprises a source of H and a source of catalyst such as at least one of nH (n is an integer) and HOH. The at least one of nH and HOH may be formed by the thermolysis or thermal decomposition of at least one physical phase of water such as at least one of solid, liquid, and gaseous water. The thermolysis may occur at high temperature such as a temperature in at least one range of about 500K to 10,000K, 1000K to 7000K, and 1000K to 5000K. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction temperature is about 3500 to 4000K such that the mole fraction of atomic H is high as shown by J. Lede, F. Lapicque, and J Villermaux [J. Lédé, F. Lapicque, J. Villermaux, “Production of hydrogen by direct thermal decomposition of water”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1983, V8, 1983, pp. 675-679; H. H. G. Jellinek, H. Kachi, “The catalytic thermal decomposition of water and the production of hydrogen”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 1984, V9, pp. 677-688; S. Z. Baykara, “Hydrogen production by direct solar thermal decomposition of water, possibilities for improvement of process efficiency”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1451-1458; S. Z. Baykara, “Experimental solar water thermolysis”, International Journal of Hydrogen Energy, 2004, V29, pp. 1459-1469 which are herein incorporated by reference]. The thermolysis may be assisted by a solid surface such as one of the cell components. The solid surface may be heated to an elevated temperature by the input power and by the plasma maintained by the hydrino reaction. The thermolysis gases such as those down stream of the ignition region may be cooled to prevent recombination or the back reaction of the products into the starting water. The reaction mixture may comprise a cooling agent such as at least one of a solid, liquid, or gaseous phase that is at a lower temperature than the temperature of the product gases. The cooling of the thermolysis reaction product gases may be achieved by contacting the products with the cooling agent. The cooling agent may comprise at least one of lower temperature steam, water, and ice.
In an embodiment, the reactants present in the gas may comprise at least one of a source of H, H2, a source of catalyst, a source of H2O, and H2O. Suitable reactants may comprise a conductive metal matrix and a hydrate such as at least one of an alkali hydrate, an alkaline earth hydrate, and a transition metal hydrate. The hydrate may comprise at least one of MgCl2·6H2O, BaI2·2H2O, and ZnCl2·4H2O. Alternatively, the reactants may comprise at least one of silver, tin, copper, hydrogen gas, oxygen gas, and water.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, which is where the reactants may undergo the plasma forming reaction, may be operated under low pressure to achieve high gas temperature. Then the pressure may be increased by a reaction mixture gas source and controller to increase reaction rate wherein the high temperature maintains nascent HOH and atomic H by thermolysis of at least one of H bonds of water dimers and H2 covalent bonds. An exemplary threshold gas temperature to achieve thermolysis is about 3300° C. A plasma having a higher temperature than about 3300° C. may break H2O dimer bonds to form nascent HOH to serve as the hydrino catalyst. At least one of the reaction cell chamber H2O vapor pressure, H2 pressure, and O2 pressure may be in at least one range of about 0.01 Torr to 100 atm, 0.1 Torr to 10 atm, and 0.5 Torr to 1 atm. The EM pumping rate may be in at least one range of about 0.01 ml/s to 10,000 ml/s, 0.1 ml/s to 1000 ml/s, and 0.1 ml/s to 100 ml/s. In embodiment, at least one of a high ignition power and a low pressure may be maintained initially to heat the plasma and the cell to achieve thermolysis.
In an embodiment, the ignition power may be at an initial power level and waveform of the disclosure and may be switched to a second power level and waveform when the reaction cell chamber achieves a desired temperature. In an embodiment, the second power level may be less than the initial. The second power level may be about zero. The condition to switch at least one of the power level and waveform is the achievement of a reaction cell chamber temperature above a threshold wherein the hydrino reaction kinetics may be maintained within 20% to 100% of the initial rates while operating at the second power level. In an embodiment, the temperature threshold may be in at least one range of about 800° C. to 3000° C., 900° C. to 2500° C., and 1000° C. to 2000° C.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber is heated to a temperature that will sustain the second plasma in the absence of ignition power. In an embodiment, the EM pumping may or may not be maintained following termination of the ignition power wherein the suppling of hydrino reactants such as at least one of H2, O2, and H2O is maintained during the ignition-off operation of the SunCell®. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® shown in
In an embodiment, the ignition system comprises a switch to at least one of initiate the current and interrupt the current once ignition is achieved. The flow of current may be initiated by the contact of the molten metal streams. The switching may be performed electronically by means such as at least one of an insulated gate bipolar transistor (IGBT), a silicon-controlled rectifier (SCR), and at least one metal oxide semiconductor field effect transistor (MOSFET). Alternatively, ignition may be switched mechanically. The current may be interrupted following ignition in order to optimize the output hydrino generated energy relative to the input ignition energy. The ignition system may comprise a switch to allow controllable amounts of energy to flow into the fuel to cause detonation and turn off the power during the phase wherein plasma is generated. In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to deliver a short burst of high-current electrical energy comprises at least one of the following:
The system may further comprise a startup power/energy source such as a battery such as a lithium ion battery. Alternatively, external power such as grid power may be provided for startup through a connection from an external power source to the generator. The connection may comprise the power output bus bar. The startup power energy source may at least one of supply power to the heater to maintain the molten metal conductive matrix, power the injection system, and power the ignition system.
The SunCell® may comprise a high-pressure water electrolyzer such as one comprising a proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzer having water under high pressure to provide high-pressure hydrogen. Each of the H2 and O2 chambers may comprise a recombiner to eliminate contaminant O2 and H2, respectively. The PEM may serve as at least one of the separator and salt bridge of the anode and cathode compartments to allow for hydrogen to be produced at the cathode and oxygen at the anode as separate gases. The cathode may comprise a dichalcogenide hydrogen evolution catalyst such as one comprising at least one of niobium and tantalum that may further comprise sulfur. The cathode may comprise one known in the art such as Pt or Ni. The hydrogen may be produced at high pressure and may be supplied to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 directly or by permeation through a hydrogen permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise an oxygen gas line from the anode compartment to the point of delivery of the oxygen gas to a storage vessel or a vent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises sensors, a processor, and an electrolysis current controller.
In another embodiment, hydrogen fuel may be obtained from electrolysis of water, reforming natural gas, at least one of the syngas reaction and the water-gas shift reaction by reaction of steam with carbon to form H2 and CO and CO2, and other methods of hydrogen production known by those skilled in the art.
In another embodiment, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis using supplied water and the heat generated by the SunCell®. The thermolysis cycle may comprise one of the disclosure or one known in the art such as one that is based on a metal and its oxide such as at least one of SnO/Sn and ZnO/Zn. In an embodiment wherein the inductively coupled heater, EM pump, and ignition systems only consume power during startup, the hydrogen may be produced by thermolysis such that the parasitic electrical power requirement is very low. The SunCell® may comprise batteries such as lithium ion batteries to provide power to run systems such as the gas sensors and control systems such as those for the reaction plasma gases.
In an embodiment, such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the resistive heater may comprise a support for the heating element such as a heating wire. The support may comprise carbon that is hermetically sealed. The sealant may comprise a ceramic such as SiC. The SiC may be formed by reaction of Si with carbon at high temperature in the vacuum furnace.
The SunCell® heater 415 may be a resistive heater or an inductively coupled heater. An exemplary SunCell® heater 415 comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400° C. and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal AF, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element such as a resistive wire element may comprise a NiCr alloy that may operate in the 1100° C. to 1200° C. range such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC that is capable of operating in the 1500° C. to 1800° C. range in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with Alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an Alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at a temperature of up to 1625° C.
The electromagnetic pumps may each comprise one of two main types of electromagnetic pumps for liquid metals: an AC or DC conduction pump in which an AC or DC magnetic field is established across a tube containing liquid metal, and an AC or DC current is fed to the liquid through electrodes connected to the tube walls, respectively; and induction pumps, in which a travelling field induces the required current, as in an induction motor wherein the current may be crossed with an applied AC electromagnetic field. The induction pump may comprise three main forms: annular linear, flat linear, and spiral. The pumps may comprise others know in the art such as mechanical and thermoelectric pumps. The mechanical pump may comprise a centrifugal pump with a motor driven impeller. The power to the electromagnetic pump may be constant or pulsed to cause a corresponding constant or pulsed injection of the molten metal, respectively. The pulsed injection may be driven by a program or function generator. The pulsed injection may maintain pulsed plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The EM pump may comprise a multistage pump.
In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 comprises a flow chopper to cause intermittent or pulsed molten metal injection. The chopper may comprise a valve such as an electronically controlled valve that further comprises a controller. The valve may comprise a solenoid valve. Alternatively, the chopper may comprise a rotating disc with at least one passage that rotates periodically to intersect the flow of molten metal to allow the molten metal to flow through the passage wherein the flow in blocked by sections of the rotating disc that do not comprise a passage.
The molten metal pump may comprise a moving magnet pump (MMP). An exemplary commercial AC EM pump is the CMI Novacast CA15 wherein the heating and cooling systems may be modified to support pumping molten metal.
In an embodiment, the EM pump may comprise an AC, inductive type wherein the Lorentz force on the molten metal is produced by a time-varying electric current through the molten metal and a crossed synchronized time-varying magnetic field. The time-varying electric current through the molten metal may be created by Faraday induction of a first time-varying magnetic field produced by an EM pump transformer winding circuit. The source of the first time-varying magnetic field may comprise a primary transformer winding, and the molten metal may serve as a secondary transformer winding such as a single turn shorted winding comprising an EM pump tube section of a current loop and a EM pump current loop return section.
In an embodiment wherein the molten metal injector comprising at least one EM pump comprising a current source and magnets to cause a Lorentz pumping force, the EM pump magnets 5k4 may comprise permanent or electromagnets such as DC or AC electromagnets. In the case that the magnets are permanent magnets or DC electromagnets, the EM pump current source comprises a DC power source. In the case that the magnets 5k4 comprise AC electromagnets, the EM pump current source for the EM bus bars 5k2 comprises an AC power source that provides current that is in phase with AC EM pump electromagnet field applied to the EM pump tube 5k6 to produce a Lorentz pumping force. In an embodiment wherein the magnet such as an electromagnet is immersed in a coolant that is corrosive such as a water bath, the magnet such as an electromagnet may be hermetically sealed in a sealant such as a thermoplastic, a coating, or a housing that may be non-magnetic such as a stainless-steel housing.
In another embodiment, the ignition system comprises an induction system wherein the source of electricity applied to the conductive molten metal to cause ignition of the hydrino reaction provides an induction current, voltage, and power. The ignition system may comprise an electrode-less system wherein the ignition current is applied by induction by an induction ignition transformer assembly. The induction current may flow through the intersecting molten metal streams from the plurality of injectors maintained by the pumps such as the EM pumps. In an embodiment, the reservoirs 5c may further comprise a ceramic cross connecting channel such as a channel between the bases of the reservoirs 5c. The induction ignition transformer assembly may comprise an induction ignition transformer winding and an induction ignition transformer yoke that may extend through the induction current loop formed by the reservoirs 5c, the intersecting molten metal streams from the plurality of molten metal injectors, and the cross-connecting channel. The induction ignition transformer assembly may be similar to that of the EM pump transformer winding circuit.
In an embodiment, the heater to melt the molten metal comprises a resistive heater such as one comprising wire such as Kanthal or other of the disclosure. The resistive heater may comprise a refractory resistive filament or wire that may be wrapped around the components to be heated. Exemplary resistive heater elements and components may comprise high temperature conductors such as carbon, Nichrome, 300 series stainless steels, Incoloy 800 and Inconel 600, 601, 718, 625, Haynes 230, 188, 214, Nickel, Hastelloy C, titanium, tantalum, molybdenum, TZM, rhenium, niobium, and tungsten. The filament or wire may be potted in a potting compound to protect it from oxidation. The heating element as filament, wire, or mesh may be operated in vacuum to protect it from oxidation. An exemplary heater comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400° C. and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Another exemplary filament is Kanthal APM that forms a non-scaling oxide coating that is resistant to oxidizing and carburizing environments and can be operated to 1475° C. The heat loss rate at 1375 K and an emissivity of 1 is 200 kW/m2 or 0.2 W/cm2. Commercially available resistive heaters that operate to 1475 K have a power of 4.6 W/cm2. The heating may be increased using insulation external to the heating element.
An exemplary heater 415 comprises Kanthal A-1 (Kanthal) resistive heating wire, a ferritic-chromium-aluminum alloy (FeCrAl alloy) capable of operating temperatures up to 1400° C. and having high resistivity and good oxidation resistance. Additional FeCrAl alloys for suitable heating elements are at least one of Kanthal APM, Kanthal A F, Kanthal D, and Alkrothal. The heating element such as a resistive wire element may comprise a NiCr alloy that may operate in the 1100° C. to 1200° C. range such as at least one of Nikrothal 80, Nikrothal 70, Nikrothal 60, and Nikrothal 40. Alternatively, the heater 415 may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) such as at least one of Kanthal Super 1700, Kanthal Super 1800, Kanthal Super 1900, Kanthal Super RA, Kanthal Super ER, Kanthal Super HT, and Kanthal Super NC that is capable of operating in the 1500° C. to 1800° C. range in an oxidizing atmosphere. The heating element may comprise molybdenum disilicide (MoSi2) alloyed with Alumina. The heating element may have an oxidation resistant coating such as an Alumina coating. The heating element of the resistive heater 415 may comprise SiC that may be capable of operating at a temperature of up to 1625° C. The heater may comprise insulation to increase at least one of its efficiency and effectiveness. The insulation may comprise a ceramic such as one known by those skilled in the art such as an insulation comprising alumina-silicate. The insulation may be at least one of removable or reversible.
The insulation may be removed following startup to more effectively transfer heat to a desired receiver such as ambient surroundings or a heat exchanger. The insulation may be mechanically removed. The insulation may comprise a vacuum-capable chamber and a pump, wherein the insulation is applied by pulling a vacuum, and the insulation is reversed by adding a heat transfer gas such as a noble gas such as helium. A vacuum chamber with a heat transfer gas such as helium that can be added or pumped off may serve as adjustable insulation.
The ignition current may be time varying such as about 60 Hz AC, but may have other characteristics and waveforms such as a DC or AC waveform having a frequency in at least one range of 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, 10 Hz to 1 kHz, and 10 Hz to 100 Hz, a peak current in at least one range of about 1 A to 100 MA, 10 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, and 1 kA to 100 kA, and a peak voltage in at least one range of about 1 V to 1 MV, 2 V to 100 kV, 3 V to 10 kV, 3 V to 1 kV, 2 V to 100 V, and 3 V to 30 V wherein the waveform may comprise a sinusoid, a square wave, a triangle, or other desired waveform that may comprise a duty cycle such as one in at least one range of 1% to 99%, 5% to 75%, and 10% to 50%. To minimize the skin effect at high frequency, the windings of the ignition system may comprise at least one of braided, multiple-stranded, and Litz wire. In an embodiment, the ignition power waveform such as a periodic square wave of ignition current, as well as the frequency and duty cycle are selected to optimize at least one of the output power and power gain given by the ratio of the power output and the ignition power. An exemplary frequency square wave waveform is in the range of 1 to 500 Hz. In another exemplary embodiment, the ignition power comprises a repeated pattern of different currents over time such as square waves that alternative between a high current such as 1500 A and a low current such as 500 A wherein the square wave widths of high and low currents may be the same or different.
In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® having a pedestal electrode shown in
In an embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the sleeve reservoir 409d may comprise a tight-fitting electrical insulator of the ignition bus bar and electrode 10 such that molten metal is contained about exclusively in a cup or drip edge 5c1a at the end of the inverted pedestal 5c2. The insert reservoir 409f having insert reservoir flange 409g may be mounted to the cell chamber 5b3 by reservoir baseplate 409a, sleeve reservoir 409d, and sleeve reservoir flange 409e. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir baseplate 409a through electrode penetration 10al. The electrode may penetrate the reservoir baseplate 409a through electrode penetration 10al. In an embodiment, the insert reservoir 409f may comprise a coating on the electrode bus bar 10. In an embodiment at least one SunCell® component such as the insert reservoir 409f, a reaction cell chamber liner or coating, and a bus bar liner or coating may comprise a ceramic such as BN, quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, Mullite, or mixtures such as ZrO2—TiO2—Y2O3, TiO2-Yr2O3—Al2O3, or another of the disclosure, or one comprising at least one of SiO2, Al2O3, ZrO2, HfO2, TiO2, MgO, BN, BN—ZrO2, BN—B2O3, and a ceramic that serves to bind to the metal of the component and then to BN or another ceramic. Exemplary composite coatings comprising BN by Oerlikon are Ni 13Cr 8Fe 3.5Al 6.5BN, ZrO2 9.5Dy2O3 0.7BN, ZrO2 7.5Y2O3 0.7BN, and Co 25Cr 5Al 0.27Y 1.75Si 15hBN. In an embodiment, a suitable metal, ceramic, or carbon coated with BN may serve as the liner or coating. A suitable metal or ceramic is capable of operating at the temperature of the SunCell® with the adherence of the BN coating. In an embodiment, binder in a SunCell® component such as the sleeve reservoir 409d, a reaction cell chamber liner or coating, or a bus bar liner or coating may be baked out by at least one of heating and running under a vacuum. Alternatively, a passivated coating may be formed or applied to the ceramic. In an exemplary embodiment, BN is oxidized to form a B2O3 passivation coating.
The EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin such as at least one of W, Ta, Re, Mo, BN, Alumina, Mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon may be applied by a suspension means such as a spray or liquid coating that is cured and degassed. In an exemplary embodiment, carbon suspension is poured into the pump tube to fill it, the carbon suspension is cured, and a channel is then machined through the tube to form a carbon liner on the walls. In an embodiment, the carbon coated metal such as Ni may be resistant to forming a carbide at high temperature. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metallic tube that is filled with a liner or coating material such as BN that is bored out to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may comprise an assembly comprising a plurality of parts. The parts may comprise a material or a liner or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. In an embodiment, the parts may be separately coated and assembled. The assembly may comprise at least one of a housing that contains two opposing bus bars 5k2, a liquid metal inlet, and a liquid metal outlet, and a means to seal the housing such as Swageloks. In an embodiment, the EM pump bus bars 5k2 may comprise a conductive portion in contact with the gallium or tin inside of the EM pump tube that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. The conductive portion may comprise an alloy-resistant material such as Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo, or an alloy-resistant cladding or coating on another metal such as SS such as one comprising Ta, W, Re, Ir, or Mo.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an inlet riser tube 5qa to prevent hot gallium or tin flow to the reservoir base 5kk 1 and suppress gallium or tin or tin alloy formation. The reservoir base 5kk1 may comprise a liner, cladding, or coating to suppress gallium or tin alloy formation.
In an embodiment to permit good electrical contact between the EM pump bus bars 5k2 and the molten metal in the EM pump tube 5k6, the coating is applied before the EM pump bus bars are attached by means such as welding. Alternatively, any coating may be removed from the bus bars penetrating into the molten metal before operation by means known in the art such as abrasion, ablation, or etching.
In another embodiment, the insert reservoir flange 409g may be replaced with a feedthrough mounted in the reservoir baseplate 409a that electrically isolates the bus bar 10 of the feedthrough and pedestal 5c1 or insert reservoir 409f from the reservoir baseplate 409a. The feedthrough may be welded to the reservoir baseplate. An exemplary feedthrough comprising the bus bar 10 is Solid Sealing Technology, Inc. #FA10775. The bus bar 10 may be joined to the electrode 8 or the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 may comprise a single piece. The reservoir baseplate may be directly joined to the sleeve reservoir flange. The union may comprise Conflat flanges that are bolted together with an intervening gasket. The flanges may comprise knife edges to seal a soft metallic gasket such as a copper, silver-plated copper, or tantalum gasket or O-ring. The flanges may be coated with a coating such as Flameproof paint, alumina, CrC, TiN, Ta, or another of the disclosure that prevents alloy formation with the molten metal. The gasket or O-ring such as Ta ones may be alloy-formation resistant. In an embodiment, the flanges may be replaced by flat metal plates (no bolt holes) such as annuluses around the perimeter of each joined component. The plates may be welded together on the outer edges to form a seam. The seam may be cut or ground off to separate the two plates. The ceramic pedestal 5c1 comprising the insert reservoir 409f may be counter sunk into a counter bored reservoir baseplate 409a wherein the union between the pedestal and the reservoir baseplate may be sealed with a gasket such as a carbon gasket or another of the disclosure. The electrode 8 and bus bar 10 may comprise an endplate at the end where plasma discharge occurs. Pressure may be applied to the gasket to seal the union between the pedestal and the reservoir baseplate by pushing on the disc that in turn applies pressure to the gasket. The discs may be threaded on to the end of the electrode 8 such that turning the disc applies pressure to the gasket. The feedthrough may comprise an annular collar that connects to the bus bar and to the electrode. The annular collar may comprise a threshed set screw that when tightened locks the electrode into position. The position may be locked with the gasket under tension applied by the end disc pulling the pedestal upwards. The pedestal 5c1 may comprise a shaft for access to the set screw. The shaft may be threaded so that it can be sealed on the outer surface of the pedestal with a nonconductive set screw such a ceramic one such as a BN one wherein the pedestal may comprise BN such as BN—ZrO2. In another embodiment, the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 may comprise rods that may butt-end connect. In an embodiment, the pedestal 5c1 may comprise two or more threaded metal shafts each with a set screw that tightens against the bus bar 10 or electrode 8 to lock them in place under tension. The tension may provide at least one of connection of the bus bar 10 and electrode 8 and pressure on the gasket. Alternatively, the counter electrode comprises a shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 wherein at least one of the electrode 8 and bus bar 10 comprise male threads, a washer and a matching female nut such that the nut and washer tighten against the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1. Alternatively, the electrode 8 may comprise male threads on an end that threads into matching female threads at an end of the bus bar 10, and the electrode 8 further comprises a fixed washer that tightens the shortened insulating pedestal 5c1 against the pedestal washer and the reservoir baseplate 409a that may be counter sunk. The counter electrode may comprise other means of fasting the pedestal, bus bar, and electrode that are known to those skilled the art.
In another embodiment, at least one seal such as (i) one between the insert reservoir flange 409g and the sleeve reservoir flange 409e, and (ii) one between the reservoir baseplate 409a and the sleeve reservoir flange 409e may comprise a wet seal (
In an embodiment, hydrogen may be supplied to the cell through a hydrogen permeable membrane such as a structurally reinforced Pd—Ag or niobium membrane. The hydrogen permeation rate through the hydrogen permeable membrane may be increased by maintaining plasma on the outer surface of the permeable membrane. The SunCell® may comprise a semipermeable membrane that may comprise an electrode of a plasma cell such as a cathode of a plasma cell (e.g., a glow discharge cell). The SunCell® such as one shown in
The system may operate via the production of two plasmas. An initial reaction mixture such as a non-stoichiometric H2/O2 mixture (e.g., an H2/O2 having less than 20% or less than 10% or less than 5% or less than 3% O2 by mole percentage of the mixture) may pass through a plasma cell such as a glow discharge to create a reaction mixture capable of undergoing the catalytic reactions with sufficient exothermicity to produce a plasma as described herein. For example, a non-stoichiometric H2/O2 mixture may pass through a glow discharge to produce an effluence of atomic hydrogen and nascent H2O (e.g., a mixture having water at a concentration and with an internal energy sufficient to prevent formation of hydrogen bonds). The glow discharge effluence may be directed into the reaction chamber where a current is supplied between two electrodes (e.g., with a molten metal passed therebetween). Upon interaction of the effluence with the biased molten metal (e.g., gallium or tin), the catalytic reaction between the nascent water and the atomic hydrogen is induced, for example, upon the formation of arc current. The power system may comprise:
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one a ceramic reservoir 5c and reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as one comprising quartz. The SunCell® may comprise two cylindrical reaction cell chambers 5b31 each comprising a reservoir at a bottom section wherein the reaction cell chambers are fused at the top along a seam where the two intersect as shown in
In another exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube comprises a liner such as a BN liner and at least one of the electromagnetic pump bus bar 5k2 and the ignition reservoir bus bar 5k2al comprises a wet seal. In an embodiment such as one comprising a PV window, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material such as tantalum that resists alloy formation with the molten metal such as tin or gallium. The EM bus bar may comprise welded-in parts such as welded-in Ta bus bars 5k2. The EM pump tube 5k6 such as a Ta one may be connected to the baseplate 5kk1 by a union such as a Swagelok or bonded to the baseplate 5kk1 by a weld such as one formed by diffusion bonding. In an exemplary embodiment, the diffusion bonding between a stainless-steel baseplate and a Ta EM pump may comprise a pure metal insert such as one comprising Cu, Ni, or Fe. The diffusion bonding may be performed using an oven, a laser, or other method known in the art. The bonding area may be coated or lined to protect it against alloy formation with the molten metals. In another exemplary embodiment, the Ta EM pump tube comprising welded-in Ta EM bus bars is bonded to a Kovar tube and then bonded to a stainless-steel tube that connects with the reservoir baseplate. The connection may comprise a braze such as one with PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P.=1135° C.) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https://www.morganbrazealloys.com/en-gb/products/brazing-alloys/precious-brazing-filler-metals/. The coating or liner may comprise one from the disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the coating may comprise carbon paste (e.g., Aramco Graphibond 551) or VHT Flameproof paint.
In an embodiment shown in
In a further embodiment, each EM pump bus bar 5k2 may comprise an electrical feedthrough such as one that may be capable of high temperature such as 450° C. to 2000° C. An exemplary EM bus bar feedthrough is MPF A0106-5-W (https://mpfpi.com/shop/power-feedthroughs/watercooled/12kv/a0106-5-w/). The feedthrough may be cooled such as at least one of forced air, water, conduction, and convection cooled using a heat exchanger. To protect the feedthrough from thermal failure, the feedthrough may comprise a standoff between the EM pump tube 5k6 and a ceramic brazed to a feedthrough body wherein the ceramic electrically isolates a conductor that passes through the ceramic at the center of the feedthrough. The EM bus bar feedthrough conductor may comprise a metal or a coated metal such as W, Ta, or coated stainless steel such as carbide or nitride coated SS such as TiN, CrN, WC, CrC, or chromium coated stainless steel or carbon coated stainless steel that is conductive and resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal. The braze may have a high melting point such a greater than 600° C. Exemplary brazes are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P.=1135° C.) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https://www.morganbrazealloys.com/en-gb/products/brazing-alloys/precious-brazing-filler-metals/.
In an embodiment, a ceramic SunCell® such as a quartz one is mounted on a metal baseplate 5kk1 (
Rhenium (MP 3185° C.) is resistant to attack from gallium or tin, Galinstan, silver, and copper and is resistant to oxidation by oxygen and water and the hydrino reaction mixture such as one comprising oxygen and water; thus, it may serve as a coating for metal components such as those of the EM pump assembly 5kk such as the baseplate 5kk1, EM pump tube 5k6, EM pump bus bars 5k2, EM pump injectors 5k61, EM pump nozzle 5q, inlet risers 5qa, gas lines 710, and vacuum line 711. The component may be coated with rhenium by electroplating, vacuum deposition, chemical deposition, and other methods known in the art. In an embodiment, a bus bar or electrical connection at a penetration such the EM pump bus bars 5k2 or the penetrations for MHD electrodes in the MHD generator channel 308 may comprise solid rhenium sealed by a wet seal at the penetration.
In an embodiment (
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a heater such as a resistive heater. The heater may comprise a kiln or furnace that is positioned over at least one of the reaction cell chambers, the reservoirs, and the EM pump tubes. In the embodiment wherein the EM pump tubes are inside of the kiln, the EM pump magnets and the wet seal may be selectively thermally insulated and cooled by a cooling system such as a water-cooling system. In an embodiment, each reservoir may comprise a thermal insulator at the baseplate at the base of the molten metal such as a ceramic insulator. The insulator may comprise BN or a moldable ceramic such as one comprising alumina, magnesia, silica, zirconia, or hafnia. The ceramic insulator at the base of the molten metal may comprise penetrations for the EM pump inlet and injector, gas and vacuum lines, thermocouple, and ignition bus bar that makes direct contact with the molten metal. In an embodiment, the thermal insulator permits the molten metal to melt at the base of the reservoir by reducing heat loss to the baseplate and wet seal cooling. The diameter of the EM pump inlet penetration may be enlarged to increase the heat transfer from molten metal in the reservoir to that in the EM pump tube. The EM pump tube may comprise heat transfer blocks to transfer heat from the inlet penetration to the EM pump tube.
In an embodiment, the baseplate 5kk1 may comprise a refractory material or metal such as stainless steel, C, W, Re, Ta, Mo, Nb, Ir, Ru, Hf, Tc, Rh, V, Cr, Zr, Pa, Pt, Th, Lu, Ti, Pd, Tm, Sc, Fe, Y, Er, Co, Ho, Ni, and Dy that may be coated with a liner or coating such as one of the disclosure that is resistant to at least one of corrosion with at least one of O2 and H2O and alloy formation with the molten metal such as gallium, tin, or silver. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube may be lined or coated with a material that prevents corrosion or alloy formation. The EM bus bars may comprise a conductor that is resistant to at least one of corrosion or alloy formation. Exemplary EM pump bus bars wherein the molten metal is gallium or tin are Ta, W, Re, and Ir. Exemplary EM pump bus bars wherein the molten metal is silver are W, Ta, Re, Ni, Co, and Cr. In an embodiment, the EM bus bars may comprise carbon or a metal with a high melting point that may be coated with an electrically conductive coating that resists alloy formation with the molten metal such as at least one of gallium or tin and silver. Exemplary coatings comprise a carbide or diboride such as those of titanium, zirconium, and hafnium.
In an embodiment wherein the molten metal such as copper, gallium, or tin may form an alloy with the baseplate such as one comprising stainless steel, the baseplate comprises a liner or is coated with an material that does not form an alloy such as Ta, W, Re, or a ceramic such as BN, Mullite, or zirconia-titania-yttria.
In an embodiment of the SunCell® shown in
In an embodiment, the wet seal of a penetration may comprise a nipple through which the molten silver partially extends to be continuous with a solidified silver electrode. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump bus bars 5k2 comprise a wet seal comprising an inside ceramic coated EM pump tube 5k6 having opposing nipples through which the molten silver passes to contact a solidified section that comprises the EM pump power connector, and at least one bus bar may optionally further comprise a connector to one lead of the ignition power supply.
The EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a material, liner, or coating that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium, tin, or silver such as at least one of W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, BN, Alumina, Mullite, silica, quartz, zirconia, hafnia, titania, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the pump tube, liner or coating comprises carbon. The carbon may be applied by a suspension means such as a spray or liquid coating that is cured and degassed. In an embodiment, the carbon-coated metal such as Ni may be resistant to forming a carbide at high temperature. In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a metallic tube that is filled with a liner or coating material such as BN that is bored out to form the pump tube. The EM pump tube may be segmented or comprise an assembly comprising a plurality of parts (
An embodiment, the liner may comprise a thin-wall, flexible metal that is resistant to alloying with gallium or tin such as a W, Ta, Re, Ir, Mo, or Ta tube liner that may be inserted into an EM pump tube 5k6 comprising another metal such as stainless steel. The liner may be inserted in a preformed EM pump tube or a straight tube that is then bent. The EM pump bus bars 5k2 may be attached by means such as welding after the liner is installed in the formed EM pump tube. The EM pump tube liner may form a tight seal with the EM pump bus bars 5k2 by a compression fitting or sealing material such as carbon or a ceramic sealant.
In an embodiment wherein at least one of the molten metal and any alloy formed from the molten metal may off gas to produce a gas boundary layer that interferes with EM pumping by at least partially blocking the Lorentz current, the EM pump tube 5k6 at the position of the magnets 5k4 may be vertical to break up the gas boundary layer.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an interference eliminator comprising a means to mitigate or eliminate any interference between the source of electrical power to the ignition circuit and the source of electrical power to the EM pump 5kk. The interference eliminator may comprise at least one of, one or more circuit elements and one or more controllers to regulate the relative voltage, current, polarity, waveform, and duty cycle of the ignition and EM pump currents to prevent interference between the two corresponding supplies.
The SunCell® may further comprise a photovoltaic (PV) converter and a window to transmit light to the PV converter. In an embodiment shown in
In an alternative embodiment shown in
In an embodiment shown in
The SunCell may comprise a transparent window to serve as a light source of wavelengths transparent to the window. The SunCell may comprise a blackbody radiator 5b4c that may serve as a blackbody light source. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a light source (e.g., the plasma from the reaction) wherein the hydrino plasma light emitted through the window is utilized in a desired lighting application such as room, street, commercial, or industrial lighting or for heating or processing such as chemical treatment or lithography.
In an embodiment the top electrode comprises the positive electrode. The SunCell may comprise an optical window and a photovoltaic (PV) panel behind the positive electrode. The positive electrode may serve as a blackbody radiator to provide at least one of heat, light, and illumination of a PV panel. In the latter case, the illumination of the PV panel generates electricity from the incident light. In an embodiment, the optical window may comprise a vacuum-tight outer window and an inner spinning window to prevent molten metal from adhering to the inner window and opacifying the window. In an embodiment, the positive electrode may heat a blackbody radiator which emits light through the PV window to the PV panel. The blackbody radiator may connect to the positive electrode to receive heat from it by conduction as well as radiation. The blackbody radiation may comprise a refractory metal such as a refractory metal such as tungsten (M.P.=3422° C.) or tantalum (M.P.=3020° C.), or a ceramic such as one of the disclosure such as one or more of the group of graphite (sublimation point=3642° C.), borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides such as a metal oxide such as alumina, zirconia, yttria stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, or thorium dioxide (ThO2); transition metals diborides such as hafnium boride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), or niobium boride (NbB2); a metal nitride such as hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium nitride (TiN), and a carbide such as tungsten carbide (WC), titanium carbide (TiC), zirconium carbide, or tantalum carbide (TaC) and their associated composites. Exemplary ceramics having a desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (M.P.=2852° C.), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (M.P.=2715° C.), boron nitride (BN) (M.P.=2973° C.), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (M.P.=2715° C.), hafnium boride (HfB2) (M.P.=3380° C.), tungsten carbide (WC) (M.P.=2785° C.-2830° C.), hafnium carbide (HfC) (M.P.=3900° C.), Ta4HfC5(M.P.=4000° C.), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5(4215° C.), hafnium nitride (HfN) (M.P.=3385° C.), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (M.P.=3246° C.), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (M.P.=3400° C.), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (M.P.=2950° C.), titanium boride (TiB2) (M.P.=3225° C.), titanium carbide (TiC) (M.P.=3100° C.), titanium nitride (TiN) (M.P.=2950° C.), silicon carbide (SiC) (M.P.=2820° C.), tantalum boride (TaB2) (M.P.=3040° C.), tantalum carbide (TaC) (M.P.=3800° C.), tantalum nitride (TaN) (M.P.=2700° C.), niobium carbide (NbC) (M.P.=3490° C.), niobium nitride (NbN) (M.P.=2573° C.), vanadium carbide (VC) (M.P.=2810° C.), and vanadium nitride (VN) (M.P.=2050° C.).
The electrode emitter may have a diameter less than that of the reaction chamber wall or liner to prevent electrical shorting to the wall. The reaction cell chamber wall or liner may comprise a non-conducting annulus such as a quartz or ceramic annulus behind the electrode emitter to block molten metal from the window while allowing light to pass to the window through at least one of the annulus and the open center of the annulus. In the former case, the annulus may be transparent.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an induction ignition system with a cross connecting channel of reservoirs 414, a pump such as an induction EM pump, a conduction EM pump, or a mechanical pump in an injector reservoir, and a non-injector reservoir that serves as the counter electrode. The cross-connecting channel of reservoirs 414 may comprise restricted flow means such that the non-injector reservoir may be maintained about filled. In an embodiment, the cross-connecting channel of reservoirs 414 may contain a conductor that does not flow such as a solid conductor such as solid silver.
In an embodiment (
The transformer was powered by a 1000 Hz AC power supply. In an embodiment, the ignition transformer may be powered by a variable frequency drive such as a single-phase variable frequency drive (VFD). In an embodiment, the VFD input power is matched to provide the output voltage and current that further provides the desired ignition voltage and current wherein the number of turns and wire gauge are selected for the corresponding output voltage and current of the VFD. The induction ignition current may be in at least one range of about 10 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 5 kA. The induction ignition voltage may be in at least one range of 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. The frequency may be in at least one range of about 1 Hz to 100 kHz, 10 Hz to 10 kHz, and 10 Hz to 1 kHz. An exemplary VFD is the ATO 7.5 kW, 220 V to 240 V output single phase 500 Hz VFD.
Another exemplary tested embodiment comprised a Pyrex SunCell® with one EM pump injector electrode and a pedestal counter electrode with a connecting jumper cable 414a between them such as the SunCell® shown in
In an embodiment, the source of electrical power or ignition power source comprises a non-direct current (DC) source such as a time dependent current source such as a pulsed or alternating current (AC) source. The peak current may be in at least one range such as 10 A to 100 MA, 100 A to 10 MA, 100 A to 1 MA, 100 A to 100 kA, 100 A to 10 kA, and 100 A to 1 kA. The peak voltage may be in at least one range of 0.5 V to 1 kV, 1 V to 100 V, and 1 V to 10 V. In an embodiment, the EM pump power source and AC ignition system may be selected to avoid inference that would result in at least one of ineffective EM pumping and distortion of the desired ignition waveform.
In an embodiment, the source of electrical power to supply the ignition current or ignition power source may comprise at least one of a DC, AC, and DC and AC power supply such as one that is powered by at least one of AC, DC, and DC and AC electricity such as a switching power supply, a variable frequency drive (VFD), an AC to AC converter, a DC to DC converter, and AC to DC converter, a DC to AC converter, a rectifier, a full wave rectifier, an inverter, a photovoltaic array generator, magnetohydrodynamic generator, and a conventional power generator such as a Rankine or Brayton-cycle-powered generator, a thermionic generator, and a thermoelectric generator. The ignition power source may comprise at least one circuit element such as a transition, IGBT, inductor, transformer, capacitor, rectifier, bridge such as an H-bridge, resistor, operation amplifier, or another circuit element or power conditioning device known in the art to produce the desired ignition current. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition power source may comprise a full wave rectified high frequency source such as one that supplies positive square wave pulses at about 50% duty cycle or greater. The frequency may be in the range of about 60 Hz to 100 kHz. An exemplary supply provides about 30-40 V and 3000-5000 A at a frequency in the range of about 10 kHz to 40 kHz. In an embodiment, the electrical power to supply the ignition current may comprise a capacitor bank charged to an initial offset voltage such as one in the range of 1 V to 100 V that may be in series with an AC transformer or power supply wherein the resulting voltage may comprise DC voltage with AC modulation. The DC component may decay at a rate dependent on its normal discharge time constant, or the discharge time may be increased or eliminated wherein the ignition power source further comprises a DC power supply that recharges the capacitor bank. The DV voltage component may assist to initiate the plasma wherein the plasma may thereafter be maintained with a lower voltage. The ignition power supply such as a capacitor bank may comprise a fast switch such as one controlled by a servomotor or solenoid to connect and disconnect ignition power to electrodes.
The hydrino reaction rate may increase with current; however sustained current and power may thermally damage the SunCell. The SunCell ignition power source may comprise a charging power supply, a capacitor bank such as one comprised of a plurality of supercapacitors, a voltage sensor, a controller, and an ignition switch. To avoid the thermal damage while achieving high hydrino reaction kinetics, high current may be applied intermittently. This intermittent application of ignition current may be achieved by continuously charging a capacitor bank with a power supply such as a DC power supply.
Activation of the ignition switch may discharge the and then discharging the capacitor bank by activating the ignition switch to discharge from a first voltage set point to a second lower voltage set point controlled by the controller in response to the voltage sensor. For example, the first and second voltage setpoints may be chosen such that wherein the peak ignition current during capacitor discharge is greater than the charging current provided by the DC power supply.
In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrino plasma and ignition current may comprise an arc current. An arc current may have the characteristic that the higher the current, the lower the voltage. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber walls and the electrodes are selected to form and support at least one of a hydrino plasma current and an ignition current that comprises an arc current, one with a very low voltage at very high current. The current density may be in at least one range of about 1 A/cm2 to 100 MA/cm2, 10 A/cm2 to 10 MA/cm2, 100 A/cm2 to 10 MA/cm2, and 1 kA/cm2 to 1 MA/cm2.
In an embodiment, the ignition system may apply a high starting power to the plasma and then decrease the ignition power after the resistance drops. The resistance may drop due to at least one of an increase in conductivity due to reduction of any oxide in the ignition circuit such as on the electrodes or the molten metal stream, and formation of a plasma. In an exemplary embodiment, the ignition system comprises a capacitor bank in series with AC to produce AC modulation of high-power DC wherein the DC voltage decays with discharge of the capacitors and only lower AC or DC power remains.
In an embodiment, the pedestal electrode 8 may be recessed in the insert reservoir 409f wherein the pumped molten metal fills a pocket such as 5c1a to dynamically form a pool of molten metal in contact with the pedestal electrode 8. The pedestal electrode 8 may comprise a conductor that does not form an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin at the operating temperature of the SunCell®. An exemplary pedestal electrode 8 comprises tungsten, tantalum, stainless steel, or molybdenum wherein Mo does not form an alloy such as Mo3Ga with gallium below an operating temperature of 600° C. In an embodiment, the inlet of the EM pump may comprise a filter 5qa1 such as a screen or mesh that blocks alloy particles while permitting gallium or tin to enter. To increase the surface area, the filter may extend at least one of vertically and horizontally and connect to the inlet. The filter may comprise a material that resists forming an alloy with gallium or tin such as stainless steel (SS), tantalum, or tungsten. An exemplary inlet filter comprises a SS cylinder having a diameter equal to that of the inlet but vertically elevated. The filter many be cleaned periodically as part of routine maintenance.
In an embodiment, the non-injector elector electrode may be intermittently submerged in the molten metal in order to cool it. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an injector EM pump and its reservoir 5c and at least one additional EM pump and may comprise another reservoir for the additional EM pump. Using the additional reservoir, the additional EM pump may at least one of (i) reversibly pump molten metal into the reaction cell chamber to intermittently submerge the non-injector electrode in order to cool it and (ii) pump molten metal onto the non-injector electrode in order to cool it. The SunCell® may comprise a coolant tank with coolant, a coolant pump to circulate coolant through the non-injector electrode, and a heat exchanger to reject heat from the coolant. In an embodiment, the non-injector electrode may comprise at a channel or cannula for coolant such as water, molten salt, molten metal, or another coolant known in the art to cool the non-injector electrode.
In an inverted embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the electrode 8 may be cooled by emitting radiation. To increase the heat transfer, the radiative surface area may be increased. In an embodiment, the bus bar 10 may comprise attached radiators such as vane radiators such as planar plates. The plates may be attached by fasting the face of an edge along the axis of the bus bar 10. The vanes may comprise a paddle wheel pattern. The vanes may be heated by conductive heat transfer from the bus bar 10 that may be heated by at least one of resistively by the ignition current and heated by the hydrino reaction. The radiators such as vanes may comprise a refractory metal such as Ta, Re, or W.
In an embodiment, the PV window may comprise an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) in front of the PV window to block oxide particles such as metal oxide. The ESP may comprise a tube with a central coronal discharge electrode such as a central wire, and a high voltage power supply to cause a discharge such as a coronal discharge at the wire. The discharge may charge the oxide particles which may be attracted by and migrate to the wall of the ESP tube where they may be at least one of collected and removed. The ESP tube wall may be highly polished to reflect light from the reaction cell chamber to the PV window and a PV converter such as a dense receiver array of concentrator PV cells.
In an embodiment, a PV window system comprises at least one of a transparent rotating baffle in front of a stationary sealed window, both in the xy-plane for light propagating along the z-axis and a window that may rotate in the xy-plane for light propagating along the z-axis. An exemplary embodiment comprises a spinning transparent disc such as a clear view screen https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Clear_view_screen) that may comprise at least one of the baffle and the window. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a corona discharge system comprising a negative electrode, a counter electrode, and a discharge power source. In an exemplary embodiment, the negative electrode may comprise a pin, needle, or wire that may be in proximity of the PV baffle or widow such as a spinning one. The cell body may comprise the counter electrode. A coronal discharge may be maintained near the PV window to charge at least one of particles formed during power generation operation such as metal oxide and the PV baffle or window negatively such that the particles are repelled by the PV baffle or window.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a vacuum system comprising an inlet to a vacuum line, a vacuum line, a trap, and a vacuum pump. The vacuum pump may comprise one with a high pumping speed such as a root pump, scroll, or multi-lobe pump and may further comprise a trap for water vapor that may be in series or parallel connection with the vacuum pump such as in series connection preceding the vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the vacuum pump such as a multi-lobe pump, or a scroll or root pump comprising stainless steel pumping components may be resistant to damage by gallium or tin alloy formation. The water trap may comprise a water absorbing material such as a solid desiccant or a cryotrap. In an embodiment, the pump may comprise at least one of a cryopump, cryofilter, or cooler to at least one of cool the gases before entering the pump and condense at least one gas such as water vapor. To increase the pumping capacity and rate, the pumping system may comprise a plurality of vacuum lines connected to the reaction cell chamber and a vacuum manifold connected to the vacuum lines wherein the manifold is connected to the vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the inlet to vacuum line comprises a shield for stopping molten metal particles in the reaction cell chamber from entering the vacuum line. An exemplary shield may comprise a metal plate or dome over the inlet but raised from the surface of the inlet to provide a selective gap for gas flow from the reaction cell chamber into the vacuum line. The vacuum system that may further comprise a particle flow restrictor to the vacuum line inlet such as a set of baffles to allow gas flow while blocking particle flow.
The vacuum system may be capable of at least one of ultrahigh vacuum and maintaining a reaction cell chamber operating pressure in at least one low range such as about 0.01 Torr to 500 Torr, 0.1 Torr to 50 Torr, 1 Torr to 10 Torr, and 1 Torr to 5 Torr. The pressure may be maintained low in the case of at least one of (i) H2 addition with trace HOH catalyst supplied as trace water or as O2 that reacts with H2 to form HOH and (ii) H2O addition. In the case that noble gas such as argon is also supplied to the reaction mixture, the pressure may be maintained in at least one high operating pressure range such as about 100 Torr to 100 atm, 500 Torr to 10 atm, and 1 atm to 10 atm wherein the argon may be in excess compared to other reaction cell chamber gases. The argon pressure may increase the lifetime of at least one of HOH catalyst and atomic H and may prevent the plasma formed at the electrodes from rapidly dispersing so that the plasma intensity is increased.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprises a means to control the reaction cell chamber pressure within a desired range by changing the volume in response to pressure changes in the reaction cell chamber. The means may comprise a pressure sensor, a mechanical expandable section, an actuator to expand and contract the expandable section, and a controller to control the differential volume created by the expansion and contraction of the expandable section. The expandable section may comprise a bellows. The actuator may comprise a mechanical, pneumatic, electromagnetic, piezoelectric, hydraulic, and other actuators known in the art.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise a (i) gas recirculation system with a gas inlet and an outlet, (ii) a gas separation system such as one capable of separating at least two gases of a mixture of at least two of a noble gas such as argon, O2, H2, H2O, air, a volatile species of the reaction mixture such as GaX3 (X=halide) or NxOy (x, y=integers), and hydrino gas, (iii) at least one noble gas, O2, H2, and H2O partial pressure sensors, (iv) flow controllers, (v) at least one injector such as a microinjector such as one that injects water, (vi) at least one valve, (vii) a pump, (viii) an exhaust gas pressure and flow controller, and (ix) a computer to maintain at least one of the noble gas, argon, O2, H2, H2O, and hydrino gas pressures. The recirculation system may comprise a semipermeable membrane to allow at least one gas such as molecular hydrino gas to be removed from the recirculated gases. In an embodiment, at least one gas such as the noble gas may be selectively recirculated while at least one gas of the reaction mixture may flow out of the outlet and may be exhausted through an exhaust. The noble gas may at least one of increase the hydrino reaction rate and increase the rate of the transport of at least one species in the reaction cell chamber out the exhaust. The noble gas may increase the rate of exhaust of excess water to maintain a desired pressure. The noble gas may increase the rate that hydrinos are exhausted. In an embodiment, a noble gas such as argon may be replaced by a noble-like gas that is at least one of readily available from the ambient atmosphere and readily exhausted into the ambient atmosphere. The noble-like gas may have a low reactivity with the reaction mixture. The noble-like gas may be acquired from the atmosphere and exhausted rather than be recirculated by the recirculation system. The noble-like gas may be formed from a gas that is readily available from the atmosphere and may be exhausted to the atmosphere. The noble gas may comprise nitrogen that may be separated from oxygen before being flowed into the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, air may be used as a source of noble gas wherein oxygen may be reacted with carbon from a source to form carbon dioxide. At least one of the nitrogen and carbon dioxide may serve as the noble-like gas. Alternatively, the oxygen may be removed by reaction with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The resulting gallium or tin oxide may be regenerated in a gallium or tin regeneration system such as one that forms sodium gallate by reaction of aqueous sodium hydroxide with gallium oxide and electrolyzes sodium gallate to gallium metal and oxygen that is exhausted.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® may be operated prominently closed with addition of at least one of the reactants H2, O2, and H2O wherein the reaction cell chamber atmosphere comprises the reactants as well as a noble gas such as argon. The noble gas may be maintained at an elevated pressure such as in the range of 10 Torr to 100 atm. The atmosphere may be at least one of continuously and periodically or intermittently exhausted or recirculated by the recirculation system. The exhausting may remove excess oxygen. The addition of reactant O2 with H2 may be such that O2 is a minor species and essentially forms HOH catalyst as it is injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H2. A torch may inject the H2 and O2 mixture that immediately reacts to form HOH catalyst and excess H2 reactant. In an embodiment, the excess oxygen may be at least partially released from gallium or tin oxide by at least one of hydrogen reduction, electrolytic reduction, thermal decomposition, and at least one of vaporization and sublimation due to the volatility of Ga2O. In an embodiment, at least one of the oxygen inventory may be controlled and the oxygen inventory may be at least partially permitted to form HOH catalyst by intermittently flowing oxygen into the reaction cell chamber in the presence of hydrogen. In an embodiment, the oxygen inventory may be recirculated as H2O by reaction with the added H2. In another embodiment, excess oxygen inventor may be removed as Ga2O3 and regenerated by means of the disclosure such as by at least one of the skimmer and electrolysis system of the disclosure. The source of the excess oxygen may be at least one of O2 addition and H2O addition.
In an embodiment, the gas pressure in the reaction cell chamber may be at least partially controlled by controlling at least one of the pumping rate and the recirculation rate. At least one of these rates may be controlled by a valve controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller. Exemplary valves to control gas flow are solenoid valves that are opened and closed in response to an upper and a lower target pressure and variable flow restriction vales such as butterfly and throttle valves that are controlled by a pressure sensor and a controller to maintain a desired gas pressure range.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a means to vent or remove molecular hydrino gas from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell liner and walls of the reaction cell chamber have a high permeation rate for molecular hydrino such as H2(¼). To increase the permeation rate, at least one of the wall thickness may be minimized and the wall operating temperature maximized. In an embodiment, the thickness of at least one of the reservoir 5c wall and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall may be in the range of 0.05 mm to 5 mm thick. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall is thinner in at least one region relative to another region to increase the diffusion or permeation rate of molecular hydrino product from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the upper side wall section of the reaction cell chamber wall such as the one just below the sleeve reservoir flange 409e of
The SunCell® may comprise temperature sensors, a temperature controller, and a heat exchanger such as water jets to controllably maintain the reaction cell chamber walls at a desired temperature such as in the range of 300° C. to 1000° C. to provide a desired high molecular hydrino permeation rate.
At least one of the wall and liner material may be selected to increase the permeation rate. Various liners and liner thicknesses may be chosen in order to maintain certain operating temperatures in order to match the blackbody emission with the energy collection mechanism such as a dense receiver array of concentrated photovoltaic cells. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a plurality of materials such as one or more that contact gallium or tin and one or more that is separated from gallium or tin by a liner, coating, or cladding such as a liner, coating, or cladding of the disclosure. At least one of the separated or protected materials may comprise one that has increased permeability to molecular hydrino relative to a material that is not separated or protected from gallium or tin contact. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber material may comprise one or more of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr—Mo SS, nickel, Ti, niobium, vanadium, iron, W, Re, Ta, Mo, niobium, and Nb(94.33 wt %)-Mo(4.86 wt %)-Zr(0.81 wt %). Crystalline material such as SiC may be more permeable to hydrinos than amorphous materials such as Sialon or quartz such that crystalline material are exemplary liners.
A different reaction cell chamber wall such as one that is highly permeable to hydrinos may replace the reaction cell chamber wall of a SunCell® (
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprising a carbon liner comprises at least one of walls that have a high heat transfer capability, a large diameter, and a highly capable cooling system wherein the heat transfer capability, the large diameter, and the cooling system are sufficient to maintain the temperature of the carbon liner below a temperature at which it would react with at least one component of the hydrino reaction mixture such as water or hydrogen. An exemplary heat transfer capability may be in the range of about 10 W/cm2 to 10 kW/cm2 wall area; an exemplary diameter may be in the range of about 2 cm to 100 cm, an exemplary cooling system is an external water bath; an exemplary desired liner temperature may be about below 700-750° C. The reaction cell chamber wall may further be highly permeable to molecular hydrino. The liner may be in contact with the wall to improve heat transfer from the liner to the cooling system to maintain the desired temperature.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a gap between the liner and at least one reaction cell chamber wall and a vacuum pump wherein the gap comprises a chamber that is evacuated by the vacuum pump to remove molecular hydrino. The liner may be porous. In an exemplary embodiment, the liner comprises porous ceramic such as porous BN, SiC-coated carbon, or quartz to increase the permeation rate. In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise insulation. The insulation may be highly permeable for hydrino. In another embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a molecular hydrino getter such as iron nanoparticles at least one internal and external to the reaction cell chamber wherein the getter binds molecular hydrino to remove it from the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the molecular hydrino gas may be pumped out of the reaction cell chamber. The reaction mixture gas such as one comprising H2O and hydrogen or another of the disclosure may comprise a flushing gas such as a noble gas to assist in removing molecular hydrino gas by evacuation. The flushing gas may be vented to atmosphere or circulated by a recirculator of the disclosure.
In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a hydrogen dissociator such as niobium. The liner may comprise a plurality of materials such as a material the resists gallium or tin alloy formation in the hottest zones of the reaction cell chamber and another material such as a hydrogen dissociator in at least one zone that operates at a temperature below the gallium or tin alloy formation temperature of the another material.
The electrostatic precipitator (ESP) may further comprise a means to precipitate at least one desired species from the gas stream from the reaction cell chamber and return it to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may comprise a transport mean such as an auger, conveyor belt, pneumatic, electromechanical, or other transport means of the disclosure or known in the art to transport particles collected by the precipitator back to the reaction cell chamber. The precipitator may be mounted in a portion of the vacuum line that comprises a refluxer that returns desired particles to the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow wherein the particles may be precipitated and flow back to the reaction cell chamber by gravity flow such as flow in the vacuum line. The vacuum line may be oriented vertically in at least one portion that allows the desired particles to undergo gravity return flow.
In an embodiment, an electrostatic precipitator (ESP) system comprises an ESP and a source of trace oxygen such as air to form an oxide coat on molten metal particles such as gallium or tin or tin particles such that the particles can be removed by the ESP. The source may comprise a flow regulator that may supply the oxygen to at least one of the ESP system and a vacuum line to a vacuum pump that evacuates the reaction cell chamber. The source may comprise air that may also serve as a purge gas to improve the evacuation of the reaction cell chamber.
In an embodiment, the reaction chamber and at least one component in direct contact with the reaction cell chamber such as a vacuum line to a vacuum pump are at a positive electrical polarity relative to the top electrode that is negative. The vacuum line may comprise a filter or trap to catch metal and metal oxide particles. The filter may serve as a positive electrode of an ESP. The filter may further comprise a gas jet to at least intermittently backflow a reactant gas such as hydrogen, oxygen, or steam or an inert gas such as argon to remove collected particles from the filter. The reactant gas may flow through the discharge cell 900 of the disclosure before flowing through the gas jet. In an exemplary embodiment, the filter comprises a W or Ta mesh at the input to the vacuum line that protrudes into the reaction cell chamber. The filter may further comprise a gas jet. The tungsten or tantalum mesh filter that may avoid melting and avoid alloy formation and wetting by the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The filter mesh size may be selected such that the particles will not go through or that a majority of particles are prevented from passing through the mesh, but gasses will. The vacuum line may be electrically connected to the positive reaction cell chamber such that metal oxide particle may stick by an electrostatic precipitation effect. The particles may fall back into the reaction cell chamber. The filter may be periodically or continuously back flushed with an H2 or argon gas jet stream to force the particles off the mesh and into the reaction cell chamber.
In an embodiment, the SunCell may comprise an electrostatic precipitation system (ESP) system shown in
In an exemplary tested embodiment, the reaction cell chamber was maintained at a pressure range of about 1 to 2 atm with 4 ml/min H2O injection. The DC voltage was about 30 V and the DC current was about 1.5 kA. The reaction cell chamber was a 6-inch diameter stainless steel sphere such as one shown in
In another tested embodiment, 2500 sccm of H2 and 25 sccm O2 was flowed through about 2 g of 10% Pt/Al2O3 beads held in an external chamber in line with the H2 and O2 gas inlets and the reaction cell chamber. Additionally, argon was flowed into the reaction cell chamber at a rate to maintain 50 Torr chamber pressure while applying active vacuum pumping. The DC voltage was about 20 V and the DC current was about 1.25 kA. The SunCell® output power was about 120 kW measured using the product of the mass, specific heat, and temperature rise of the gallium and SS reactor.
In an embodiment, the recirculation system or recirculator such as the noble gas recirculatory system capable of operating at one or more of under atmospheric pressure, at atmospheric pressure, and above atmospheric pressure may comprise (i) a gas mover such as at least one of a vacuum pump, a compressor, and a blower to recirculate at least one gas from the reaction cell chamber, (ii) recirculation gas lines, (iii) a separation system to remove exhaust gases such as hydrino and oxygen, and (iv) a reactant supply system. In an embodiment, the gas mover is capable of pumping gas from the reaction cell chamber, pushing it through the separation system to remove exhaust gases, and returning the regenerated gas to the reaction cell chamber. The gas mover may comprise at least two of the pump, the compressor, and the blower as the same unit. In an embodiment, the pump, compressor, blower or combination thereof may comprise at least one of a cryopump, cryofilter, or cooler to at least one of cool the gases before entering the gas mover and condense at least one gas such as water vapor. The recirculation gas lines may comprise a line from the vacuum pump to the gas mover, a line from the gas mover to the separation system to remove exhaust gases, and line from the separation system to remove exhaust gases to the reaction cell chamber that may connect with the reactant supply system. An exemplary reactant supply system comprises at least one union with the line to the reaction cell chamber with at least one reaction mixture gas make-up line for at least one of the noble gas such as argon, oxygen, hydrogen, and water. The addition of reactant O2 with H2 may be such that O2 is a minor species and essentially forms HOH catalyst as it is injected into the reaction cell chamber with excess H2. A torch may inject the H2 and O2 mixture that immediately reacts to form HOH catalyst and excess H2 reactant. The reactant supply system may comprise a gas manifold connected to the reaction mixture gas supply lines and an outflow line to the reaction cell chamber.
The separation system to remove exhaust gases may comprise a cryofilter or cryotrap. The separation system to remove hydrino product gas from the recirculating gas may comprise a semipermeable membrane to selectively exhaust hydrino by diffusion across the membrane from the recirculating gas to atmosphere or to an exhaust chamber or stream. The separation system of the recirculator may comprise an oxygen scrubber system that removes oxygen from the recirculating gas. The scrubber system may comprise at least one of a vessel and a getter or absorbent in the vessel that reacts with oxygen such as a metal such as an alkali metal, an alkaline earth metal, or iron. Alternatively, the absorbent such as activated charcoal or another oxygen absorber known in the art may absorb oxygen. The charcoal absorbent may comprise a charcoal filter that may be sealed in a gas permeable cartridge such as one that is commercially available. The cartridge may be removable. The oxygen absorbent of the scrubber system may be periodically replaced or regenerated by methods known in the art. A scrubber regeneration system of the recirculation system may comprise at least one of one or more absorbent heaters and one or more vacuum pumps. In an exemplary embodiment, the charcoal absorbent is at least one of heated by the heater and subjected to an applied vacuum by the vacuum pump to release oxygen that is exhausted or collected, and the resulting regenerated charcoal is reused. The heat from the SunCell® may be used to regenerate the absorbent. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one heat exchanger, a coolant pump, and a coolant flow loop that serves as a scrubber heater to regenerate the absorbent such as charcoal. The scrubber may comprise a large volume and area to effectively scrub while not significantly increasing the gas flow resistance. The flow may be maintained by the gas mover that is connected to the recirculation lines. The charcoal may be cooled to more effectively absorb species to be scrubbed from the recirculating gas such as a mixture comprising the noble gas such as argon. The oxygen absorbent such as charcoal may also scrub or absorb hydrino gas. The separation system may comprise a plurality of scrubber systems each comprising (i) a chamber capable of maintaining a gas seal, (ii) an absorbent to remove exhaust gases such as oxygen, (iii) inlet and outlet valves that may isolate the chamber from the recirculation gas lines and isolate the recirculation gas lines from the chamber, (iv) a means such as a robotic mechanism controlled by a controller to connect and disconnect the chamber from the recirculation lines, (v) a means to regenerate the absorbent such as a heater and a vacuum pump wherein the heater and vacuum pump may be common to regenerate at least one other scrubber system during its regeneration, (v) a controller to control the disconnection of the nth scrubber system, connection of the n+1th scrubber system, and regeneration of the nth scrubber system while the n+1th scrubber system serves as an active scrubber system wherein at least one of the plurality of scrubber systems may be regenerated while at least one other may be actively scrubbing or absorbing the desired gases. The scrubber system may permit the SunCell® to be operated under closed exhaust conditions with periodic controlled exhaust or gas recovery. In an exemplary embodiment, hydrogen and oxygen may be separately collected from the absorbent such as activated carbon by heating to different temperatures at which the corresponding gases are about separately released.
In an embodiment comprising a reaction cell chamber gas mixture of a noble gas, hydrogen (H2), and oxygen (O2) wherein the partial pressure of the noble gas of the reaction cell chamber gas exceeds that of hydrogen, the oxygen partial pressure may be increased to compensate for the reduced reaction rate between hydrogen and oxygen to form HOH catalyst due to the reactant concentration dilution effect of the noble gas such as argon. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst may be formed in advance of combining with the noble gas such as argon. The hydrogen and oxygen may be caused to react by a recombiner or combustor such as a recombiner catalyst, a plasma source, or a hot surface such as a filament. The recombiner catalyst may comprise a noble metal supported on a ceramic support such as Pt, Pd, or Ir on alumina, zirconia, hafnia, silica, or zeolite power or beads, another supported recombiner catalyst of the disclosure, or a dissociator such as Raney Ni, Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociator metal of the disclosure or one known in the art in a form to provide a high surface area such as powder, mat, weave, or cloth. An exemplary recombiner comprises 10 wt % Pt on Al2O3 beads. The plasma source may comprise a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell of the disclosure or known in the art. The hot filament may comprise a hot tungsten filament, a Pt or Pd black on Pt filament, or another catalytic filament known in the art.
The inlet flow of reaction mixture species such as at least one of water, hydrogen, oxygen, air, and a noble gas may be continuous or intermittent. The inlet flow rates and an exhaust or vacuum flow rate may be controlled to achieve a desired pressure range. The inlet flow may be intermittent wherein the flow may be stopped at the maximum pressure of a desired range and commenced at a minimum of the desire range. In a case that reaction mixture gases comprise high pressure noble gas such as argon, the reaction cell chamber may be evacuated, filled with the reaction mixture, and run under about static exhaust flow conditions wherein the inlet flows of reactants such as at least one of water, hydrogen, and oxygen are maintained under continuous or intermittent flow conditions to maintain the pressure in the desired range. Additionally, the noble gas may be flowed at an economically practical flow rate with a corresponding exhaust pumping rate, or the noble gas may be regenerated or scrubbed and recirculated by the recirculation system or recirculator. In an embodiment, the reaction mixture gases may be forced into the cell by an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the reactant flow rate through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure in a desired range.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber reaction cell mixture is controlled by controlling the reaction cell chamber pressure by at least one means of controlling the injection rate of the reactants and controlling the rate that excess reactants of the reaction mixture and products are exhausted from the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a pressure sensor, a vacuum pump, a vacuum line, a valve controller, and a valve such as a pressure-activated valve such as a solenoid valve or a throttle valve that opens and closes to the vacuum line from the reaction cell chamber to the vacuum pump in response to the controller that processes the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve may control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve may remain closed until the cell pressure reaches a first high setpoint, then the value may be activated to be open until the pressure is dropped by the vacuum pump to a second low setpoint which may cause the activation of the valve to close. In an embodiment, the controller may control at least one reaction parameter such as the reaction cell chamber pressure, reactant injection rate, voltage, current, and molten metal injection rate to maintain a non-pulsing or about steady or continuous plasma.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a pressure sensor, a source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture such as a source of H2O, H2, O2, air, and noble gas such a argon, a reactant line, a valve controller, and a valve such as a pressure-activated valve such as a solenoid valve or a throttle valve that opens and closes to the reactant line from the source of at least one reactant or species of the reaction mixture and the reaction cell chamber in response to the controller that processes the pressure measured by the sensor. The valve may control the pressure of the reaction cell chamber gas. The valve may remain open until the cell pressure reaches a first high setpoint, then the value may be activated to be close until the pressure is dropped by the vacuum pump to a second low setpoint which may cause the activation of the valve to open.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® may comprise an injector such as a micropump. The micropump may comprise a mechanical or non-mechanical device. Exemplary mechanical devices comprise moving parts which may comprise actuation and microvalve membranes and flaps. The driving force of the micropump mat be generated by utilizing at least one effect form the group of piezoelectric, electrostatic, thermos-pneumatic, pneumatic, and magnetic effects. Non-mechanical pumps may be unction with at least one of electro-hydrodynamic, electro-osmotic, electrochemical, ultrasonic, capillary, chemical, and another flow generation mechanism known in the art. The micropump may comprise at least one of a piezoelectric, electroosmotic, diaphragm, peristaltic, syringe, and valveless micropump and a capillary and a chemically powered pump, and another micropump known in the art. The injector such as a micropump may continuously supply reactants such as water, or it may supply reactants intermittently such as in a pulsed mode. In an embodiment, a water injector comprises at least one of a pump such as a micropump, at least one valve, and a water reservoir, and may further comprise a cooler or an extension conduit to remove the water reservoir and valve for the reaction cell chamber by a sufficient distance, either to avoid over heating or boiling of the preinjected water.
The SunCell® may comprise an injection controller and at least one sensor such as one that records pressure, temperature, plasma conductivity, or other reaction gas or plasma parameter. The injection sequence may be controlled by the controller that uses input from the at least one sensor to deliver the desired power while avoiding damage to the SunCell® due to overpowering. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a plurality of injectors such as water injectors to inject into different regions within the reaction cell chamber wherein the injectors are activated by the controller to alternate the location of plasma hot spots in time to avoid damage to the SunCell®. The injection may be intermittent, periodic intermittent, continuous, or comprise any other injection pattern that achieves the desired power, gain, and performance optimization.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of hydrogen such as hydrogen gas and a source of oxygen such as oxygen gas. The source of at least one of hydrogen and oxygen sources comprises at least one or more gas tanks, flow regulators, pressure gauges, valves, and gas lines to the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the HOH catalyst is generated from combustion of hydrogen and oxygen. The hydrogen and oxygen gases may be flowed into the reaction cell chamber. The inlet flow of reactants such as at least one of hydrogen and oxygen may be continuous or intermittent. The flow rates and an exhaust or vacuum flow rate may be controlled to achieve a desired pressure. The inlet flow may be intermittent wherein the flow may be stopped at the maximum pressure of a desired range and commenced at a minimum of the desire range. At least one of the H2 pressure and flow rate and O2 pressure and flow rate may be controlled to maintain at least one of the HOH and H2 concentrations or partial pressures in a desired range to control and optimize the power from the hydrino reaction. In an embodiment, at least one of the hydrogen inventory and flow many be significantly greater than the oxygen inventory and flow. The ratio of at least one of the partial pressure of H2 to O2 and the flow rate of H2 to O2 may be in at least one range of about 1.1 to 10,000, 1.5 to 1000, 1.5 to 500, 1.5 to 100, 2 to 50 and 2 to 10. In an embodiment, the total pressure may be maintained in a range that supports a high concentration of nascent HOH and atomic H such as in at least one pressure range of about 1 mTorr to 500 Torr, 10 mTorr to 100 Torr, 100 mTorr to 50 Torr, and 1 Torr to 100 Torr. In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber may be maintained at an operating temperature that is greater than the decomposition temperature of at least one of gallium or tin oxyhydroxide and gallium or tin hydroxide. The operating temperature may be in at least one range of about 200° C. to 2000° C., 200° C. to 1000° C., and 200° C. to 700° C. The water inventory may be controlled in the gaseous state in the case that gallium or tin oxyhydroxide and gallium or tin hydroxide formation is suppressed.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a gas mixer to mix at least two gases such as hydrogen and oxygen that are flowed into the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the micro-injector for water comprises the mixer that mixes hydrogen and oxygen wherein the mixture forms HOH as it enters the reaction cell chamber. The mixer may further comprise at least one mass flow controller, such as one for each gas or a gas mixture such as a premixed gas. The premixed gas may comprise each gas in its desired molar ratio such as a mixture comprising hydrogen and oxygen. The H2 molar percent of a H2—O2 mixture may be in significant excess such as in a molar ratio range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of O2. The mass flow controller may control the hydrogen and oxygen flow and subsequent combustion to form HOH catalyst such that the resulting gas flow into the reaction cell chamber comprises hydrogen in excess and HOH catalyst. In an exemplary embodiment, the H2 molar percentage is in the range of about 1.5 to 1000 times the molar percent of HOH. The mixer may comprise a hydrogen-oxygen torch. The torch may comprise a design known in the art such as a commercial hydrogen-oxygen torch. In exemplary embodiments, O2 with H2 are mixed by the torch injector to cause O2 to react to form HOH within the H2 stream to avoid oxygen reacting with the molten metal such as gallium, tin, or cell components. Alternatively, a H2—O2 mixture comprising hydrogen in at least ten times molar excess is flowed into the reaction cell chamber by a single flow controller versus two supplying the torch.
The reaction of the O2 with excess H2 may form about 100% nascent water as an initial product compared to bulk water and steam that comprise a plurality of hydrogen-bonded water molecules. In an embodiment, the tin in the presence of hydrogen is maintained at a temperature of greater than 300° C. such that the tin may have a low reactivity to consume the HOH catalyst by forming tin oxide. Gallium may be maintained below 100° C. such that the gallium may have a low reactivity to consume the HOH catalyst by forming gallium oxide. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® is operated under the conditions of high flow rate H2 with trace O2 flow such as more than 99% H2/1% O2 wherein the reaction cell chamber pressure may be maintained low such as in the pressure range of about 1 to 30 Torr, and the flow rate may be controlled to produce the desired power wherein the theoretical maximum power by forming H2(¼) may be about 1 kW/30 sccm. Any resulting metal oxide (e.g., gallium or tin oxide) may be reduced by in situ hydrogen plasma and electrolytically reduction. In an exemplary embodiment capable of generating a maximum excess power of 75 kW wherein the vacuum system is capable of achieving ultrahigh vacuum, the operating conditions comprise a low operating pressure such as about 1-5 Torr, and high H2 flow such as about 2000 sccm with trace HOH catalyst supplied as about 10-20 sccm oxygen through a torch injector.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® components or surfaces of components that contact the metal such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber walls, the top of the reaction cell chamber, inside walls of the reservoir, and inside walls of the EM pump tube may be coated with a coating that does not form an alloy readily with gallium or tin such as a ceramic such as Mullite, BN, or another of the disclosure, or a metal such as W, Ta, Re, Nb, Zr, Mo, TZM, or another of the disclosure. In another embodiment, the surfaces may be clad with a material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin such as carbon, a ceramic such as BN, alumina, zirconia, quartz, or another of the disclosure, or a metal such as W, Ta, Re, or another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber, reservoir, and EM pump tube may comprise Nb, Zr, W, Ta, Re, Mo, or TZM. In an embodiment, SunCell® components or portions of the components such as the reaction cell chamber, reservoir, and EM pump tube may comprise a material that does not form an alloy except when the temperature of contacting gallium or tin exceeds an extreme such as at least one extreme of over about 400° C., 500° C., 600° C., 700° C., 800° C., 900° C., and 1000° C. The SunCell® may be operated at a temperature wherein portions of components do not reach a temperature at which gallium or tin alloy formation occurs. The SunCell® operating temperature may be controlled with cooling by cooling means such as a heat exchanger or water bath. The water bath may comprise impinging water jets such as jets off of a water manifold wherein at least one of the number of jets incident on the reaction chamber and the flow rate or each jet are controlled by a controller to maintain the reaction chamber within a desired operating temperature range. In an embodiment such as one comprising water jet cooling of at least one surface, the exterior surface of at least one component of the SunCell® may be clad with insulation such as carbon to maintain an elevated internal temperature while permitting operational cooling. In an embodiment wherein the SunCell® is cooled by means such as at least one of suspension in a coolant such as water or subjected to impinging coolant jets, the EM pump tube is thermally insulated to prevent the injection of cold liquid metal into the plasma to avoid decreasing the hydrino reaction rate. In an exemplary thermal insulation embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may be cast in cement-type material that is a very good thermal insulator (e.g., the cement-type material may have a thermal conductivity of less than 1 W/mK or less than 0.5 W/mK or less than 0.1 W/mK). The surfaces that form a gallium or tin alloy above a temperature extreme achieved during SunCell® operation may be selectively coated or clad with a material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin. The portions of the SunCell® components that both contact gallium or tin and exceed the alloy temperature for the component's material such as stainless steel may be clad with the material that does not readily form an alloy with gallium or tin. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber walls may be clad with W, Ta, Re, Mo, TZM, niobium, vanadium, or zirconium plate, or a ceramic such as quartz, especially at the region near the electrodes wherein the reaction cell chamber temperature is the greatest. The cladding may comprise a reaction cell chamber liner 5b31a. The liner may comprise a gasket or other gallium or tin impervious material such as a ceramic paste positioned between the liner and the walls of the reaction cell chamber to prevent gallium or tin from seeping behind the liner. The liner may be attached to the wall by at least one of welds, bolts, or another fastener or adhesive known in the art.
In an embodiment, the bus bas such as at least one of 10, 5k2, and the corresponding electrical leads from the bus bars to at least one of the ignition and EM pump power supplies may serve as a means to remove heat from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 for applications. The SunCell® may comprise a heat exchanger to remove heat from at least one of the bus bars and corresponding leads. In a SunCell® embodiment comprising a MHD converter, heat lost on the bus bars and their leads may be returned to the reaction cell chamber by a heat exchanger that transfers heat from the bus bars to the molten silver that is returned to the reaction cell chamber from the MHD converter by the EM pump.
In an embodiment, the side walls of the reaction cell chamber such as the four vertical sides of a cubic reaction cell chamber or walls of a cylindrical cell may be coated or clad in a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re, or covered by a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Re liner. The metal may be resistant to alloy formation with gallium or tin. The top of the reaction cell chamber may be clad or coated with an electrical insulator or comprise an electrically insulating liner such as a ceramic. Exemplary cladding, coating, and liner materials are at least one of BN, gorilla glass (e.g., https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gorilla_Glass-aluminosilicate sheet glass available from Corning), quartz, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, graphite such as pyrolytic graphite, silicon carbide coated graphite, or mixtures such as TiO2-Yr2O3—Al2O3. The top liner may have a penetration for the pedestal 5c1 (
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a baseplate 409a heat sensor, an ignition power source controller, an ignition power source, and a shut off switch which may be connected, directly, or indirectly to at least one of the ignition power source controller and the ignition power source to terminate ignition when a short occurs at the baseplate 409a and it overheats. In an embodiment, the ceramic liner comprises a plurality of sections wherein the sections provide at least one of expansion gaps or joints between sections and limit heat gradients along the length of the plurality of the sections of the liner. In an embodiment, the liner may be suspended above the liquid metal level to avoid a steep thermal gradient formed in the case that a portion of the liner is submerged in the gallium or tin. The liner sections may comprise different combinations of materials for different regions or zones having different temperature ranges during operation. In an exemplary embodiment of a liner comprising a plurality of ceramic sections of at least two types of ceramic, the section in the hottest zone such as the zone in proximity to the positive electrode may comprise SiC or BN, and at least one other section may comprise quartz.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 comprises internal thermal insulation (also referred to herein as a liner) such as at least one ceramic or carbon liner, such as a quartz, BN, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or another liner of the disclosure. In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber does not comprise a liner such as a ceramic liner. In some embodiments, the reaction cell chamber walls may comprise a metal that is maintained at a temperature below that for which alloy with the molten metal occurs such as below about 400° C. to 500° C. in the case of stainless steel such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS or Cr—Mo SS or W, Ta, Mo, Nb, Nb(94.33 wt %)-Mo(4.86 wt %)-Zr(0.81 wt %), Os, Ru, Hf, Re, or silicide coated Mo. In an embodiment such as one wherein the reaction cell chamber is immersed in a coolant such as water, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall thickness may be thin such that the internal wall temperature is below the temperature at which the wall material such as 347 SS such as 4130 alloy SS, Cr—Mo SS, or Nb—Mo(5 wt %)-Zr(1 wt %) forms an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The reaction cell chamber wall thickness may be at least one of about less than 5 mm, less than 4 mm, less than 3 mm, less than 2 mm, and less than 1 mm. The temperature inside of the liner may be much higher such as in at least one range of about 500° C. to 6000° C., 500° C. to 3400° C., 500° C. to 2500° C., 500° C. to 1000° C., and 500° C. to 1500° C. In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber and reservoir comprise a plurality of liners such as a BN inner most liner that may comprise a W, Ta, or Re inlay and may be segmented, and one or more concentric outer quartz liners. The baseplate liner may comprise an inner BN plate and at least one other ceramic plate, each with perforations for penetrations. In an embodiment, penetrations may be sealed with a cement such as a ceramic one such as Resbond or a refractory powder that is resistant to molten metal alloy formation such as W powder in the case of molten gallium or tin. An exemplary baseplate liner is a moldable ceramic insulation disc. In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a refractory or ceramic inlay such as a W or Ta inlay. The ceramic inlay may comprise ceramic tiles such as ones comprising small-height semicircular rings stacked into a cylinder. Exemplary ceramics are zirconia, yttria-stabilized-zirconia, hafnia, alumina, and magnesia. The height of the rings may be in the range of about 1 mm to 5 cm. In another embodiment, the inlay may comprise tiles or beads that may be held in place by a high temperature binding material or cement. Alternatively, the tiles or beads may be embedded in a refractory matrix such as carbon, a refractory metal such as W, Ta, or Mo, or a refractory diboride or carbide such as those of Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr, or Hf such as ZrB2, TaC, HfC, and WC or another of the disclosure.
In an exemplary embodiment, the liner may comprise segmented rings with quartz at the molten metal surface level, and the balance of the rings may comprise SiC. The quartz segment may comprise beveled quartz plates that form a ring such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring. In another exemplary embodiment, the reaction cell chamber wall may be painted, carbon coated, or ceramic coated, and the liner may comprise carbon with an inner refractory metal liner such as one comprising Nb, Mo, Ta, or W. A further inner liner may comprise a refractory metal ring such as a hexagonal or octagonal ring at the gallium or tin surface such as one comprising beveled refractory metal plates such as one comprising Nb, Mo, Ta, or W plates.
Thermal insulation may comprise a vacuum gap. The vacuum gap may comprise a space between a liner with smaller diameter than that of the reservoir and reaction cell chamber wall wherein reaction cell chamber pressure is low such as about below 50 Torr. To prevent plasma from contacting the reaction cell chamber wall, the reaction cell chamber may comprise a cap or lid such as a ceramic plug such as a BN plug. The hydrino reaction mixture gas lines may supply the reaction cell chamber, and a vacuum line may provide gas evacuation. The vacuum gap may be evacuated by a separate vacuum line connection or by a connection to the vacuum provided by the reaction cell chamber or its vacuum line. To prevent hot gallium or tin from contacting the reservoir wall the reservoir wall may comprise a liner such as at least one quartz liner that has a height from the base of the reservoir to just above the gallium or tin level wherein the liner displaces the molten gallium or tin to provide thermal insulation from contact of hot gallium or tin with the wall.
The cell wall may be thin to enhance the permeation of molecular hydrino product to avoid product inhibition. The liner may comprise a porous material such as BN, porous quartz, porous SiC, or a gas gap to facilitate the diffusion and permeation of the hydrino product from the reaction cell chamber. The reaction cell chamber wall may comprise a material that is highly permeable to molecular hydrino such as Cr—Mo SS such as 4130 alloy SS.
In an embodiment, at least one SunCell® component such as the walls the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the walls of the reservoir 5c, the walls of the EM pump tube 5k6, the baseplate 5kk1, and the top flange 409a may be coated with a coating such one of the disclosure such as a ceramic that at least one of resists alloy formation with the molten metal and resists corrosion with at least one of O2 and H2O. The thermal expansion coefficient of the coating and the coated component may be about matched such as in at least one range of a factor of about 0.1 to 10, 0.1 to 5, and 0.1 to 2. In the case of a ceramic coating that has a low thermal expansion coefficient, a coated metal such as Kovar or Invar having a similar thermal expansion coefficient is selected for the coated component.
In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 and EM bus bars 5k2 that are attached to the EM pump tube 5k6 have about a match in thermal coefficient of expansion. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube sections connected to the EM pump bus bars 5k2 comprise Invar or Kovar to match the low coefficient of thermal expansion of W bus bars.
In an embodiment, at least one component comprising a liner may be cooled by a cooling system. The cooling system may maintain a component temperature below that at which an alloy forms with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The cooling system may comprise a water bath into which the component is immersed. The cooling system may further comprise water jets that impinge on the cooled component. In an exemplary embodiment, the component comprises the EM pump tube, and the water bath immersion and water jet cooling of the EM pump tube can be implemented with minimum cooling of the hot gallium or tin pumped by the EM pump by using an EM pump tube liner having a very low thermal conductivity such as one comprising quartz.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber further comprises a dissociator chamber that houses a hydrogen dissociator such as Pt, Pd, Ir, Re, or other dissociator metal on a support such as carbon, or ceramic beads such as Al2O3, silica, or zeolite beads, Raney Ni, or Ni, niobium, titanium, or other dissociator metal of the disclosure in a form to provide a high surface area such as powder, mat, weave, or cloth. In an embodiment the SunCell® comprises a recombiner to catalytically react supplied H2 and O2 to HOH and H that flow into the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The recombiner may further comprise a controller comprising at least one of a temperature sensor, a heater, and a cooling system such a as heat exchanger that senses the recombiner temperature and controls at least one of the cooling system such as a water jet and the heater to maintain the recombiner catalyst in a desire operating temperature range such as one in the range of about 60° C. to 600° C. The upper temperature is limited by that at which the recombiner catalyst sinters and loses effective catalyst surface area.
The H2O yield of the H2/O2 recombination reaction may not be 100%, especially under flow conditions. Removing the oxygen to prevent an oxide coat from forming may permit the reduction of the ignition power by a range of about 10% to 100%. The recombiner may comprise a means to remove about all of the oxygen that flows into the cell by converting it to H2O. The recombiner may further serve as a dissociator to form H atoms and HOH catalyst that flow through a gas line to the reaction cell chamber. A longer flow path of the gas in the recombiner may increase the dwell time in the recombiner and allow the O2 to H2 reaction to go more to completion. However, the longer path in the recombiner and the gas line may allow more undesirable H recombination and HOH dimerization. So, a balance of the competing effects of flow path length is optimized in the recombiner, and the length of the gas line from the recombiner/dissociator to the reaction cell chamber may be minimized.
In an embodiment, the supply of a source of oxygen such as O2, air, or H2O to the reaction cell chamber results in the increase in the oxygen inventory of the reaction cell chamber. In the case that gallium or tin is the molten metal, the oxygen inventory may comprise at least one of gallium or tin oxide, H2O, and O2. The oxygen inventory may be essential for the formation of the HOH catalyst for the hydrino reaction. However, an oxide coat on the molten metal such as gallium or tin oxide on liquid gallium or tin may result in the suppression of the hydrino reaction and the increase in the ignition voltage at a fixed ignition current. In an embodiment, the oxygen inventory is optimized. The optimization may be achieved by flowing oxygen intermittently with a controller. Alternatively, oxygen may be flowed at a high rate until an optimal inventory is accumulated, and then the flow rate may be decreased to maintain the desired optimal inventory at a lower flow rate that balances the rate that the oxygen inventory is depleted by removal from the reaction cell chamber and reservoir by means such as evacuation by a vacuum pump. In an exemplary embodiment, the gas flow rates are about 2500 sccm H2/250 sccm O2 for about 1 minute to load an about 100-cc reaction cell chamber and an about 1 kg gallium or tin reservoir inventory, then and about 2500 sccm H2/5 sccm O2 thereafter. An indication that an oxide layer is not forming or is being consumed is a decrease in ignition voltage with time at constant ignition current wherein the voltage may be monitored by a voltage sensor, and the oxygen flow rate may be controlled by a controller.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises an ignition power parameter sensor and an oxygen source flow rate controller that senses at least one of the ignition voltage at a fixed current, the ignition current at a fixed voltage, and the ignition power and changes the oxygen source flow rate in response to the power parameter. The oxygen source may comprise at least one of oxygen and water. In an exemplary embodiment, the oxygen source controller may control the oxygen flow into the reaction cell chamber based on the ignition voltage wherein the oxygen inventory in the reaction cell chamber is increased in response to the voltage sensed by the ignition power parameter sensor below a threshold voltage and decreased in response to the voltage sensed above a threshold voltage.
To increase the recombiner yield, the recombiner dwell time, surface area, and catalytic activity may be increased. A catalyst with higher kinetics may be selected. The operating temperature may be increased.
In another embodiment, the recombiner comprise as hot filament such as a noble metal-black coated Pt filament such as Pt-black-Pt filament. The filament may be maintained at a sufficiently elevated temperature to maintain the desired rate of recombination by resistive heating maintained by a power supply, temperature sensor, and controller.
In an embodiment, the H2/O2 recombiner comprises a plasma source such as a glow discharge, microwave, radio frequency (RF), inductively or capacitively-coupled RF plasma. The discharge cell to sever as the recombiner may be high vacuum capable. An exemplary discharge cell 900 shown in
The glow discharge cell may be replaced by other sources of atomic hydrogen such as one that works by thermally dissociating hydrogen in an electron bombardment heated fine tungsten capillary (thermal hydrogen cracker) wherein by bouncing along the hot walls, the molecular hydrogen is cracked to atomic hydrogen. The atomic hydrogen source may be one know in the art such as the exemplary commercial atomic hydrogen source of H-flux Atomic Hydrogen Source by Tec Tra (https://tectra.de/sample-preparation/atomic-hydrogen-source/#:˜:text=H%2Dflux%20Atomic%20Hydrogen%20Source,is%20cracked%20to%20atomic%20hydrogen).
In an embodiment, the area of the connection between the source of at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst such as a plasma cell and reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be minimized to avoid atomic H wall recombination and HOH dimerization. The plasma cell such as the glow discharge cell may connect directly to an electrical isolator such as a ceramic one such as one from Solid Seal Technologies, Inc. that connects directly to the top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber. The electrical isolator may be connected to the discharge cell and the flange by welds, flange joints, or other fasteners known in the art. The inner diameter of the electrical isolator may be large such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm. In another embodiment wherein the SunCell® and the body of the discharge cell are maintained at the same voltage such as at ground level, the discharge cell may be directly connected to the reaction cell chamber such as at top flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber. The connection may comprise a weld, flange joint, or other fastener known in the art. The inner diameter of the connection may be large such as about the diameter of the discharge cell chamber such as in the range of about 0.05 cm to 15 cm.
The output power level can be controlled by the hydrogen and oxygen flow rate, the discharge current, the ignition current and voltage, and the EM pump current, and the molten metal temperature. The SunCell® may comprise corresponding sensors and controllers for each of these and other parameters to control the output power. The molten metal such as gallium or tin may be maintained in the temperature range of about 200° C. to 2200° C. In an exemplary embodiment comprising an 8 inch diameter 4130 Cr—Mo SS cell with a Mo liner along the reaction cell chamber wall, a glow discharge hydrogen dissociator and recombiner connected directly the flange 409a of the reaction cell chamber by a 0.75 inch OD set of Conflat flanges, the glow discharge voltage was 260 V; the glow discharge current was 2 A; the hydrogen flow rate was 2000 sccm; the oxygen flow rate was 1 sccm; the operating pressure was 5.9 Torr; the gallium or tin temperature was maintained at 400° C. with water bath cooling; the ignition current and voltage were 1300 A and 26-27V; the EM pump rate was 100 g/s, and the output power was over 300 kW for an input ignition power of 29 kW corresponding to a gain of at least 10 times.
In an embodiment, the recombiner such as a glow discharge cell recombiner may be cooled by a coolant such as water. In an exemplary embodiment, the electrical feedthrough of the recombiner may be water cooled. The recombiner may be submerged in an agitated water bath for cooling. The recombiner may comprise a safety kill switch that senses a stray voltage and terminates the plasma power supply when the voltage goes above a threshold such as one in the range of about 0V to 20V (e.g., 0.1V to 20V).
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises as a driven plasma cell such as a discharge cell such as a glow discharge, microwave discharge, or inductively or capacitively coupled discharge cell wherein the hydrino reaction mixture comprises the hydrino reaction mixture of the disclosure such as hydrogen in excess of oxygen relative to a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) to O2 (33.3%) mole percent. The driven plasma cell may comprise a vessel capable of vacuum, a reaction mixture supply, a vacuum pump, a pressure gauge, a flow meter, a plasma generator, a plasma power supply, and a controller. Plasma sources to maintain the hydrino reaction are given in Mills Prior Applications which are incorporated by reference. The plasma source may maintain a plasma in a hydrino reaction mixture comprising a mixture of hydrogen and oxygen having a deficit of oxygen compared to a stoichiometric mixture of H2 (66.6%) to O2 (33.3%) mole percent. The oxygen deficit of the hydrogen-oxygen mixture may be in the range of about 5% to 99% from that of a stoichiometric mixture. The mixture may comprise mole percentages of about 99.66% to 68.33% H2 and about 0.333% to 31.66% O2. These mixtures may produce a reaction mixture upon passage through the plasma cell such as the glow discharge sufficient to induce the catalytic reaction as described herein upon interaction with a biased molten metal in the reaction cell chamber.
In an embodiment, the reaction mixture gases formed at the outflow of the plasma cell may be forced into the reaction cell by velocity gas stream means such as an impeller or by a gas jet to increase the reactant flow rate through the cell while maintaining the reaction cell pressure in a desired range. High velocity gas may pass through the recombiner plasma source before being injected into the reaction cell chamber.
In an embodiment, the plasma recombiner/dissociator maintains a high concentration of at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst in the reaction cell chamber by direct injection of the atomic H and HOH catalyst into the reaction cell chamber from the external plasma recombiner/dissociator. The corresponding reaction conditions may be similar to those produced by very high temperature in the reaction cell chamber that produce very high kinetic and power effects. An exemplary high temperature range is about 2000° C.-3400° C. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a plurality of recombiner/dissociators such as plasma discharge cell recombiner/dissociators that inject at least one of atomic H and HOH catalyst wherein the injection into the reaction cell chamber may be by flow.
In another embodiment, the hydrogen source such as a H2 tank may be connected to a manifold that may be connected to at least two mass flow controllers (MFC). The first MFC may supply H2 gas to a second manifold that accepts the H2 line and a noble gas line from a noble gas source such as an argon tank. The second manifold may output to a line connected to a dissociator such as a catalyst such as Pt/Al2O3, Pt/C, or another of the disclosure in a housing wherein the output of the dissociator may be a line to the reaction cell chamber. The second MFC may supply H2 gas to a third manifold that accepts the H2 line and an oxygen line from an oxygen source such as an O2 tank. The third manifold may output to a line to a recombiner such as a catalyst such as Pt/Al2O3, Pt/C, or another of the disclosure in a housing wherein the output of the recombiner may be a line to the reaction cell chamber.
Alternatively, the second MFC may be connected to the second manifold supplied by the first MFC. In another embodiment, the first MFC may flow the hydrogen directly to the recombiner or to the recombiner and the second MFC. Argon may be supplied by a third MFC that receives gas from a supply such as an argon tank and outputs the argon directly into the reaction cell chamber.
In another embodiment, H2 may flow from its supply such as a H2 tank to a first MFC that outputs to a first manifold. O2 may flow from its supply such as an O2 tank to a second MFC that outputs to the first manifold. The first manifold may output to recombiner/dissociator that outputs to a second manifold. A noble gas such as argon may flow from its supply such as an argon tank to the second manifold that outputs to the reaction cell chamber. Other flow schemes are within the scope of the disclosure wherein the flows deliver the reactant gases in the possible ordered permutations by gas supplies, MFCs, manifolds, and connections known in the art.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one of a source of hydrogen such as water or hydrogen gas such as a hydrogen tank, a means to control the flow from the source such as a hydrogen mass flow controller, a pressure regulator, a line such as a hydrogen gas line from the hydrogen source to at least one of the reservoir or reaction cell chamber below the molten metal level in the chamber, and a controller. A source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas may be introduced directly into the molten metal wherein the concentration or pressure may be greater than that achieved by introduction outside of the metal. The higher concentration or pressure may increase the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. The hydrogen may dissolve as atomic hydrogen wherein the molten metal such as gallium or tin or Galinstan may serve as a dissociator. In another embodiment, the hydrogen gas line may comprise a hydrogen dissociator such as a noble metal on a support such as Pt on Al2O3support. The atomic hydrogen may be released from the surface of the molten metal in the reaction cell chamber to support the hydrino reaction. The gas line may have an inlet from the hydrogen source that is at a higher elevation than the outlet into the molten metal to prevent the molten metal from back flowing into the mass flow controller. The hydrogen gas line may extend into the molten metal and may further comprise a hydrogen diffuser at the end to distribute the hydrogen gas. The line such as the hydrogen gas line may comprise a U section or trap. The line may enter the reaction cell chamber above the molten metal and comprise a section that bends below the molten metal surface. At least one of the hydrogen source such as a hydrogen tank, the regulator, and the mass flow controller may provide sufficient pressure of the source of hydrogen or hydrogen to overcome the head pressure of the molten metal at the outlet of the line such as a hydrogen gas line to permit the desired source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas flow.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a source of hydrogen such as a tank, a valve, a regulator, a pressure gauge, a vacuum pump, and a controller, and may further comprise at least one means to form atomic hydrogen from the source of hydrogen such as at least one of a hydrogen dissociator such as one of the disclosure such as Re/C or Pt/C and a source of plasma such as the hydrino reaction plasma, a high voltage power source that may be applied to the SunCell® electrodes to maintain a glow discharge plasma, an RF plasma source, a microwave plasma source, or another plasma source of the disclosure to maintain a hydrogen plasma in the reaction cell chamber. The source of hydrogen may supply pressurized hydrogen. The source of pressurized hydrogen may at least one of reversibly and intermittently pressurize the reaction cell chamber with hydrogen. The pressurized hydrogen may dissolve into the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The means to form atomic hydrogen may increase the solubility of hydrogen in the molten metal. The reaction cell chamber hydrogen pressure may be in at least one range of about 0.01 atm to 1000 atm, 0.1 atm to 500 atm, and 0.1 atm to 100 atm. The hydrogen may be removed by evacuation after a dwell time that allows for absorption. The dwell time may be in at least one range of about 0.1 s to 60 minutes, 1 s to 30 minutes, and 1 s to 1 minute. The SunCell® may comprise a plurality of reaction cell chambers and a controller that may be at least one of intermittently supplied with atomic hydrogen and pressured and depressurized with hydrogen in a coordinated manner wherein each reaction cell chamber may be absorbing hydrogen while another is being pressurized or supplied atomic hydrogen, evacuated, or in operation maintaining a hydrino reaction. Exemplary systems and conditions for causing hydrogen to absorb into molten gallium or tin are given by Carreon [M. L. Carreon, “Synergistic interactions of H2 and N2 with molten gallium or tin in the presence of plasma”, Journal of Vacuum Science & Technology A, Vol. 36, Issue 2, (2018), 021303 pp. 1-8; https://doi.org/10.1116/1.5004540] which is herein incorporated by reference. In an exemplary embodiment, the SunCell® is operated at high hydrogen pressure such as 0.5 to 10 atm wherein the plasma displays pulsed behavior with much lower input power than with continuous plasma and ignition current. Then, the pressure is maintained at about 1 Torr to 5 Torr with 1500 sccm H2+15 sccm O2 flow through 1 g of Pt/Al2O3 at greater than 90° C. and then into the reaction cell chamber wherein high output power develops with additional H2 outgassing from the gallium or tin with increasing gallium or tin temperature. The corresponding H2 loading (gallium or tin absorption) and unloading (H2 off gassing from gallium or tin) or may be repeated.
In an embodiment, the source of hydrogen or hydrogen gas may be injected directly into molten metal in a direction that propels the molten metal to the opposing electrode of a pair of electrodes wherein the molten metal bath serves as an electrode. The gas line may serve as an injector wherein the source of hydrogen or hydrogen injection such as H2 gas injection may at least partially serve as a molten metal injector. An EM pump injector may serve as an additional molten metal injector of the ignition system comprising at least two electrodes and a source of electrical power.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a molecular hydrogen dissociator. The dissociator may be housed in the reaction cell chamber or in a separate chamber in gaseous communication with the reaction cell chamber. The separate housing may prevent the dissociator from failing due to being exposed to the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The dissociator may comprise a dissociating material such as supported Pt such as Pt on alumina beads or another of the disclosure or known in the art. Alternatively, the dissociator may comprise a hot filament or plasma discharge source such as a glow discharge, microwave plasma, plasma torch, inductively or capacitively coupled RF discharge, dielectric barrier discharge, piezoelectric direct discharge, acoustic discharge, or another discharge cell of the disclosure or known in the art. The hot filament may be heated resistively by a power source that flows current through electrically isolated feedthrough the penetrate the reaction cell chamber wall and then through the filament.
In another embodiment, the ignition current may be increased to increase at least one of the hydrogen dissociation rate and the plasma ion-electron recombination rate. In an embodiment, the ignition waveform may comprise a DC offset such as one in the voltage range of about 1 V to 100 V with a superimposed AC voltage in the range of about 1 V to 100 V. The DC voltage may increase the AC voltage sufficiently to form a plasma in the hydrino reaction mixture, and the AC component may comprise a high current in the presence of plasma such as in a range of about 100 A to 100,000 A. The DC current with the AC modulation may cause the ignition current to be pulsed at the corresponding AC frequency such as one in at least one range of about 1 Hz to 1 MHz, 1 Hz to 1 kHz, and 1 Hz to 100 Hz. In an embodiment, the EM pumping is increased to decrease the resistance and increase the current and the stability of the ignition power.
In an embodiment, a high-pressure glow discharge may be maintained by means of a microhollow cathode discharge. The microhollow cathode discharge may be sustained between two closely spaced electrodes with openings of approximately 100 micron diameter. Exemplary direct current discharges may be maintained up to about atmospheric pressure. In an embodiment, large volume plasmas at high gas pressure may be maintained through superposition of individual glow discharges operating in parallel. The plasma current may be at least one of DC or AC.
In an embodiment, the atomic hydrogen concentration is increased by supplying a source of hydrogen that is easier to dissociate than H2O or H2. Exemplary sources are those having at least one of lower enthalpies and lower free energies of formation per H atom such as methane, a hydrocarbon, methanol, an alcohol, another organic molecule comprising H.
In an embodiment, the dissociator may comprise the electrode 8 such as the one shown in
In an alternative embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a coolant flow heat exchanger comprising the pumping system whereby the reaction cell chamber is cooled by a flowing coolant wherein the flow rate may be varied to control the reaction cell chamber to operate within a desired temperature range. The heat exchanger may comprise plates with channels such as microchannel plates. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a cell comprising the reaction cell chamber 531, reservoir 5c, pedestal 5c1, and all components in contact with the hydrino reaction plasma wherein one or more components may comprise a cell zone. In an embodiment, the heat exchanger such as one comprising a flowing coolant may comprise a plurality of heat exchangers organized in cell zones to maintain the corresponding cell zone at an independent desired temperature.
In an embodiment such as one shown in
In an embodiment (
In an embodiment (
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may comprise a tube reactor (
In an embodiment, the liner (e.g., the liner of the EM pump, the reaction cell liner) comprises a hybrid of a plurality of materials such as a plurality of ceramics or a ceramic and a refractory metal. The ceramic may be one of the disclosure such as BN, quartz, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, or a diboride or carbide such as those of Ta, W, Re, Ti, Zr, or Hf such as ZrB2, TaC, HfC, and WC. The refractory metal may be one of the disclosure such as W, Ta, Re, Ir, or Mo. In an exemplary embodiment of a tubular cell (
In an embodiment, the ceramic liner, coating, or cladding of at least one SunCell® component such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, ignition feedthrough, and EM pump tube may comprise at least one of a metal oxide, alumina, zirconia, yttria stabilized zirconia, magnesia, hafnia, silicon carbide, zirconium carbide, zirconium diboride, silicon nitride (Si3N4), a glass ceramic such as Li2O×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (LAS system), the MgO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (MAS system), the ZnO×Al2O3×nSiO2 system (ZAS system). At least one SunCell® component such as the reservoir, reaction cell chamber, EM pump tube, liner, cladding, or coating may comprise a refractory material such as at least one of graphite (sublimation point=3642° C.), a refractory metal such as tungsten (M.P.=3422° C.) or tantalum (M.P.=3020° C.), niobium, niobium alloy, vanadium, a ceramic, a ultra-high-temperature ceramic, and a ceramic matrix composite such as at least one of borides, carbides, nitrides, and oxides such as those of early transition metals such as hafnium boride (HfB2), zirconium diboride (ZrB2), hafnium nitride (HfN), zirconium nitride (ZrN), titanium carbide (TiC), titanium nitride (TiN), thorium dioxide (ThO2), niobium boride (NbB2), and tantalum carbide (TaC) and their associated composites. Exemplary ceramics having a desired high melting point are magnesium oxide (MgO) (M.P.=2852° C.), zirconium oxide (ZrO) (M.P.=2715° C.), boron nitride (BN) (M.P.=2973° C.), zirconium dioxide (ZrO2) (M.P.=2715° C.), hafnium boride (HfB2) (M.P.=3380° C.), hafnium carbide (HfC) (M.P.=3900° C.), Ta4HfC5 (M.P.=4000° C.), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5(4215° C.), hafnium nitride (HfN) (M.P.=3385° C.), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (M.P.=3246° C.), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (M.P.=3400° C.), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (M.P.=2950° C.), titanium boride (TiB2) (M.P.=3225° C.), titanium carbide (TiC) (M.P.=3100° C.), titanium nitride (TiN) (M.P.=2950° C.), silicon carbide (SiC) (M.P.=2820° C.), tantalum boride (TaB2) (M.P.=3040° C.), tantalum carbide (TaC) (M.P.=3800° C.), tantalum nitride (TaN) (M.P.=2700° C.), niobium carbide (NbC) (M.P.=3490° C.), niobium nitride (NbN) (M.P.=2573° C.), vanadium carbide (VC) (M.P.=2810° C.), and vanadium nitride (VN) (M.P.=2050° C.), and a turbine blade material such as one or more from the group of a superalloy, nickel-based superalloy comprising chromium, cobalt, and rhenium, one comprising ceramic matrix composites, U-500, Rene 77, Rene N5, Rene N6, PWA 1484, CMSX-4, CMSX-10, Inconel, IN-738, GTD-111, EPM-102, and PWA 1497. The ceramic such as MgO and ZrO may be resistant to reaction with H2.
In an embodiment, at least one of each reservoir 5c, the reaction cell chamber 5b31, and the inside of the EM pump tube 5k6 are coated with a ceramic or comprise a ceramic liner such as such as one of BN, quartz, carbon, pyrolytic carbon, silicon carbide, titania, alumina, yttria, hafnia, zirconia, or mixtures such as TiO2-Yr2O3—Al2O3, or another of the disclosure. An exemplary carbon coating comprises Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN and an exemplary alumina coating comprises Cotronics Resbond 989. In an embodiment, the liner comprises at least two concentric clam shells such as two BN clam shell liners. The vertical seams of the clam shell (parallel with the reservoir) may be offset or staggered by a relative rotational angle to avoid a direct electrical path from the plasma or molten metal inside of the reaction cell chamber to the reaction cell chamber walls. In an exemplary embodiment, the offset is 90° at the vertical seams wherein the two sections of the clam shell permit the liners to thermally expand without cracking, and the overlapping inner and outer liners block plasma from electrically shorting to the reaction chamber wall due to relative offset of the sets of seams of the concentric clam shell liners. Another exemplary embodiment comprises a clam shell inner liner and a full outer liner such as a BN clam shell inner and a carbon or ceramic tube outer liner. In a further embodiment of the plurality of concentric liners, at least the inner liner comprises vertically stack sections. The horizontal seams of the inner liner may be covered by the outer liner wherein the seams of the inner liner are at different vertical heights from those of the outer, in the case that the outer liner also comprises vertically stacked sections. The resulting offsetting of the seams prevents electrical shorting between at least one of the molten metal and plasma inside of the reaction cell chamber and the reaction cell chamber walls.
The liner comprises an electrical insulator that is capable of high temperature operation and has good thermal shock resistance. Machinability, the ability to provide thermal insulation, and resistance to reactivity with the hydrino reactants and the molten metal are also desirable. Exemplary liner materials are at least one of BN, AlN, Sialon, and Shapal. Silicon nitride (Si3N4), silicon carbide, Sialon, Mullite, and Macor may serve a thermal insulation circumferential to the BN inner liner. The liner may comprise a porous type of the liner material such as porous Sialon. Further exemplary liners comprise at least one of SiC-carbon glazed graphite with a Ta or W inlay or inner BN liner to protect it from the hydrino plasma, pyrolytic-coated carbon, SiC—C composite, silicon nitride bonded silicon carbide, yttria stabilized zirconia, SiC with a Ta or W inlay. The liner may be at least one of horizontally and vertically segmented to reduce thermal shock. The lined component such as at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir 5c may be ramped in temperature at a rate that avoids liner thermal shock (e.g. the shock produced by the plasma heating too rapidly to produce thermal gradients and differential expansion-based stresses in the liner that leads to failure) of the liner such as a SiC liner. The temperature ramp rate may be in the range of about 1° C./minute to 200° C./s. The segmented sections may interlock by a structural feature on juxtaposed sections such as ship lapping or tongue and groove. In an embodiment, the interlocking of the segments, each comprising an electrical insulator, prevents the plasma from electrically shorting to reaction cell chamber wall 5b31. In another embodiment, the liner may comprise a porous ceramic such a sporous SiC, MgO, fire brick, ZrO2, HfO2, and Al2O3 to avoid thermal shock. The liner may comprise a plurality or stack of concentric liner materials which in combination provide the desired properties of the liner. The inner most layer may possess chemical inertness at high temperature, high thermal shock resistance and high temperature operational capability. The outer layers may provide electrical and thermal insulation and resistance to reactivity at their operating temperature. In an exemplary embodiment, quartz is operated below about 700° C. to avoid reaction with gallium or tin to gallium or tin oxide. Exemplary concentric liner stacks to test are from inside to outside: BN—SiC—Si3N4 wherein quartz, SiC, SiC-coated graphite, or SiC—C composite may replace Si3N4 and AlN, Sialon, or Shapal may replace BN or SiC.
In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a housing that is circumferential to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The walls of the housing may comprise a ceramic or coated or clad metal of the disclosure. The housing may be filled with a thermally stable thermal insulator. In an exemplary embodiment, the housing comprises a double-walled BN tube liner comprising an inner and outer BN tube with a gap between the two tubes and BN end-plate seals at the top and bottom of the gap to form a cavity wherein the cavity may be filled with silica gel or other high-temperature-capable thermal insulator such as an inner quartz tube.
In an embodiment comprising a plurality of concentric liners, at least one outer concentric liner may at least one of (i) serve as a heat sink and (ii) remove heat from the juxtaposed inner liner. The outer liner may comprise a material with a high heat transfer coefficient such as BN or SiC. In an exemplary embodiment, the inner most liner may comprise BN that may be segmented and the corresponding outer liner may comprise SiC that may be segmented and stacked such that the seams of the inner most and outer liner segments are offset or staggered.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber plasma may short to the reaction cell chamber wall rather then connect to the reservoir gallium or tin surface due to gallium or tin boiling that increases the total pressure between the reservoir gallium or tin and the electrode 8 to a point that a plasma cannot form. The ignition voltage may increase as the pressure increases until the resistance is lower through the lower-pressure bulk gas to the reaction chamber wall. In an embodiment, the gallium or tin vaporization can be sensed by a rise in ignition voltage at constant ignition current. A controller can reduce the ignition power, change the gas pressure, decrease the recombiner plasma power, or increase the EM pumping and gallium or tin mixing in response to the voltage rise to decrease the vaporization. In another embodiment, the controller may at least one of apply the ignition current intermittently to suppress the gallium or tin boiling wherein the hydrino reaction plasma may sustain during a portion of the duty cycle with the ignition off and cause argon to flow into the reaction cell chamber from a source to suppress gallium or tin boiling by increasing the pressure while avoiding reduction in H atom concentration. In an embodiment such as that shown in
In an embodiment, the feedthrough 10al may comprise the electrode bus bar 10 potted with a potting compound or adhesive capable of binding metals and operating at high temperature such as 300° C. to 2000° C. Exemplary potting adhesives are Cotronics Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2— ZrSiO4, and Durabond as such as RK454. In an embodiment, the conductor of the feedthrough 10al, the electrode bus bar 10, and the electrode 8 may comprise the same conductor such as tungsten or tantalum. The feedthrough 10a1 may comprise a ceramic isolator brazed to the center conductor and a housing by a high temperature braze such as one of the disclosure wherein the housing is fastened to the flange plate 409a (
The vacuum line 711 may comprise a section containing a material such as metal wool such as SS wool or a ceramic fiber such as one comprising at least one of Alumina, silicate, zirconia, magnesia, and hafnia that has a large surface area; yet is highly diffusible for gases. The condensation material may condense gallium or tin and gallium or tin oxide which may be refluxed back into the reaction cell chamber while allowing gases such as H2, O2, argon, and H2O to be removed by evacuation. The vacuum line 711 may comprise a vertical section to enhance the reflux of gallium or tin and gallium or tin products to the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an embodiment, a gallium or tin additive such as at least one other metal, element, compound or material may be added to the gallium or tin to prevent boiling. The gallium or tin additive may comprise silver which may further form nanoparticles in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 to reduce the plasma resistance and increase the hydrino power gain.
Experimentally, the hydrino reaction power was increased with a SunCell® comprising a smaller diameter reaction cell chamber due to the increase in the plasma current density, plasma density, and corresponding plasma heating effect. With the innovation of the glow discharge recombiner, plasma concentration is not necessary since the discharge plasma produces the effect of high temperature including preparing an amount of nascent water which may be characterized as water having an internal energy sufficient to prevent the formation of hydrogen bonds. In an embodiment comprising a plasma recombiner such as a glow discharge recombiner, damage to the liner such as a BN liner is avoided by distancing the liner from the hydrino plasma. To achieve the distancing, the liner may comprise a larger diameter compared to the SunCell that generates similar power. In an embodiment, the liner such as a BN liner contacts the reaction cell chamber wall to improve heat transfer to an external water bath to prevent the BN from cracking. In an embodiment, the liner may be segmented and comprise a plurality of materials such as BN in the most intense plasma zone such as the zone between the molten metal surface and the counter electrode 8 and further comprise segments of at least one different ceramic such as SiC in other zones. Moreover, certain liners, such as BN may provide increased passivity of reaction products such as the hydrino to afford more efficient power generation.
At least one segment of the inner most liner such as a BN liner may comprise a desired thickness such as 0.1 mm to 10 cm thick to transfer heat at least radially from the molten metal such as gallium or tin to an external heat sink such as water coolant. In an embodiment, the liner such as a BN liner may make good thermal contact with at least one of the reservoir wall and reaction chamber wall. The diameter of the inner liner may be selected to remove it sufficiently from the center of the reaction cell chamber to reduce plasma damage to a desired extent. The diameter may be in the range of 0.5 cm to 100 cm. The liner may a refractory metal inlay such as a W inlay in the region where the plasma is the most intense. In an exemplary embodiment, an 8 cm diameter BN liner is in contact with circumferential reaction cell chamber and reservoir walls wherein the liner portion that is submerged in molten metal comprises perforations to permit molten metal to contact the reservoir wall to increase heat transfer to the reservoir wall and an external coolant such as a water or air coolant. In another exemplary embodiment, an inner but-end stacked BN segmented liner comprises perforations below the molten metal level and an outer concentric liner comprises a single piece SiC cylinder with notches cut in the bottom to allow radial molten metal flow and heat transfer.
In an embodiment, at least one of the inner or outer liners comprise a refractory metal such as W or Ta, and another comprises an electrical insulator such as a ceramic such as BN wherein the refractory metal liner may dissipate local hot spots by at least one of thermal conduction and heat sinking. In addition to removing thermal stress on the inner most liner that is exposed to the hydrino reaction plasma by transferring heat away from the inner most liner surface, the hydrino permeation rate may be higher in liner and reaction cell chamber materials with high heat transfer coefficients such as Cr—Mo SS versus 304 SS, or BN versus Sialon which may increase the hydrino reaction rate by reducing hydrino product inhibition. An exemplary SunCell® embodiment comprising concentric liner and reaction cell chamber wall components to facilitate hydrino product permeation and heat transfer to an external coolant such as a water bath comprises a BN inner most liner, a corresponding SiC outer liner, and a concentric Cr—Mo SS reaction cell chamber wall with good thermal contact between concentric components. In an embodiment wherein it is desired that heat be retained in the reaction cell chamber such as one comprising a heat exchanger such as a molten gallium or tin to air heat exchanger, the reaction cell chamber may comprise additional outer concentric thermal insulating liners such as quartz ones, and may further comprise a thermally insulating base such as one comprising a bottom quartz liner.
In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a refractory metal such as at least one of W, Ta, Mo, or Nb that is resistant to forming an alloy with gallium or tin. The metal liner may be in contact with the cell wall to increase the heat transfer to an external coolant such as water. In an embodiment, the horizontal distance from the circumferential edge of the electrode 8 to the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall is greater than the vertical separation between the molten metal in the reservoir and the electrode 8 wherein at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir may optionally comprise a liner. In an exemplary embodiment, a centered W electrode 8 has a diameter of about 1 to 1.5 inches in a reaction cell chamber with a diameter in the range of about 6 to 8 inches wherein a W, Ta, Mo, or Nb liner is in contact with the reaction cell chamber wall. The reaction cell chamber with a diameter sufficient to avoid the formation of a discharge between the wall and electrode 8 may comprise no liner to improve at least one of heat transfer across the wall and hydrino diffusion through the wall to avoid hydrino product inhibition. In an embodiment such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the inner most liner may comprise at least one of a refractory material such as one comprising W or Ta and a molten metal cooling system. The molten metal cooling system may comprise an EM pump nozzle that directs at least a portion of the injected molten metal such as gallium or tin onto the liner to cool it. The molten metal cooling system may comprise a plurality of nozzles that inject molten metal to the counter electrode and further inject molten metal onto the walls of the liner to cool it. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal cooling system comprises an injector nozzle positioned in the central region of the reservoir such as the center of the reservoir or proximal thereto that may be submerged in the molten metal contained in the reservoir and an annular ring injector inside of the liner that comprises a series of apertures or nozzle to inject an annular spray onto the inner surface of the liner. The central injector and annular ring injector may be supplied by the same EM pump or independent EM pumps. The liner such as a BN or SiC liner may have a high heat transfer coefficient. The liner may be in close contact with the reaction cell chamber wall 5b31 that may be cooled to cool the liner. In exemplary embodiments, the reaction cell chamber wall 5b31 may be water or air cooled.
In an embodiment, the liner such as quartz liner is cooled by the molten metal such as gallium or tin. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a multiple-nozzle molten metal injector or multiple molten metal injectors to spread the heat released by the hydrino reaction by agitation and distribution of the reaction on the molten metal surface. The multiple nozzles may distribute the power of the reaction to avoid localized excessive vaporization of the molten metal.
In an embodiment, a Ta, Re, or W liner may comprise a Ta, Re, or W vessel comprising walls such as a Ta, Re, or W cylindrical tube, a welded Ta, Re, or W baseplate and at least one fastened penetrating component such as at least one of a welded-in Ta, Re, or W EM pump tube inlet, and injector outlet, ignition bus bar, and thermocouple well. In another embodiment, the vessel may comprise a ceramic such as SiC, BN, quartz, or another ceramic of the disclosure wherein the vessel may comprise at least one boss that transitions to a penetrating component wherein the fastener may comprise a gasketed union such as one comprising a graphite gasket or another or the disclosure or a glue such as a ceramic to metal glue such as Resbond or Durabond of the disclosure. The vessel may have an open top. The vessel may be housed in a metal shell such as a stainless-steel shell. Penetrations such as the ignition bus bar may be vacuum sealed to the stainless-steel shell by seals such as a Swageloks or housings such as ones formed with flanges and a gaskets. The shell may be sealed at the top. The seal may comprise a Conflat flange 409e and baseplate 409a (
In an embodiment, the liner 5b31a may cover all of the walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir 5c. At least one of the reactant gas supply line 710 and vacuum line 711 may be mounted on the top flange 409a (
In an embodiment, the temperature of the molten metal such as gallium or tin may be monitored by a thermocouple such as a high temperature thermocouple that may further be resistant to forming an alloy with the molten metal such as gallium or tin. The thermocouple may comprise W, Re, or Ta or may comprise a protective sheath such as a W, Re, Ta, or ceramic one. In an embodiment, the baseplate may comprise a thermocouple well for the thermocouple that protrudes into the molten metal and protects the thermocouple wherein heat transfer paste may be used to make good thermal contact between the thermocouple and the well. In an exemplary embodiment, a Ta, Re, or W thermocouple or a Ta, Re, or W tube thermowell is connected by a Swagelok to the baseplate of the reservoir. Alternatively, the thermocouple may be inserted in the EM pump tube, inlet side.
The top of the tube reactor (
In an embodiment, the liner may comprise a thinner upper section and a thicker lower section with a taper in between sections such that liner has a relatively larger cross-sectional area at one or more regions such as the region the houses the upper electrode 8 and a smaller cross-sectional area at the level of the gallium or tin to increase the current density at the gallium or tin surface. The relative ratio of the cross-sectional area at the top versus bottom section may be in the range of 1.01 to 100 times.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® may be cooled by a medium such as a gas such as air or a liquid such as water. The SunCell® may comprise a heat exchanger that may transfer heat (e.g., heat of the reaction cell chamber) to a gas such as air or a liquid such as water. In an embodiment, the heat exchanger comprises a closed vessel such as a tube that houses the SunCell® or a hot portion thereof such as the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The heat exchanger may further comprise a pump that causes water to flow through the tube. The flow may be pressurized such that steam production may be suppressed to increase the heat transfer rate. The resulting superheated water may flow to a steam generator to form steam, and the steam may power a steam turbine. Or, the steam may be used for heating.
In an embodiment of an air-cooled heat exchanger, the SunCell® heat exchanger may comprise high surface area heat fins on the hot outer surfaces and a blower or compressor to flow air over the fins to remove heat from the SunCell® for heating and electricity production applications. In another air-cooled heat exchanger embodiment, the molten metal such a gallium or tin is pumped outside of the reservoir 5c by an EM pump such as 5ka and through a heat exchanger and then pumped back to the reservoir 5c in a closed loop.
In an embodiment wherein the heat transfer across the reaction cell chamber wall is at least partially by a conductive mechanism, the heat transfer across the wall to a coolant such as air or water is increased by at least one of increasing the wall area, decreasing the wall thickness, and selecting a reaction cell chamber wall comprising a material such as nickel or a stainless steel such as chromium molybdenum steel that has a higher thermal conductivity than alternatives such as 316 stainless steel.
In an embodiment (
In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises at least one component such as the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir comprising a wall metal such as 4130 CrMo SS, Nb, Ta, W, or Mo with a high heat transfer coefficient, a sufficiently thin wall, and a sufficiently large area to provide sufficient heat loss to a thermal sink such as a water bath to maintain a desired molten metal temperature during the production of a desired amount of power. An external heat exchanger may not be necessary. The wall thickness may be in the range of about 0.05 mm to 5 mm. The wall area and thickness may be calculated from the conduction heat transfer equation using the bath and desire molten metal temperature as the thermal gradient. The external surfaces of the SunCell® may be coated with a paint such as VHT Flameproof®, a ceramic such as Mullite, or an electroplated corrosion-resistant metal such as SS, Ni, or chrome to prevent corrosion with a coolant of the thermal sink such as water of the water bath.
In an embodiment, the nozzle 5q may be replaced with a plurality of nozzles, or the nozzle may have a plurality of openings such as those of a shower head to disperse the injected gallium or tin from multiple orifices toward the counter electrode. Such configurations may facilitate the formation of a plasma at higher molten metal injection rates such as those required to maintain a high flow rate in the single loop conduit of the heat exchanger that is in series with the EM pump injection system comprising the EM pump tube, and its inlet and injection outlet.
In an embodiment shown in
In a boiler and heated-air power system embodiment shown in
The SunCell power system may comprise a startup oven comprising at least one heating element and insulation that may at least partially house the SunCell and heat it to at least one of (i) melt the molten metal and (ii) heat SunCell components such as the PV window, reaction cell chamber, reservoir, EM pump tube, and EM pump injectors to prevent solidification of the molten metal. The startup oven may comprise an external power source, temperature sensors, and a controller to control the temperature of the oven. The boiler may comprise the heater such as the startup oven. The walls of the boiler such as at least one of 33a and 33b comprise heating elements such as one or more Nichrome or Kanthal resistive heater elements and thermal insulation such as high temperature capable insulation that may be hermetically sealed such as in a housing such as a stainless-steel housing. The housing may comprise a boiler double wall. The boiler performing as an oven may melt the molten metal in the SunCell during SunCell startup. To increase the heating rate of the internal components of the SunCell, the SunCell may be filled with a gas with a high heat transfer capability such as helium or hydrogen and/or the exterior surfaces of the SunCell may be coated with a coating with a high emissivity such as black ceramic paint such as Flameproof paint. When the SunCell reaches at least one of a desired temperature and power, the heater and oven power may be discontinued, and the boiler filled with water by the water make-up line 35 and corresponding water pump to perform as a boiler. In an embodiment, the boiler further comprises a heat exchanger such as at least one of a cooling tower and a forced air exchanger such as a radiator. The boiler and external heat exchanger may serve to at least one of cool the SunCell, cool the PV converter, provide steam to a load, and provide heated air to a load. In an embodiment, at least one SunCell component such as the electromagnetic pump magnets 5k4 or the electromagnetic pump assembly 5kk may penetrate the oven/boiler wall such as the bottom wall and may be at least one of heated and cooled externally to the oven/boiler.
In an embodiment, a high reaction cell chamber 5b31 wall temperature such as one in the range of 150° C. to 2000° C. increases the hydrino permeation rate which was found to be important to increasing the hydrino reaction rate by reducing product inhibition. The wall temperature may be regulated, for example, by alteration (e.g., increase or decrease) of the reaction rate, leveraging thermal insulation and/or cooling in the device for appropriate heat transfer to maintain a desired temperature during operation. Similarly, a high reaction cell chamber 5b31 temperature such as one in the range of 150° C. to 3000° C. may also increases the hydrino reaction rate. In an embodiment, the SunCell such as the one shown
In an embodiment to reduce product inhibition, the hydrino reaction may be paused to permit time for hydrino reaction products to be removed from the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by at least one mechanism such as permeation and vacuum pumping. The hydrino reaction may be paused by at least one method to control the hydrino reaction rate such as at least one of pausing the ignition power, the EM pumping, and flow of at least one reactant, and addition of an inert gas, and another means of the disclosure.
In another embodiment of SunCell comprising dual molten metal injectors, the ignition power supply may provide resistive heating to start the SunCell. At least one exterior surface of the SunCell such as one electrically isolated from break reservoir EM pump assembly 914a (
Following a desired amount of resistive heating such as one that achieves melting of the molten metal, the ignition power may be connected between leads of oppositive molten metal injectors. The SunCell may comprise a resistive/ignition switch that switches connection between resistive heating and ignition power by connecting the corresponding leads. In another embodiment, the resistive heating may be powered by a power supply other than the ignition power supply. In an exemplary embodiment, rather than apply ignition power, the ignition power source is used to melt the tin and heat the SunCell, then the ignition power is applied to start the hydrino reaction plasma.
In a general embodiment such as one comprising a boiler, an air heat exchanger, or a thermophotovoltaic converter design of the disclosure, the SunCell may comprise reversible insulation such as a vacuum jacket, a pressure gauge, a gas supply such as a hydrogen or helium supply, a vacuum pump, and a gas pressure controller wherein the gas pressure in the jacket is controlled to control the level of insulation. Other components such as the EM pump tube may comprise a ceramic insulation or an equivalent. In another embodiment, an EM pump such as 5ka may pump the molten metal into a storage reservoir such as one external to the reservoir 5c. The storage reservoir may comprise the EM pump and further comprise a controller, a temperature sensor, a heater, and a heater power supply such as a battery or capacitor bank to power the heater. The heater may melt the molten metal that is then pumped or siphoned into the reservoir 5c to allow the SunCell to startup. In an embodiment, the molten metal may be at least one of pumped into or out of the storage reservoir through a connection to the EM pump tube 5k6.
In a boiler embodiment such as one shown
At least the EM pump tubes 5k6 may be thermally insulated to prevent the molten metal inside from solidifying. The insulation may comprise ceramic fiber or other high temperature thermal insulation material that may be hermetically sealed in a housing such as a SS housing that may be joined together and to the EM pump tube by at least one of welding and metal glue such as at least one of J-B Weld 37901, Cotronics Resbond 940SS, and Cotronics Resbond 907GF to provide the seal. Alternatively, the EM pump may be clad with insulation such as carbon. In an exemplary embodiment, the thermal insulation may comprise two carbon clam shells that have a milled-out channel for the EM pump tube wherein the blocks may be glued to the pump tube and glued to each other to form a hermetic seal. The glue may comprise carbon glue or another such an oxide-based glue such as Resbond to prevent carbide formation of the pump tube. Alternatively, the exterior of the EM pump tube 5k6 may be coated with coating such as Flameproof paint or another of the disclosure that avoids carbide formation which is permissive of using carbon glue such as Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN. The carbon insulation may be coated at least externally and internally. The coating such as Flameproof paint or another of the disclosure may prevent at least one of oxidation and carbide formation. In another embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise a thermally insulating liner such as a carbon, BN, ceramic, or quartz one.
In an embodiment, the EM pump tube 5k6 may comprise heat transfer blocks comprising a highly thermal conductive material such as copper that encases the EM pump to spread heat from one hot section of the EM pump tube to a cooler section. The heat transfer blocks may transfer heat to the section of the EM pump tube that is covered the EM magnets 5k4.
In an exemplary heat exchanger 813 embodiment shown in
In an exemplary embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the thermal power such as the steam output from the heat exchanger may be used for air conditioning, cooling loads such as servers and others, and refrigeration by mating the SunCell output to an absorption chiller such as one made by Trane (https://www.trane.com/commercial/asia-pacific/ph/en/products-systems/equipment/chillers/absorption-liquid-chillers/single-stage-chillers.html).
In an embodiment, the SunCell may comprise a direct wall heat exchanger. The SunCell 812 may be placed in cowling 39 (
The heat exchange may further comprise at least one of one or more vapor chambers, loop thermosyphons, thermal spreaders, and transport heat pipe assemblies. The heat spreader may comprise a heat transfer block of the appropriate geometry to connect to the surface of the walls of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir. The spreader may comprise a material with a high heat transfer coefficient such as a copper or aluminum one. The thermal power produced by the SunCell may also be spread to a larger area to facilitate the transfer to air by increasing the geometric area of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir. In an exemplary embodiment, the power density transferred across at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir walls is matched to the capacity of an external heat exchanger to transfer the power to air by increasing at least one dimension of SunCell to increase the wall surface area.
In an embodiment of a direct heat exchanger shown in
In an embodiment of a SunCell 812 comprising a heat pipe air heat exchanger shown in
In an embodiment to transfer heat generated by the hydrino reaction predominantly by radiation such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the EM pump is capable of operating at high temperature such as in the range of about 200° C. to 1500° C. In an embodiment, the EM pump comprises a metal pump tube 5k6 with welded in EM pus bars 5k2 where at least one of inside of the pump tube and at least the portion of the bus bars that contacts the molten metal are coated with a coating with at least one property of a high electrical conductivity, resistance to alloy formation with the molten metal, oxidation resistance, and high temperature stability. The conductivity of the coating may be in the range of about 1000 micro-ohm cm to 1 micro-ohm cm. The stable temperature of the coating may be above 100° C. The alloy resistance of the coating may regard resistance associated with forming an alloy with at least one of gallium, indium, tin, copper, and silver. The oxidation resistance of the coating may regard resistance associated with oxidation from at least one of oxygen and water to at least a temperature of 100° C. The EM bus bar coating may be applied before or after the EM bus bars are welded to the EM pump tube. The coating may comprise at least one of a nitride, carbide, or boride. Exemplary conductive coatings are carbon slurry such as one comprising Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN or spray coating, vanadium carbide thermal diffusion coating, thermo-chemical boriding/borinizing (DHB) coating, TiCN, titanium nitride, or carbide CVD coating, advanced HVOF CoreGard™ (Praxair) coatings, salt bath nitriding coat, gas nitriding coat, ion plasma nitriding coat, chrome, chrome carbide, tantalizing coating, thermo-chemical tantalizing coating, aluminizing coating, platinum aluminide diffusion coating, thermo-chemical aluminizing coating, ZrN, TiN, WC, VC, thermal-chemical CrC coating, CrC or Al coating such as diffusion coating such as at least one of diffused slurry, pack diffusion, and vapor phase diffusion, CrC, CrN, AlTiN, TiAlN, AlTiCN, TiAlSiCN, TiB2, and ZrB2. The coating may be applied by a plasma vapor deposition, physical vapor deposition, HVOF method, thermal spray, thermal diffusion, chemical vapor deposition (CVD), thermo-chemical, chemical deposition, electrochemical deposition, electroplating, and other methods known in the art. The coating of the EM pump tube may comprise a tantalum coat such as one applied by tantalizing using a method such as thermo-chemical deposition. In an embodiment, the Ta coated EM pump tube may comprise at least one of stainless-steel tube 5k6 and stainless-steel EM bus bars 5k2 that may be welded in. The coating of the EM pump tube may comprise a nonconductive material such as a ceramic such as Flameproof paint while the coating of the EM bus bars may comprise a conductive coating such as TiN or a conductor such as Ta or W that may be further resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal. In an exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube comprises Flameproof paint coated stainless steel (SS) and the EM bus bars comprise TiN coated SS welded into the SS pump tube. In a further exemplary embodiment, the EM pump tube comprises Flameproof paint coated stainless steel (SS) and the EM bus bars comprise two sections, an electrode section in contact with the molten metal and a fastener section connected to the EM pump tube. The EM bus bars may comprise W or Ta rods fastened to a SS fastener welded into the SS pump tube. The W or Ta rods may be fastened to SS by a fastener comprising a screw joint such as a Ta or W male-threaded rod screwed into a welded-in SS stub having corresponding female threads. In another embodiment, the fastener comprises a SS collar welded to the pump tube with the Ta or W rod penetrating the collar to the inside of the EM pump tube. The opposite end of the rod may be welded or brazed to the SS collar. Alternatively, the Ta or W rod may be partially clad with stainless steel wherein a stainless-steel clad portion is welded to the EM pump tube such that an unclad W section protrudes into the pump tube and a fully clad EM bus bar protrudes external to the EM pump tube. The EM pump tube may be coated before or after the EM bus bars are fastened. The pump tube may be selectively coated without coating the EM bus bars by selective application of the coating using gravity, centrifugal forces, gas pressure, electrostatic forces, a bellows, or another selective application method known in the art or by using a masking method such as one of the disclosure.
In an embodiment such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may replace the PV window of the SunCell comprising the inverted Y geometry. The external heat exchanger such as one shown in
A test of single junction Group III/V semiconductor PV conversion of 1207° C. blackbody emission with infrared light recycling was reported by Z. Omair, et al., “Ultraefficient thermophotovoltaic power conversion by band-edge spectral filtering”, PNAS, Vol, 116, No. 3, (2019), pp. 15356-15361 which is incorporated by reference in its entirety. Omair et al., achieved 30% conversion efficiency and projected an efficiency of 50% with mirror, PV, blackbody emissivity, view factor, series resistance, and other improvements. The thermophotovoltaic (TPV) conversion efficiency for 3000K SunCell emission by a single junction concentrator silicon PV cell operating at 120° C. was calculated to be 84% with a practical expectation of 50%. In an embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) converter comprising at least one photovoltaic cell and at least one blackbody radiator or emitter. The blackbody radiator for thermophotovoltaic conversion with light recycling comprises one or more of (i) at least one of the outer walls of a SunCell component and (ii) the hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber that emits light through the PV window to the PV converter. The SunCell component having an outer wall that serves as a blackbody radiator may comprise at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir comprising a refractory material that is resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal such as a wall comprising Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, Cr, Zr alloys and internally coated such as VHT Flameproof paint or similar ceramic paint or ceramic coated steel or stainless steel or refractory metal. Alternatively, the wall may comprise at least one of carbon, quartz, fused silica, and a ceramic such as alumina, hafnia, zirconia, silicon carbide, boron nitride (BN), and another of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the blackbody radiator may comprise a filter to block emission of infrared light to the TPV cell. The TPV cell may comprise at least one of a filter such as an infrared filter on the front surface and a mirror on the back surface such as an infrared mirror. The photons that enter the PV cell having energy below the cell's band gap may be reflected back to the SunCell such as to at least one of the SunCell component wall and the reaction cell chamber through the PV window to recycle the corresponding low-energy photons.
Due to reflections and multiple reflections of plasma and recycled light by the molten metal inside of the reaction cell chamber, the percentage the direct plasma emission, stray plasma and SunCell component emission such as wall, molten metal, and positive electrode emission, and recycled light that may exit the chamber or be transmitted through a PV window may be 100%. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoirs may be thermally insulated such that the power transferred from the SunCell through the PV window to a load such as a PV converter, oven absorber, or boiler absorber is dominated by radiation. The percent of hydrino reaction power radiated is function of the molten metal emissivity which is typically in the range of about 0 to 0.3 and the reaction cell chamber wall temperature which may be in the range of 500° C. to 3500° C. The percentage of radiation transmitted may increase with deceased molten metal emissivity and increased reaction cell chamber wall temperature. In an exemplary embodiment comprising an upper transparent half dome PV window connected to a lower reaction cell chamber, the transmission through the PV window was calculated to be about 100% with a plasma blackbody temperature of 3000K, a molten metal emissivity of 0.3, and a reaction cell chamber wall temperature of 1700° C.
In an embodiment (
In an embodiment, the liner may comprise at least one of graphite, pyrolytic graphite, BN, and ceramic coated graphite, pyrolytic graphite, or BN. In an exemplary embodiment, the coating may comprise at least one of a high temperature ceramic paint, Flameproof paint, or Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, and a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2— ZrSiO4. In an exemplary embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the SunCell may comprise dual reservoirs and injector electrodes that inject molten metal such that the injected molten metal streams intersect to form a plasma. In an embodiment, at least reaction cell chamber wall may be transparent to at least one of visible and infrared light. The reactions cell chamber walls may comprise a PV window. The SunCell may comprise a reaction cell chamber with a polygonal shape such as a square, rectangle, pentagon, hexagon, etc. The surface of the reaction cell chamber may be clad with PV cells such a thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells wherein a gap may exist between the reaction cell chamber walls and the PV cells. In an embodiment, at least one window or filter comprises a means such as surface texture or a quarter wave plate to reduce reflection. In another embodiment, the SunCell may further comprise a PV window comprising a chamber connected to the reaction cell chamber by a joint such as a flanged joint. The TPV cells may surround the PV window to receive plasma emission and convert it into electricity. The TPV cell may reflect light such as infrared light that is not converted into electricity back to the plasma to be recycled.
In an embodiment, the molten metal may comprise tin. The reaction cell chamber temperature may be maintained above a temperature at which the reaction of tin with water vapor to form tin oxide is thermodynamically unfavorable wherein water is supplied to the hydrino reaction as part of the hydrino reaction mixture such as one comprising at least two of hydrogen, oxygen, and water vapor. In an exemplary embodiment wherein the hydrino reaction mixture comprises water vapor, the reaction cell chamber is maintained above 875K. Addition of molecular or atomic hydrogen as part of the hydrino reaction mixture decreases the temperature at which the reaction of tin with water vapor to form tin oxide is thermodynamically unfavorable.
In an embodiment, the SunCell comprises a water injector such as sources of hydrogen and a source of oxygen and a recombiner such as a plasma cell, recombiner catalyst such as a noble metal on a support such as alumina, or another recombiner of the disclosure. The source of hydrogen and oxygen may be corresponding gases supplied by gas lines, mass flow controllers, valves, flow and pressure sensors, a computer, and other systems of the disclosure. Alternatively, water may be supplied as a water vapor gas. The water vapor gas may be controllably flowed into at least one of the reaction cell chamber and molten metal by a mass flow controller from a water tank maintained at a desired pressure for the mass flow controller operation. The water vapor pressure may be controlled by controlling the temperature of a water vapor source such as a closed water tank. In an exemplary embodiment, the water vapor mass flow controller such as at least one of MKS model #1150, 1152m, and 1640 (https://www.mksinst.com/c/vapor-mass-flow-controllers https://ccrprocessproducts.com/product/1640a-mass-flow-controller-mks/) comprises one that senses the difference in inlet and outlet pressure and uses that data to control the water vapor flow rate.
In an exemplary embodiment shown in
The straight portion PV window may comprise a rectangular cavity with an opening to the reaction cell chamber. Alternatively, the PV window may comprise a flat plate that covers the reaction cell chamber. The plate may comprise a window in a housing that may be sealed with a gasket such as one by Rayotek. The window may be metalized and brazed or welded to the housing. The window may be glued to the housing by a glue such as one of the disclosure. Alternatively, the window may comprise a flat plate that is glued to a flange on top of the reaction cell chamber. The glue may be one of the disclosure. Exemplary glues or adhesives are Cotronics Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2— ZrSiO4, and Durabond as such as RK454. In an embodiment, at least one flat panel PV denser receiver array is positioned flat and parallel to a rectangular PV window face or the flat plate window to receive the light emission from inside of the PV window cavity or the reaction cell chamber. A gap may separate each dense receiver array from the corresponding PV window face or plate.
The V portion of the inverted Y geometry may comprise a refractory metal such as Mo, Ta, W, Nb, Ti, Cr, and internally coated steel, stainless steel, or a refractory metal. The coating may comprise a high-temperature ceramic paint such as VHT Flameproof paint or similar ceramic paint or a ceramic coating such as Mullite. The PV window may comprise quartz, sapphire, MgF2, aluminum oxynitride, or other PV window of the disclosure. In an embodiment, the PV window may comprise a heater to preheat it to prevent the molten metal from solidifying. In an exemplary embodiment, the PV window such as a quartz, sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, or MgF2 PV window may be preheated with heater such as resistive heater, hydrogen-oxygen flame heater, or a plasma recombination reaction heater.
In an embodiment, the dual injectors may be aligned to cause the corresponding injected molten metal streams to intersect. Considering that the bases of the reservoirs, the reservoirs, and the intersecting metal streams form a triangle with the apex at the point of streams intersection, apex angle may be increased by increasing the base length to avoid mutual Lorentzian deflection of the intersecting streams (e.g. the stream trajectories are made more linear with less arc shape).
The V and straight portion may be joined by a seal such as a gasketed seal 26d (
In an inverted Y geometry embodiment, the SunCell® comprises a metal dual injector cell that comprises the inverted V geometry section such as a stainless-steel one (
In an embodiment, the feedthrough 912 (
In an embodiment, at least one of the ignition electrodes 8 and the EM pump electrodes 5k30 (
In an embodiment, the electrically insulating coating that is further resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal comprises a paint such a Flameproof paint. In steps involving heating the paint to cure it, the reaction cell chamber may be closed or sealed and heated under vacuum or an inert atmosphere to avoid oxidation of the EM bus bar electrodes such as ones that are masked to avoid being coated with the paint. The paint may be dispersed by ultrasound, pressure, vapor or aerosolization with electrostatic deposition, and other methods known by those skilled in the art of applying a full coverage to molten-metal-exposed surfaces.
In an embodiment, the EM pump tube may comprise feedthrough collars to which the feedthroughs are welded. The EM pump tube may be coated with a coating such a Flameproof paint before the feedthroughs are welded to the pump tube. A gap between the center electrode of a feedthrough and its weldable housing may be at least one of coated with a coating such as alumina, an aluminizing coating, a thermo-chemical aluminizing coating, Flameproof paint and potted with a ceramic such as Cotronics Resbond 940 HT, Cotronics Resbond 940SS, Sauereisen Electrotemp Cement such as https://www.sauereisen.com/wp-content/uploads/8.pdf or https://www.sauereisen.com/ceramic-assembly/product-index/, or another ceramic of the disclosure wherein surfaces that may be in contact with the molten metal inside the EM pump tube may be coated with at least one of Flameproof paint and the potting material as well.
In an embodiment, the electrodes such as the ignition electrode and the EM pump bus bars may be coated to prevent oxidation during exposure to air such as in the case of loading the cell with molten metal. The coating may be at least one of electrically conductive, resistant to oxidation at the melting temperature of the molten metal, and removable. The coating may comprise a carbide such as tungsten carbide that serves as an oxidation resistant, conductive coating. The tungsten carbide coating may be applied by the HVOF process (https://www.asbindustries.com/tungsten-carbide-coatings) or another method known in the art. The coating may comprise a metal such as the molten metal such as tin that may be removed by melting. The metal such as nickel, copper, zinc, or silver may form an alloy with the molten metal to be removed. The metal coating may be applied by dipping in the metal melt, electroplating, vapor deposition, and other coating processes known in the art.
In an embodiment, at least one of the inlet risers, injection EM pump tubes, reservoir or reservoirs, and reaction cell chamber may comprise an electrical insulator or be coated or lined with an electrical insulator such as one of the disclosure to prevent shorting between dual reservoirs, injectors, and ignition power sources. Exemplary embodiments comprise at least one of (i) internally and externally Flameproof painted inlet risers and injection EM pump tubes, (ii) W inlet risers and injection EM pump tubes that are oxidized to form an electrical insulating tungsten oxide coat, and (iii) at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and reservoir or reservoirs 5c comprising a tungsten liner that comprises an electrically insulating tungsten oxide coat.
An exemplary coated electrode is an oxidized tungsten electrode with conductive surfaces on the ends wherein the tungsten electrode is oxidized in air at high temperature with a mask on the ends that is removed when desired. Alternatively, the entire electrode is oxidized, and the oxidized layer is removed from the electrodes by etching or by mechanical abrasion. The abrasion may be performed mechanically. In another embodiment, the electrode such as an electrode with an insulating coat may be fastened with ferrules that at least one of form an insulating oxide coat and are soft such that they do not damage the electrically insulating coat on the electrode such as a ceramic one or an oxide one such as a W or Ta coat. Exemplary ferrules comprise brass, aluminum, copper, silver and tantalum. An exemplary oxide coated ferrule is anodized aluminum one. Another exemplary oxide coated ferrule is oxidized stainless steel.
In alternative embodiments of a means to electrically isolate the ignition electrodes of a SunCell comprising dual injectors: (i) at least one reservoir may comprise an isolation joint such as such as flanged joint comprising an insulating gasket and isolated bolts such as ceramic bolts or bolts comprising insulating bushings and (ii) at least one of the reaction cell chamber and at least one reservoir comprises an electrical insulating wall section (an isolator, or electrical break) such as a ceramic one such as a ceramic of the disclosure such as alumina, SiC, BN, or quartz that electrically isolates the two reservoirs from each other wherein (a) the reservoir isolator may comprise a ceramic tube with a flange on each end that mates two reservoir sections or mates to a reservoir section and the reaction cell chamber such as a flanged electrical isolator or electrical break such as the exemplary CF Flanged Vacuum Ceramic Break, https://www.lesker.com/newweb/feedthroughs/ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=cf further comprising at least one of gaskets to mate to matching flanges of the reservoir and a liner such as a ceramic liner such as one of the disclosure that may at least one of protect the gaskets and the electrical break from alloy formation with the molten metal and thermal shock, respectively, (b) the reservoir isolator may comprise a ceramic tube with a weldable metal ring on each end such as a Kovar or Invar ring to mate the two reservoir sections or a reservoir section and the reaction cell chamber by welding such as an exemplary Weldable Vacuum Ceramic Break, https://www.lesker.com/newweb/feedthroughs/ceramicbreaks_vacuum.cfm?pgid=weld, and (c) the reservoir isolator may comprise a ceramic tube with a wet seal on each end that mates to two reservoir sections or mates to a reservoir section and the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the electrical break comprises a ceramic cylinder such as an alumina cylinder that is plated first with Mo—Mn alloy and then Ni that is brazed to Kovar that is plated with Ni. The braze may have a high melting point such a greater than 600° C. Exemplary brazes are Cu(72)-Ag(28) alloy, copper, ABA, gold ABA, PdNiAu alloy (AMS 4785 M.P.=1135° C.) or Paloro or a similar braze such as one at the link: https://www.morganbrazealloys.com/en-gb/products/brazing-alloys/precious-brazing-filler-metals/.
In an embodiment, both reservoirs of the dual injector SunCell shown in
In an embodiment, the reservoir comprising an electrical break may be sufficiently long to remove the electrical break sufficiently far from the reaction cell chamber that it does not overheat. In an embodiment, the electrical break may comprise at least one inner liner comprising a thermal insulator such that the break can be maintained below its failure temperature while the molten metal temperature inside of the liner may be higher. The electrical break may be coated with at least one coating such as CrC, alumina, TiN, WC, or another of the disclosure to avoid at least one of oxidation such as on the outside and alloy formation such as on the inside. The metal to ceramic union braze of the electrical break may be covered with potting material such as Resbond 940SS or another of the disclosure. In an exemplary embodiment, the molten metal comprises silver and the liner comprises at least one refractory material such as carbon, BN, quartz, alumina, moldable or castable ceramic, ceramic beads such as alumina beads that may further comprise a binder such as Resbond, a refractory metal, and other liners of the disclosure. The liner may fill the reservoir except for channels for the EM pump inlet and outlet. The height of the electrical break and liner may be minimized to allow for thermal conduction through the channels to maintain molten metal across the break and liner. In an embodiment, the electrical break may be externally cooled. The EM pump tube brace may comprise the electrical break liner of the disclosure.
In embodiment comprising an electrical isolator to electrically isolate the ignition electrodes of a SunCell comprising dual injectors, at least one reservoir may comprise an electrical break comprising a ceramic reservoir wall section that may further comprise a ceramic-metal union on each end to mate to the reservoir wall at each end. In an embodiment, the reservoir molten metal level is a desired level below the top of the ceramic portion of the isolator on the reaction cell chamber side. In an exemplary embodiment, the reservoir molten metal level is a desired level below the top of the ceramic-metal union of the electrical break on the reaction cell chamber side. The height of the inlet riser inlet may be adjusted to match to the desired level to control the maximum molten metal level at the desired level. The electric break may comprise an internal thermal insulation puck with a hole for molten to flow to at least one of a molten metal reservoir or a lower portion of the molten metal reservoir, an inlet riser to the EM pump tube, and an ignition bus bar on the EM pump side of the puck. An injection EM pump and electrode may penetrate through the insulation puck to the reaction cell chamber side to inject molten metal to a counter electrode.
In an embodiment, the rate of molten metal inflow to the inlet riser is faster than the rate of molten metal injection by the nozzle. At least one of the sizes of the inlet riser opening and the injection nozzle may be selected to achieve the desired greater flow rate at the former over that at the latter.
In an embodiment, each reservoir may comprise a drain plug to allow for the gravity-facilitated removal of molten metal from the bottom of the reservoirs during serving and maintenance. In an embodiment, the inlet riser may comprise a strainer such as a metal screen to protect the EM pump and nozzle form being blocked by debris flowing into the inlet riser.
The reservoir on the EM pump side of the electrical break may be increased in length to increase the reservoir molten metal inventory. The length of the reservoir may be increased on the reaction cell chamber side of the break to move the electrical break further from the plasma to lower its operating temperature. In another embodiment, the electrical break may be capable of high temperature such as one between 450° C. and 1500° C. wherein the braze of the break is selected to have a melting point above the operating temperature. An exemplary high temperature electrical break comprises at least one of Kovar and niobium and a compatible high-temperature braze such as Paloro-3V, a similar braze such as one at the link: https://www.morganbrazealloys.com/en-gb/products/brazing-alloys/precious-brazing-filler-metals/, or another of the disclosure.
The electrical break may comprise a ceramic (e.g. 97% alumina), a weld adapter flange circumferential about the ceramic insulator such as one comprising Cu/Ni (e.g. 70%-30%) or Fe/Ni (e.g. 50%-50%), and a Conflat flange (e.g. 304 stainless-steel) brazed or welded circumferentially to the weld adapter flange. The electrical break may further comprise a bellows or S-flange (diaphragm) between the CF flange and the weld adapter flange.
The maximum molten metal inventory of the two reservoirs 5c is such that maximum molten level in the electrical break side comprising the initial filled volume and the volume of the molten metal above the lowest height of the inlet riser of the reservoir opposite the electrical break reservoir does not exceed the height of the ceramic of the electrical break.
In an exemplary embodiment having a reservoir electrical break, an unoxidized inner-most W liner may be used with a middle carbon liner, and outer W liner or cladding in the reaction cell chamber. The liner may cover at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 walls, the floor of the reaction cell chamber, and the reservoirs 5c. The reaction cell. chamber floor liner 5b31b may comprise conduits or groves to channel the molten metal away from the corresponding injected molten metal stream when flowing from the injector 5k61 back to the reservoir 5c. In an exemplary embodiment, each reservoir injector 5k61 is located away for the center of the reaction cell chamber in its reservoir and the grooves of the floor liner 5b31b direct molten metal return flow to the sides of the reservoir, and alternatively, the center-facing side of the reservoir. In another embodiment, the injectors 5k61 extend above the top of the reservoirs and reaction cell chamber floor liner 5b31b such that the returning molten metal streams cannot interfere with the injected streams.
In an embodiment, at least a portion of the EM pump tube such as that comprising the EM bus bars is electrically isolated as an electrical path through the wall of the corresponding reservoir by electrical breaks on the inlet and outlet portions of the EM pump tube 5k6 wherein at least the surfaces not isolated by the electrical break may comprise an electrical insulating coating such as Flameproof paint. The electrical break may comprise the gas line type such as MPF Products Inc.; Product No: A0573-2-W https://mpfpi.com/shop/uhv-breaks/10kv-uhv-breaks/a0573-1-w/. In an embodiment, at least one pair of EM bus bar electrodes may be fastened and sealed to the EM pump tube by a compression fitting such as one by Swagelok.
In an embodiment, the EM pump of at least one reservoir comprises a single electrical break comprising a divider or separator to form two channels, one serving as at least a portion of the inlet EM pump tube and one as at least a portion of the injector EM pump tube. The separator may comprise an electrical insulator such as a ceramic or metal coated with an electrical insulator. The separator may be connected to a structure such as the reservoir or a portion of the EM pump tube on one side of the electric break only. The attachment may comprise an extension of the injector EM pump tube. Exemplary separators comprise a ceramic such as alumina bonded to the ceramic of the electrical break and a metal extension of injector EM pump tube that is coated with an electrical insulator such as Flameproof paint.
In an embodiment, the electrical isolation of the two reservoirs is not 100%, but is sufficient such that the parasitic shorting current between the dual reservoir electrodes is tolerable such as less than 25% of the total current supplied to the ignition electrodes 8 wherein the parasitic current is determined by the relative resistance of the parasitic path to the ignition current path. The relative resistance may be predominantly determined by the resistance of the electrode penetrations into the EM pump tube and the reservoir as well as the integrity of the coating or liner on the inner surfaces of the EM pump, reservoir, and reaction cell chamber.
The top of the inverted V geometry section may comprise the reaction cell chamber 5b31. A PV window cavity 5b4 comprising the straight section such as a cubic, rectangular, polygonal, or hemispherical cavity may be attached to the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 by flanges 26d on the top of the reaction cell chamber and the PV window. The flange joint 26d (
In an embodiment, the adhesive may comprise a plurality of adhesives such as one specialized for metal that is coated on the metal flange and one that is specialized for and coated on the quartz or ceramic of the PV window flange. An exemplary adhesive union comprises Durabond 954 on the stainless steel or Ta flange and Resbond on the quartz flange of the PV window wherein the two adhesives bond to form the adhesive union 26d. In an alternative embodiment, the joint portion of the PV window such as the flange is metalized by means known in the art, and the metalized joint is brazed, welded, or glued to the matching flange of the reaction cell chamber.
In an exemplary embodiment, the PV window comprises quartz tube with one end closed and the other end open such as the quartz cavity by MTI (https://www.mtixtl.com/EQ-OTGE214.aspx). Rather than possessing a flange, the open end of the cavity may comprise a straight wall (e.g., in the case of a cylindrical cavity) or straight walls that insert in a recessed or counter bored groove in the reaction cell chamber flange 26d. Alternatively, the PV window wall or walls may fit tightly inside or outside of the reaction cell chamber flange to form the joint. The PV window 5b4 may be sealed to the reaction cell chamber flange 26d with a glue or adhesive such as at least one of Resbond 940LE, 940HT, and Resbond 904 or another of the disclosure.
The metal may have a low coefficient of thermal expansion or comprise expansion joist, cavities, holes, or other cavity structures to prevent the bonded surface of the glued union form expansion excessively to avoid seal failure. The inverted V-side flange may comprise Invar, Kovar, super or other SS weldable metal or W, Mo, or Ta or alloys that has a low coefficient of thermal expansion. A Ta flange may be diffusion bonded to SS using a pure Ni, Fe, or Cu insert. The Ta flange may have an extension such as a cylinder that is bonded to the dual molten metal reservoir-injectors such as ones comprising stainless steel to comprise at least part of the reaction cell chamber 5b31.
In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber may comprise a thermal insulation insert internal to the flanged joint to lower the operating temperature of the joint. The insulation may comprise quartz, a ceramic such as SiC or BN, graphite, or pyrolytic graphite. The graphite, pyrolytic graphite, or BN may be coated with a ceramic coating such as Flameproof paint, or Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, or a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2—ZrSiO4. The reaction cell chamber may comprise a liner such as one comprising graphite, pyrolytic graphite, or BN. The liner may be coated with a ceramic coating such as Flameproof paint, or Resbond 907GF, 940HT, 940LE, 940HE, 940SS, 903 HP, 908, or 904 zirconia adhesive, or a zirconium oxide coating such as Aremco Ultra-Temp 516 comprising ZrO2— ZrSiO4. The liner may further comprise the joint insulation. In an embodiment, the flange joint than comprise the top of the liner such as a carbon liner glued or gasket sealed to the PV window flange wherein the liner may be glued to the top of the reaction cell chamber to make a vacuum-tight seal. The glue may comprise one or more of the glues or adhesives of the disclosure or another suitable one known in the art.
In an embodiment, the graphite liner comprises at least one electrical insulating break to prevent shorting between injector electrodes. The breaks may comprise transverse sections of the liner bonded together with high temperature capable, electrically insulating adhesive such as a ceramic one such as Resbond. In an embodiment, the electrically insulating adhesive may be replaced by electrically insulating washers such as ones comprising quartz or a ceramic such as silica-alumina fiber insulation, BN, SiC, carbon, Mullite, quartz, fused silica, alumina, zirconia, hafnia, others of the disclosure, and ones known to those skilled in the art. The liner may be coated with a ceramic coating such as one of the disclosure to prevent electrical shorting. The carbon liner may be further bonded to the reservoirs and the reaction cell chamber with an electrically insulating adhesive to prevent molten metal from flowing behind the liner and electrically shorting the two injector electrodes.
In a further embodiment, the joint may comprise a heat exchanger such as a water-cooling loop to cool the joint to lower its operating temperature. The coolant may be cooled by second heat exchanger. The coolant may be recirculated by a pump. The lower operating temperature may decrease any difference in thermal expansion of the mating flanges of the joint between the reaction cell chamber and the PV window that may cause the joint to fail.
In an embodiment, the PV window inserts into a counter bored receptacle in top of the reaction cell chamber to form a barrier for the flow of molten metal from the reaction cell chamber. The receptacle may be part of the reaction cell chamber flange. In an exemplary embodiment, the receptacle may be a tongue and groove type, or inverted step type. The inner portion of the PV window may overlap the inner portion of the reaction cell chamber flange. The receptacle may be sealed by a packing such as a graphite packing or an adhesive such as one of the disclosure.
In an embodiment, the PV window comprises a high temperature (e.g. 1200° C.-2000° C.) sight glass window such as one by Rayotek (https://rayoteksightwindows.com/products/high-temp-sight-glass-windows.html#prettyPhoto). A flat Rayotek window may be modified to an annulus of the window material such as a quartz or sapphire annulus mounted in its housing. A PV window chamber such as a quartz or sapphire one may be fused or glued to the annulus of matching material. The window may comprise plates welded into a cubic or rectangular open-ended cavity that is joined to the top of the reaction cell chamber at the open-end. The metal surfaces of each window housing may be coated with at least one of ceramic, quartz, carbon, or a coating such as ceramic coating such as one of the disclosure. In another embodiment, the window may comprise a cavity of similar design as a Rayotek window such as a rectangular or ceramic cavity such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the PV window comprises a means such as a mirror such as a dichroic mirror or filter to reflect light of wavelengths that have significantly higher energy than the band gap to the PV cells of the PV converter 26a. In an embodiment, the reflected light has energy in at least one range of about 10%-1000% higher, 10%-500% higher, and 10%-100% higher. In another embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the PV window may comprise a means to down convert the energy of the light such as a phosphor.
The joint and PV window may be contained in a vacuum-tight housing comprising a window chamber such as a vacuum chamber that further houses the PV converter. The housing may be fastened to the top of the reaction cell chamber by a faster or joint. The fastener or joint may comprise a weld. The housing may have penetrations for a vacuum line to a vacuum pump and for the electrical lines and cooling lines of the PV converter. About equal pressure may be maintained on both sides of the window (vent) by controlling the vacuum pumps of the window chamber and the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, an overpressure may be maintained in the window chamber relative to the reaction cell chamber to cause the widow to be held against the top of the reaction cell chamber on a window seat or flange. Alternatively, the window and the reaction cell chamber vacuum lines may be joined and then connected to a single vacuum pump. In another embodiment, the window seal may be leaky to allow the pressure to equilibrate on both sides of the window. The vacuum-tight housing may comprise a vacuum sealable opening such as a flanged port, gate valve, or door. In a further embodiment, the window and the reaction cell chambers may comprise a tube such as a gas line that connects the two chambers such that the gas pressure may dynamically equalize between the two connected chambers.
In an embodiment shown in
The SunCell may further comprise a discharge cell 901, reaction cell chamber 5b31, top flanges 26e that may comprise a solid plate or inner PV window flanges, a PV window chamber 916, an inner PV window 5ab4, a seat for the inner PV window 26e1, and an outer PV window 5b4. The inner PV window 5ab4 may be semi-sealed (e.g., tight to molten metal, but not necessarily tight to vacuum) wherein a vacuum seal is provided by the PV window flange 26d, the inner PV window flange 26e, the vacuum-tight housing or chamber 916 that houses the semi-sealed window 5ab4 that is joined to a support 26e 1 on top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31. In an exemplary embodiment, the window 5ab4 may comprise a Rayotek window comprising a gasket seal to its housing that is not vacuum tight. Alternatively, the exemplary window 5ab4 may comprise flat plate or cavity window clamped, glued, or fixed by a gasketed joint or union to a support on the top of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as to an inner PV window flange support 26e 1. Exemplary clamps are C-clamps between the support 26e 1 and the window 5ab4. The inner PV window 5ab4 may be connected to the inner PV window flange support 26e 1 at a counter sunk fixture. At least one of the electrical break flanges 914, the reservoir flanges 915, the inner PV window flanges 26e, and the PV window flanges 26d may provide access to the interior of at least one of the reservoirs 5c, reaction cell chamber 5b31, and inner PV window 5ab4.
In an embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the PV seal comprises a structure bound to the window seat and an adhesive that bonds to the seat, the structure, and the PV window. In an embodiment, the flange on which the PV window is attached comprises a faster or anchoring structure comprising protrusions such as metal screws, rods, or mesh that is embedded in an adhesive such as Resbond 940SS or another of the disclosure, wherein the adhesive further bonds the PV window to the faster or anchoring structure and seat. In an exemplary embodiment, the faster or anchoring structure comprises stainless steel mesh or screen welded to the seat for the inner PV window 26e 1 wherein Resbond 940SS, Resbond 903HP, or Resbond 908HP encases the mesh or screen and seals to the seat, and further bonds to the inner PV window 5ab4 such as a fuse silica window or another one of the disclosure.
In an embodiment having tin as the molten metal, the SunCell comprises a means to prevent at least one of the PV windows 5b4 and 5ab4 (
In an exemplary embodiment, the PV window such as at least one of 5ab4 and 5b4 is cleaned by injecting molten metal onto the inner surface from at least one nozzle with a plurality of ejection apertures or orifices such as one to inject tin to an opposing stream and another to inject tin onto the PV window to clean it of debris such as metal oxide and metal. The molten metal injected onto the window may further provide additional cooling, and, in some embodiments, may prevent or decrease structural deformations of the window associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking, decreases in transparency) or undergoing any structural deformations associated with overheating (e.g., warping, cracking). In an embodiment, the window maintains a steady state temperature due to radiative heat loss at its operating blackbody temperature that balances the optical power and thermal power that is absorbs to heat it.
In an embodiment, the size of each nozzle aperture is selected such that the ejection flow rate avoids EM pump cavitation that can cause instabilities or failure to pump. The aperture diameter may be selected to provide some back pressure to prevent the pumping cavitation or instabilities. In an embodiment, the injected molten metal stream velocity may be high such that the intersection of the streams causes molten metal to splatter onto the PV window to at least one of clean and cool it.
In an embodiment, each EM injector tube 5k61 comprises a structural supporting brace to the corresponding reservoir wall at a position below the electrical break of the reservoir comprising an electrical break, and the brace position is discretionary within the non-electrical break reservoir. In an exemplary embodiment, the brace may comprise a block of ceramic insulation such as BN or Macor ceramic with penetrations for the EM pump inlet and EM injector tube 5k61. Alternatively, the brace may comprise a plurality of bolts threaded through the reservoir wall whose lengths may be individually adjusted to brace the EM injector tube 5k61 into a desired position such as one that achieves the intersection of the two molten metal streams to cause plasma ignition.
In an embodiment, the SunCell® such as one comprising dual molten metal injectors comprises an injector alignment mechanism or aligner such as an actuator such as a mechanical, electromagnetic, screw jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoidal, piezoelectric, shape memory polymer, photopolymer or other actuator known in the art to move or rotate at least one of the nozzle 5q, the injector 5k61, reservoir 5c, break reservoir EM pump assembly 914a (
In another embodiment of SunCell comprising dual molten metal injectors, the EM pump assembly 5kk may be mounted to a slide table 409c (
In another embodiment, the aligner comprises a flexible section such as a bellows in the reservoir 5c between the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the reservoir EM pump assembly 915a and a tilt system to selectively tilt the cylindrical axis of the bellows by compression of one side an extension of the opposite side of the bellows wherein at least the reaction cell chamber 5b31, the reservoir section 5c above the bellows, the opposing reservoir 5c, and the break EM pump assembly 914a may be at least one of further supported and rigidly attached to the slide table 409c to permit independent motion of the reservoir EM pump assembly 915a below the bellows. An exemplary rigid support is reaction cell chamber support 918 shown in
In alternative embodiment, the aligner comprises the flexible section such as a bellows 917 and a contraction tilt system wherein the tilt of the bellows by the tilt system is achieved by contraction of one side of the bellows rather than compression and lengthening of the opposite side of the bellows. An exemplary contraction tilt system shown in
In an embodiment, the aligner comprises a flexible section of the injector EM pump tube 5k61 such as a bellows and a system to tilt the injector EM pump tube 5k61. The tilt system may comprise a linkage such as a mechanical linkage and a system to move the linkage such as a mechanical, screw jack, stepper motor, linear motor, thermal, electric, pneumatic, hydraulic, magnetic, solenoidal, piezoelectric actuator, shape memory polymer, photopolymer or other actuator known in the art to move the linkage.
In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, electrical break, and bellows may comprise a magnetic material such as one having a high Curie temperature such as steel (Curie Temperature 770° C.). The magnetic material such as steel may serve as a magnetic circuit to trap ignition current flux and flux caused by reservoir eddy or image currents wherein the flux trapping acts to prevent a magnetic pinch effect instability in the molten metal stream. In an embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, electrical break, and bellows may comprise a magnetic material cladding, collar, or cover such as one comprising magnetic steel. In another embodiment, at least one of the reservoir, electrical break, and bellows may comprise an electrical insulator or a material having low or no electrical conductivity which may prevent the formation of eddy or image currents and the corresponding magnetic flux that may interfere with molten metal injection by the EM pumps.
In an embodiment, the nozzles 5q each comprise an outlet orifice such as one on opposing sides to produce streams that form about a straight horizontal line or a linear connected molten metal stream to avoid mutual Lorentzian deflection. In an embodiment, each injection tube of the EM pumps 5k61 may comprise a section that angles the opposing nozzles to produce about a linear connected stream to avoid mutual Lorentzian deflection.
In an embodiment shown in
In an embodiment to further prevent overheating of the upper section of the reservoirs, the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may serve as a receptable for an insert. The insert may comprise the reaction cell chamber floor liner 5b31b and sections of the reservoirs 5c in connection with the reaction cell chamber 5b31. The insert may comprise a refractory material such as at least one comprising ceramic, carbon, quartz, a refractory metal such as tungsten, and another refractory material of the disclosure or known in the art. The insert may comprise a composite of materials. The insert may comprise a plurality of parts that may be fastened together. The fastener may comprise glue, braze, weld, bolts, screws, clamps, or another fastener of the disclosure or known in the art. In the case of glued carbon parts, an exemplary glue comprises Aremco Products Graphitic Bond 551RN. The reservoirs may comprise metal tubes of any desired cross section geometry (e.g. circular, square, or rectangular), fastened to at least one of the base of the reaction cell chamber and each other. The corresponding fastener may comprise welds. The metal may comprise stainless steel or another of the disclosure. In the case that the tubes are partially fastened to each other (e.g. as shown in
In an embodiment, there is intense plasma and light emission from the entire reaction cell chamber volume and the reservoirs at the nozzles, but the current density is highest at the nozzles in the reservoirs due to a relatively small cross-sectional area of the reservoirs and nozzles compared to that of the reaction cell chamber. The hydrino power scales non-linearly with current, but in an embodiment, hydrino reactant diffusion limitations set in. In an embodiment, the inlet for the flow of the hydrino reactants such as at least one of hydrogen, oxygen, and H2O is positioned to establish a diffusional limitation at the nozzle to limit the power produced there to prevent the nozzles from melting.
In an embodiment, the nozzles 5q are oriented in the direction of the injector EM pump tube further comprising an extended height reaction cell chamber 5b31 to permit the molten metal streams to intersect within the reaction cell chamber 5b31 that may further comprise at least a portion of any cavity formed by the PV window 5b4. In an embodiment, at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the PV window may comprise a geometry comprising the vertical portion of an inverted Y. This section may comprise any desired geometrical horizontal cross section such as a circle or a square. The reaction cell chamber may comprise a liner 5b31a such as one comprising at least one of carbon and W. In an embodiment, at least a portion one or more side walls of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 may comprise a PV window. In an exemplary embodiment shown in
In an embodiment, the anchor comprises a thin metal annulus comprising a cylinder with a collar or flange at each end of the cylinder. The annulus may be welded vacuum tightly to the base or frame, and the opposite collar of the annulus may be glued to the PV window. The annulus may comprise at least one expansion means such as at least one circumferential pleat in the cylinder or anulus wall. The glue union may comprise multiple layers such as Resbond 940 SS on the base or frame side and Resbond 989 on the window side of the corresponding glue union. In an embodiment, the thermal coefficient of expansion of the flange, the glue, and the window are about matched for the operating temperature range. In an exemplary embodiment, a sapphire window is glued to a selected stainless-steel (SS) flange having a matched similar coefficient of expansion. In an embodiment, the SS may comprise Kovar or Invar. The glue or adhesive may comprise one of the disclosure such as at least one of Resbond 940SS, 989, 905, 940LE, and 907. The glue union may be replaced with a suitable braze such as one that is capable of high temperature operation such as one of the disclosure. The operating temperature may be in the range of about 300° C. to 2000° C. In an embodiment, the temperature of the glued or brazed PV window is ramped up and down very slowly to prevent thermal shock. The temperature ramp rate may be in the range of about 10° C./hour to 2000° C./hour.
In an embodiment, the EM pump pressure may be increased to cause molten metal to be injected on the surface of at least one of a top 5ab4 and 5b4 and side windows of the PV cavity to clean the windows of material such as metal oxide such as tin oxide or gallium oxide.
The nozzle may comprise a refractory cladding or coating that may also comprise an electrical insulator or have a low electrical conductivity. In an embodiment, at least one of the nozzle, coating, or cladding may comprise at least one of a refractory metal or a ceramic, W, Ta, carbon, ceramic-coated carbon, BN, zirconia, alumina, hafnia, Resbond potting compound such as Resbond 940 HT or 940SS, and another ceramic or combination options of the disclosure.
The hydrino reaction may at least one of propagate and self-sustain on a very hot surface such as a metallic surface such as the injected molten metal such as tin, gallium, or silver, or a metallic liner or injector part that may be in the temperature range of about 500° C. to 3500° C. The liner may comprise a part that protrudes into the reaction cell chamber that is selectively heated to serve as the hot surface. The hot surface may reduce or eliminate the need for at least one of application of an external electric field and an ignition current. In an embodiment, at least one of the nozzles 5q and the reaction cell chamber 5b31 liner such as at least one of the wall liner and the reaction cell chamber bottom or base liner such may serve as the as the hot surface such as a metallic surface such as a W, Ta, or other refractory metal surface such as one of the disclosure. In an alternative embodiment, the hot surface such as the liner may comprise a ceramic such as an electrically conductive ceramic such as a metal nitride, carbide, or diboride coating such as such as a WC, TiB2, ZrB2, or TiN coating on a refractory liner substrate material such as carbon. Exemplary coatings are hafnium boride (HfB2) (M.P.=3380° C.), tungsten carbide (WC) (M.P.=2785° C.-2830° C.), hafnium carbide (HfC) (M.P.=3900° C.), Ta4HfC5 (M.P.=4000° C.), Ta4HfC5TaX4HfCX5(4215° C.), hafnium nitride (HfN) (M.P.=3385° C.), zirconium diboride (ZrB2) (M.P.=3246° C.), zirconium carbide (ZrC) (M.P.=3400° C.), zirconium nitride (ZrN) (M.P.=2950° C.), titanium boride (TiB2) (M.P.=3225° C.), titanium carbide (TiC) (M.P.=3100° C.), titanium nitride (TiN) (M.P.=2950° C.), silicon carbide (SiC) (M.P.=2820° C.), tantalum boride (TaB2) (M.P.=3040° C.), tantalum carbide (TaC) (M.P.=3800° C.), tantalum nitride (TaN) (M.P.=2700° C.), niobium carbide (NbC) (M.P.=3490° C.), niobium nitride (NbN) (M.P.=2573° C.), vanadium carbide (VC) (M.P.=2810° C.). In an exemplary embodiment, the reaction chamber 5b31 liner may comprise a W floor plate 5b31b and W plate wall segments such as ones to form a rectangle, cube, hexagon, octagon, or other polygon that may further comprise electrical insulators such as ceramic strips between the W plates to isolate them to avoid an electrical path between juxtaposed W plates and then to one of the nozzles. Alternatively, the wall liner may at least partially comprise an electrical insulator or a material having a low electrical conductivity such as carbon, ceramic coated carbon, quartz, a ceramic such as one of the disclosure, or a conductor such W or Ta coated with a nonconductive coating such as a ceramic coating.
In an embodiment of a dual molten metal injector SunCell such as one shown in
In an embodiment, at least one set of flanges such as 914 and 915 shown in
In an embodiment, the injector EM pump tube 5k61 such as a one that is at least one of refractory and resistant to alloy formation with the molten metal such as a W or Ta one may comprise a tube fastener to fasten the tube to a collar on the EM pump baseplate 5kk 1. The fastener may comprise a weld. The fastener may comprise a weld. The fastener may comprise a compression fitting. Alternatively, the fastener may comprise an adhesive or potting compound such as one of the disclosure such as a ceramic such as Cotronics Resbond 940SS that may have a similar thermal expansion coefficient as stainless steel, Cotronics Resbond 940 HT, or Sauereisen Electrotemp Cement. In another embodiment, the fastener comprises EM pump tube and collar annuli such as washers on each wherein the annuli may be welded on the edges to fasten the tube. Alternatively, the EM pump tube may comprise an annulus to secure the tube to the collar welded to the baseplate using a cover such as a carbon plate that pushes the annulus against the baseplate. The plate may be glued to the baseplate or held in place by at least one fastener. The components such as the collar, annulus, and fasteners may be coated with a tin alloy resistant coating such as one of the disclosure such as CrC, alumina, or Ta.
At least one of the EM pump tubes 5k6, reservoirs 5c, and reaction cell chamber 5b31 may be coated with a coating that protects the underlying metal from alloy formation with the molten metal. Exemplary coating are oxides, carbides, diborides, nitrides, a ceramic one such as Flameproof paint, and another of the disclosure. At least one of the EM pump tubes 5k6, reservoirs 5c, and reaction cell chamber 5b31 such as at least one of the walls and base may be lined with a liner. An exemplary liner is carbon or a ceramic such as alumina such as 96+% alumina or FG995 Alumina circumferential to a tungsten liner. The carbon may be coated with an electrical insulator such as Flameproof paint, ZrO2, or Resbond 907GF. The reservoir 5c and reaction cell chamber 5b31 may have a polygonal cross section such as a square or rectangular cross section. The liner such as one comprising at least one of carbon and tungsten may comprise plates of the liner material that may be beveled together at plate intersections.
In embodiments of the disclosure, the coatings of SunCell components such as the reaction cell chamber, the inlet riser, the reservoirs, and EM pump tube may comprise one manufactured by ZYP coatings such as yttrium oxide, hafnium-titanium oxide, zirconium oxide, YAG, 3Y2O3-5Al2O3, and aluminum oxide. At least one ZYP coating may substitute for Flameproof paint.
At least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the PV window chamber 916 may further comprise at least one structural support to support the weight of at least one of the reaction cell chamber 5b31 and the PV window chamber 916 such as at least one column or turnbuckle 409k that may be attached to table 409c.
In an embodiment, the PV window comprises at least one blower or compressor and at least one jet to cool the PV by high velocity gas flow over the window surface. The gas such as helium or hydrogen may be selected such that it is inert, transparent to the emitted radiation, and has a high heat transfer capability.
In an embodiment, the PV window may be positioned in the center of a sphere with light recycling capable PV covering the inside of the sphere. Alternatively, the PV window may be positioned in the center of an annulus comprising a plane mirror at the bottom of a hemisphere comprising light recycling capable PV covering the inside of the hemisphere. The mirror may comprise a polished metal, ceramic such as Accuflect (Accuratus), or other reflector known in the art capable of reflecting substantially all wavelengths emitted by the SunCell such as light in the wavelength range of about 200 nm-5000 nm.
In an embodiment such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the molten metal such as gallium or tin is flowed through a heat exchanger such as a tube in shell type that comprises a thermophotovoltaic converter. The molten metal such as gallium or tin may be pumped through the tubes that radiate to TPV cells mounted inside of the shell.
In an embodiment, the intense blackbody radiation emitted by the hydrino plasma through the PV window may be directly used as at least one of a radiative heater, a light source, and a directed energy weapon. The directed energy such as intense light emission may destroy or melt incoming projectiles such as missiles and bullets.
In an embodiment, a composition of matter comprising hydrino or molecular hydrino comprises a coating that provides stealth to a coated object since hydrino comprises dark matter that does not absorb or emit visible light.
In an embodiment, the molten metal may comprise any known metal or alloy such as tin, gallium, Galinstan, silver, copper, Ag—Cu alloy such as 71.9% Ag/28.1% Sn, and Ag—Sn alloy such as 50% Ag/50% Sn melt. The SunCell may comprise a PV window to allow at least one of plasma and blackbody light to be emitted from the reaction cell chamber to a PV converter. In an embodiment, the reaction cell chamber comprises gas to cause the blackbody temperature to be more uniform. The gas may comprise a noble gas such as argon. The gas pressure may be high to better distribute the temperature.
The molten metal may comprise a metal such as tin that resists wetting of a PV window preventing opacification of the window. The PV window may comprise a transparent material that may be at least one of resistant to high temperature and resistant to tin wetting. The window may comprise at least one of quartz, zerodur (lithium aluminosilicate glass-ceramic), ULE (titania-silica binary glass with zero coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE)), sapphire, aluminum oxynitride, MgF2, glass, Pyrex, and other such windows known in the art. The window may be capable of operating at high temperature such as in the range of about 200° C. to 1800° C. and may serve as a blackbody radiator in addition to transmitting plasma emission from inside of the reaction cell chamber. Suitable exemplary high temperature-capable windows are those of Rayotek's High Pressure, High Temperature Sight Glass Windows (HTHP) (https://rayoteksightwindows.com/products/high-temp-sight-glass-windows.html).
In an embodiment, the PV window is at least one of cleaned and cooled with at least one of a gas blanket, gas jet, high-pressure jet, or gas knife from a source such as a gas nozzle or injector, a gas source, and a flow and pressure controller such as a pressure sensor, a valve, and a computer which may operate during plasma generation. The gas may comprise at least one of a noble gas such as argon and steam. In an embodiment, a window cleaner comprises a waterjet that may be pulsed wherein the excess water may be pumped off as steam. In an embodiment, the gas jet may comprise steam. The window may comprise a local vacuum port connected to a vacuum pump to remove steam before it flows into the reaction cell chamber. The window may further comprise a baffle such as a gate valve to close of the window from the reaction cell chamber to permit the steam to be selectively pumped off by the local vacuum port and vacuum pump. In an embodiment, the window may comprise a molten metal pump such as an electromagnetic pump to inject the molten metal such as gallium, tin, silver, copper, or alloys thereof onto the inner surface of window to clean it.
In an embodiment, the molten metal comprises tin. In an embodiment, the PV window comprises a conducting transparent coating such as indium tin oxide. A bias may be applied to the window by a voltage source to repel adhering particles such as tin and SnO particles. In an embodiment, the window is plasma cleaned by a source of plasma such as a glow discharge source. In an embodiment, at least one of the window or a housing for the window may further comprise an electrode of the glow discharge. In an embodiment, the PV window is in proximity to the glow discharge cell 900 (
In an embodiment, the window is cooled to at least (i) reduce the heating of the PV converter and (ii) permit the formation of volatile stannane to clean the window wherein the stannane decomposes in the reaction cell chamber having a temperature above the thermal decomposition temperature of stannane. Additionally, the window temperature may be maintained above the melting point of tin such as above 235° C. In an embodiment the molten tin temperature such as that in at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir is maintained above one or more of the stannane decomposition temperature and the temperature at which hydrogen substantially desorbs from molten tin. The hydrogen may be hydrino reactant from the reaction cell chamber. In an embodiment, the temperature of the window is maintained above the hydrogen reduction temperature of tin oxide wherein hydrogen may be gaseous an in at least one form of molecular and atomic. At least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir may be maintained in a temperature range of about 235° C. to 3500° C.
In an embodiment, the power generation system (called SunCell) comprises at least one plasma cell comprising (i) a discharge plasma generation cell 900 that generates a water/hydrogen mixture to be directed towards the molten metal cell through the discharge plasma generation cell and (ii) a discharge plasma ignition cell that creates a discharge plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wherein at least one of the plasma cells causes the ignition of a hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber 5b31 wherein the hydrino plasma comprises a plasma that is at least partially powered and sustained by the hydrino reaction. In these embodiments, the discharge plasma generation cell such as a glow discharge cell induces the formation of a first plasma from a gas (e.g., a gas comprising a mixture oxygen and hydrogen); wherein effluence of the discharge plasma generation cell is directed towards any part of the molten metal circuit (e.g., the molten metal, the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir, either of two molten metal reservoirs, either of two injector molten metal electrodes). In these embodiments, the discharge plasma ignition cell such as a glow discharge cell induces a discharge in the reaction cell chamber such as a gas discharge to cause ignition of the hydrino reaction in the reaction cell chamber. The electrodes of the discharge plasma ignition may comprise the ignition electrodes. The electrodes of the discharge cell may comprise at least one of the anode, the cathode, an electrode submerged in a molten metal reservoir, either of two molten metal reservoirs, either of two injector molten metal electrodes, the reservoir, the reaction cell chamber, and an independent discharge plasma ignition electrode that penetrates the reaction cell chamber through an electrical isolating connector such as a feedthrough. The discharge plasma ignition electrode may be a metal such as Ta, W, or a coated metal such as a carbide or nitride coated stainless steel electrode that resists alloy formation with the molten metal.
In an exemplary embodiment (
In an embodiment, the light to electricity converter comprises the photovoltaic converter of the disclosure comprising photovoltaic (PV) cells that are responsive to a substantial wavelength region of the light emitted from the cell such as that corresponding to at least 10% of the optical power output. In an embodiment, the PV cells are concentrator cells that can accept high intensity light, greater than that of sunlight such as in the intensity range of at least one of about 1.5 suns to 75,000 suns, 10 suns to 10,000 suns, and 100 suns to 2000 suns. The concentrator PV cells may comprise c-Si that may be operated in the range of about 1 to 1000 Suns. The silicon PV cells may be operated at a temperature that performs at least one function of improving the bandgap to better match the blackbody spectrum and improving the heat rejection and thereby reducing the complexity of the cooling system. In an exemplary embodiment, concentrator silicon PV cells are operated at 100 to 500 Suns at about 130° C. to provide a bandgap of about 0.84 V to match the spectrum of a 3000° C. blackbody radiator. The PV cells may comprise a single junction or a plurality of junctions such as triple junctions. The concentrator PV cells may comprise single junction Si or single junction Group III/V semiconductors or a plurality of layers such as those of Group III/V semiconductors such as at least one of the group of InGaP/InGaAs/Ge; InAlGaP/AlGaAs/GaInNAsSb/Ge; GaInP/GaAsP/SiGe; GaInP/GaAsP/Si; GaInP/GaAsP/Ge; GaInP/GaAsP/Si/SiGe; GaInP/GaAs/InGaAs; GaInP/GaAs/GaInNAs; GaInP/GaAs/InGaAs/InGaAs; GaInP/Ga(In)As/InGaAs; GaInP—GaAs-wafer-InGaAs; GaInP—Ga(In)As—Ge; and GaInP—GaInAs—Ge. The plurality of junctions such as triple or double junctions may be connected in series. In another embodiment, the junctions may be connected in parallel. The junctions may be mechanically stacked. The junctions may be wafer bonded. In an embodiment, tunnel diodes between junctions may be replaced by wafer bonds. The wafer bond may be electrically isolating and transparent for the wavelength region that is converted by subsequent or deeper junctions. Each junction may be connected to an independent electrical connection or bus bar. The independent bus bars may be connected in series or parallel. The electrical contact for each electrically independent junction may comprise grid wires. The wire shadow area may be minimized due to the distribution of current over multiple parallel circuits or interconnects for the independent junctions or groups of junctions. The current may be removed laterally. The wafer bond layer may comprise a transparent conductive layer. An exemplary transparent conductor is a transparent conductive oxide (TCO) such as indium tin oxide (ITO), fluorine doped tin oxide (FTO), and doped zinc oxide and conductive polymers, graphene, and carbon nanotubes and others known to those skilled in the art. Benzocyclobutene (BCB) may comprise an intermediate bonding layer. The bonding may be between a transparent material such a glass such as borosilicate glass and a PV semiconductor material. An exemplary two-junction cell is one comprising a top layer of GaInP wafer bonded to a bottom layer of GaAs (GaInP//GaAs). An exemplary four-junction cell comprises GaInP/GaAs/GaInAsP/GaInAs on InP substrate wherein each junction may be individually separated by a tunnel diode (/) or an isolating transparent wafer bond layer (//) such as a cell given by GaInP//GaAs//GaInAsP//GaInAs on InP. The PV cell may comprise InGaP//GaAs//InGaAsNSb//Conductive Layer//Conductive Layer//GaSb//InGaAsSb. The substrate may be GaAs or Ge. The PV cell may comprise Si—Ge—Sn and alloys. All combinations of diode and wafer bonds are within the scope of the disclosure. An exemplary four-junction cell having 44.7% conversion efficacy at 297-times concentration of the AM1.5d spectrum is made by SOITEC, France. The PV cell may comprise a single junction. An exemplary single junction PV cell may comprise a monocrystalline silicon cell such as one of those given in Sater et al. (B. L. Sater, N. D. Sater, “High voltage silicon VMJ solar cells for up to 1000 suns intensities”, Photovoltaic Specialists Conference, 2002. Conference Record of the Twenty-Ninth IEEE, 19-24 May 2002, pp. 1019-1022.) which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety. Alternatively, the single junction cell may comprise GaAs or GaAs doped with other elements such as those from Groups III and V. In an exemplary embodiment, the PV cells comprise triple junction concentrator PV cells or GaAs PV cells operated at about 1000 suns. In another exemplary embodiment, the PV cells comprise c-Si operated at 250 suns. In an exemplary embodiment, the PV may comprise GaAs that may be selectively responsive for wavelengths less than 900 nm and InGaAs on at least one of InP, GaAs, and Ge that may be selectively responsive to wavelengths in the region between 900 nm and 1800 nm. The two types of PV cells comprising GaAs and InGaAs on InP may be used in combination to increase the efficiency. Two such single junction types cells may be used to have the effect of a double junction cell. The combination may be implemented by using at least one of dichroic mirrors, dichroic filters, and an architecture of the cells alone or in combination with mirrors to achieve multiple bounces or reflections of the light as given in the disclosure. In an embodiment, each PV cell comprises a polychromat layer that separates and sorts incoming light, redirecting it to strike particular layers in a multi-junction cell. In an exemplary embodiment, the cell comprises an indium gallium phosphide layer for visible light and gallium arsenide layer for infrared light where the corresponding light is directed. The PV cell may comprise a GaAs1-x-yNxBiy alloy.
The PV cells may comprise silicon. The silicon PV cells may comprise concentrator cells that may operate in the intensity range of about 5 to 2000 Suns. The silicon PV cells may comprise crystalline silicon and at least one surface may further comprise amorphous silicon that may have a different bandgap than the crystalline Si layer. The amorphous silicon may have a wider bandgap than the crystalline silicon. The amorphous silicon layer may perform at least one function of causing the cells to be electro-transparent and preventing electron-hole pair recombination at the surfaces. The silicon cell may comprise a multijunction cell. The layers may comprise individual cells. At least one cell such as atop cell such as one comprising at least one of Ga, As, InP, Al, and In may be ion sliced and mechanically stacked on the Si cell such as a Si bottom cell. At least one of layers of multi-junction cells and cells connected in series may comprise bypass diodes to minimize current and power loss due to current mismatches between layers of cells. The cell surface may be textured to facilitate light penetration into the cell. The cell may comprise an antireflection coating to enhance light penetration into the cell. The antireflection coating may further reflect wavelengths below the bandgap energy. The coating may comprise a plurality of layers such as about two to 20 layers. The increased number of layer may enhance the selectivity to band pass a desired wavelength range such as light above the bandgap energy and reflect another range such as wavelengths below the bandgap energy. Light reflected from the cell surface may be bounced to at least one other cell that may absorb the light. The PV converter may comprise a closed structure such as a geodesic dome to provide for multiple bounces of reflected light to increase the cross section for PV absorption and conversion. The geodesic dome may comprise a plurality of receiver units 200 (
The PV cell may comprise perovskite cells. An exemplary perovskite cell comprises the layers from the top to bottom of Au, Ni, Al, Ti, GaN, CH3NH3SnI3, monolayer h-BN, CH3NH3PbI3-xBrx, HTM/GA, bottom contact (Au).
The cell may comprise a multi p-n junction cell such as a cell comprising an AlN top layer and GaN bottom layer to converter EUV and UV, respectively. In an embodiment, the photovoltaic cell may comprise a GaN p-layer cell with heavy p-doping near the surface to avoid excessive attenuation of short wavelength light such as UV and EUV. The n-type bottom layer may comprise AlGaN or AlN. In an embodiment, the PV cell comprises GaN and AlxGa1-xN that is heavily p-doped in the top layer of the p-n junction wherein the p-doped layer comprises a two-dimensional-hole gas. In an embodiment, the PV cell may comprise at least one of GaN, AlGaN, and AlN with a semiconductor junction. In an embodiment, the PV cell may comprise n-type AlGaN or AlN with a metal junction. In an embodiment, the PV cell responds to high-energy light above the band gap of the PV material with multiple electron-hole pairs. The light intensity may be sufficient to saturate recombination mechanisms to improve the efficiency.
The converter may comprise a plurality of at least one of (i) GaN, (ii) AlGaN or AlN p-n junction, and (iii) shallow ultra-thin p-n heterojunction photovoltaics cells each comprising a p-type two-dimensional hole gas in GaN on an n-type AlGaN or AlN base region. Each may comprise a lead to a metal film layer such as an Al thin film layer, an n-type layer, a depletion layer, a p-type layer and a lead to a metal film layer such as an Al thin film layer with no passivation layer due to the short wavelength light and vacuum operation. In an embodiment of the photovoltaic cell comprising an AlGaN or AlN n-type layer, a metal of the appropriate work function may replace the p-layer to comprise a Schottky rectification barrier to comprise a Schottky barrier metal/semiconductor photovoltaic cell.
In another embodiment, the converter may comprise at least one of photovoltaic (PV) cells, photoelectric (PE) cells, and a hybrid of PV cells and PE cells. The PE cell may comprise a solid-state cell such as a GaN PE cell. The PE cells may each comprise a photocathode, a gap layer, and an anode. An exemplary PE cell comprises GaN (cathode) cessiated/AlN (separator or gap)/Al, Yb, or Eu (anode) that may be cessiated. The PV cells may each comprise at least one of the GaN, AlGaN, and AlN PV cells of the disclosure. The PE cell may be the top layer and the PV cell may be the bottom layer of the hybrid. The PE cell may convert the shortest wavelength light. In an embodiment, at least one of the cathode and anode layer of the PE cell and the p-layer and the n-layer of a PV cell may be turned upside down. The architecture may be changed to improve current collection. In an embodiment, the light emission from the ignition of the fuel is polarized and the converter is optimized to use light polarization selective materials to optimize the penetration of the light into the active layers of the cell.
In an embodiment, the light emission from the hydrino plasma in the reaction cell chamber through the PV window to the PV converter may comprise predominantly ultraviolet light and extreme ultraviolet such as light in the wavelength region of about 10 nm to 300 nm. The PV cell may be response to at least a portion of the wavelength region of about 10 nm to 300 nm. The PV cells may comprise concentrator UV cells. The cells may be responsive to blackbody radiation. The blackbody radiation may be that corresponding to at least one temperature range of about 1000K to 6000K. The incident light intensity may be in at least one range of about 2 to 100,000 suns and 10 to 10,000 suns. The cell may be operated in a temperature range known in the art such as at least one temperature range of about less than 300° C. and less than 150° C. The PV cell may comprise a group III nitride such as at least one of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. In an embodiment, the PV cell may comprise a plurality of junctions. The junctions may be layered in series. In another embodiment, the junctions are independent or electrically parallel. The independent junctions may be mechanically stacked or wafer bonded. An exemplary multi-junction PV cell comprises at least two junctions comprising n-p doped semiconductor such as a plurality from the group of InGaN, GaN, and AlGaN. The n dopant of GaN may comprise oxygen, and the p dopant may comprise Mg. An exemplary triple junction cell may comprise InGaN//GaN//AlGaN wherein // may refer to an isolating transparent wafer bond layer or mechanical stacking. The PV may be run at high light intensity equivalent to that of concentrator photovoltaic (CPV). The substrate may be at least one of sapphire, Si, SiC, and GaN wherein the latter two provide the best lattice matching for CPV applications. Layers may be deposited using metalorganic vapor phase epitaxy (MOVPE) methods known in the art. The cells may be cooled by cold plates such as those used in CPV or diode lasers such as commercial GaN diode lasers. The grid contacts may be mounted on the front and back surfaces of the cells as in the case of CPV cells. In an embodiment, the surface of the PV cell such as one comprising at least one of GaN, AlN, and GaAlN may be terminated. The termination layer may comprise at least one of H and F. The termination may decrease the carrier recombination effects of defects. The surface may be terminated with a window such as AlN.
In an embodiment, at least one of the PV window and a protective window of the photovoltaic (PV) and photoelectric (PE) converter may be substantially transparent to the light to which it is responsive. The window may be at least 10% transparent to the responsive light. The window may be transparent to UV light. The window may comprise a coating such as a UV transparent coating on the PV or PE cells. The coating may be applied by deposition such as vapor deposition. The coating may comprise the material of UV windows of the disclosure such as a sapphire or MgF2 window. Other suitable windows comprise LiF and CaF2. Any window such as a MgF2 window may be made thin to limit the EUV attenuation. In an embodiment, the PV or PE material such as one that is hard, glass-like such as GaN serves as a cleanable surface. The PV material such as GaN may serve as the window. In an embodiment, the surface electrodes of the PV or PE cells may comprise the window. The electrodes and window may comprise aluminum. The window may comprise at least one of aluminum, carbon, graphite, zirconia, graphene, MgF2, an alkaline earth fluoride, an alkaline earth halide, Al2O3, and sapphire. The window may be very thin such as about 1 A to 100 A thick such that it is transparent to the UV and EUV emission from the cell. Exemplary thin transparent thin films are Al, Yb, and Eu thin films. The film may be applied by MOCVD, vapor deposition, sputtering and other methods known in the art.
In an embodiment, the cell may covert the incident light to electricity by at least one mechanism such as at least one mechanism from the group of the photovoltaic effect, the photoelectric effect, the thermionic effect, and the thermoelectric effect. The converter may comprise bilayer cells each having a photoelectric layer on top of a photovoltaic layer. The higher energy light such as extreme ultraviolet light may be selectively absorbed and converted by the top layer. A layer of a plurality of layers may comprise a UV window such as the MgF2 window. The UV window may protect ultraviolet UV) PV from damage by ionizing radiation such as damage by soft X-ray radiation. In an embodiment, low-pressure cell gas may be added to selectively attenuate radiation that would damage the UV PV. Alternatively, this radiation may be at least partially converted to electricity and at least partially blocked from the UV PV by the photoelectronic converter top layer. In another embodiment, the UV PV material such as GaN may also convert at least a portion of the extreme ultraviolet emission from the cell into electricity using at least one of the photovoltaic effect and the photoelectric effect.
The photovoltaic converter may comprise PV cells that convert ultraviolet light into electricity. Exemplary ultraviolet PV cells comprise at least one of p-type semiconducting polymer PEDOT-PSS: poly(3,4-ethylenedioxythiophene) doped by poly(4-styrenesulfonate) film deposited on a Nb-doped titanium oxide (SrTiO3:Nb) (PEDOT-PSS/SrTiO3:Nb heterostructure), GaN, GaN doped with a transition metal such as manganese, SiC, diamond, Si, and TiO2. Other exemplary PV photovoltaic cells comprise n-ZnO/p-GaN heterojunction cells.
To convert the high intensity light into electricity, the generator may comprise an optical distribution system and photovoltaic converter 26a such as that shown in
In an embodiment, the TPV conversion efficiency may be increased by using a selective emitter, such as ytterbium on the surface of the blackbody emitter 5b4c. Ytterbium is an exemplary member of a class of rare earth metals, which instead of emitting a normal blackbody spectrum emit spectra that resemble line radiation spectra. This allows the relatively narrow emitted energy spectrum to match very closely to the bandgap of the TPV cell.
In an embodiment, the PV converter 26a (see, e.g.,
A schematic drawing of a triangular element of the geodesic dense receiver array of the photovoltaic converter is shown in
In an embodiment comprising a thermal power source, the heat exchanger of the PV converter 26a comprises a plurality of heat exchanger elements 200 such as triangular elements 200 shown in
The cooler or heat exchanger of each receiver unit may comprise at least one of a coolant housing comprising at least one coolant inlet and one coolant outlet, at least one coolant distribution structure such as a flow diverter baffle such as a plate with passages, and a plurality of coolant fins mounted onto the PV cell mounting plate. The fins may be comprised of a highly thermally conductive material such as silver, copper, or aluminum. The height, spacing, and distribution of the fins may be selected to achieve a uniform temperature over the PV cell area. The cooler may be mounted to a least one of mounting plate and the PV cells by thermal epoxy. The PV cells may be protected on the front side (illuminated side) by a clover glass or window. In an embodiment, the enclosure comprising receiver units may comprise a pressure vessel. The pressure of the pressure vessel may be adjusted to at least partially balance the internal pressure of the molten metal vapor pressure inside of the reaction cell chamber 5b31.
In an embodiment, the power of the SunCell may be sensed optically by a light power meter or a spectrometer capable of recording the plasma blackbody radiation and temperature. The recorded power such as that transmitted through the PV window 5b4 may be used by a controller to control the hydrino reaction conditions such as those of the disclosure to maintain a desired power output.
In an embodiment (
The parameters of the cooling system may be selected to optimize the cost, performance, and power output of the generator. Exemplary parameters are the identity of the coolant, a phase change of the coolant, the coolant pressure, the PV temperature, the coolant temperature and temperature range, the coolant flow rate, the radius of the PV converter and coolant system relative to that of the blackbody radiator, and light recycling and wavelength band selective filters or reflectors on the front or back of the PV to reduce the amount of PV incident light that cannot be converted to electricity by the PV or to recycle that which failed to convert upon passing through the PV cells. Exemplary coolant systems are ones that perform at least one of i.) form steam at the PV cells, transport steam, and condense the steam to release heat at the exchange interface with ambient, ii.) form stream at the PV cells, condense it back to liquid, and reject heat from a single phase at the heat exchanger with ambient such as a radiator, and iii.) remove heat from the PV cells with microchannel plates and reject the heat at the heat exchanger with ambient. The coolant may remain in a single phase during cooling the PV cells.
The PV cell may be mounted to cold plates. The heat may be removed from the cold plates by coolant conduits or coolant pipes to a cooling manifold. The manifold may comprise a plurality of toroidal pipes circumferential around the PV converter that may be spaced along the vertical or z-axis of the PV converter and comprise the coolant conduits or coolant pipes coming off of it. In an embodiment, the heated coolant may be used to provide thermal power to a load. The cooling system may comprise at least one additional heat exchanger to cool the coolant and provide heat to the thermal load. The cooled coolant may be recirculated to the cold plate by a pump.
At least one of the reaction cell chamber, reservoirs, and EM pumps may be cooled by a coolant such as water. The coolant may be passively circulated through a heat exchanger or actively circulated by a pump to remove heat according to the disclosure. The passive circulation may comprise a steam formation and condensation heat transfer cycle. At least one of the PV cells and the PV window may be cooled by a circulating coolant. In an embodiment, the PV converter 26a comprises a dense receiver array of PV cells, a PV window, a housing that houses the PV converter, a coolant that is circulated through the housing by at least one pump, a heat exchanger, at least one temperature sensor, at least one flow sensor, and a heat exchanger to remove heat from at least one of the PC cells and the PV window. The coolant may have a low light absorption coefficient in the spectral region of the light emitted to or from the PV window wherein the light may be recycled. The coolant may comprise water. The coolant may comprise a molten salt selected for the operating temperature of at least one of the PV window and the PV cells and having a low absorption coefficient for the emitted or recycled light. The optical path length between the PV window and the PV cells may be minimized to reduce the absorption of the emitted or recycled light. A coolant flow rate may be maintained by the pump to cool the PV window to maintain a stable window temperature. In an alternative embodiment, the PV window is operated at a temperature at which the blackbody radiation to the PV cells provides sufficient cooling to maintain the operating temperature. In an embodiment, the PV window cavity is sufficiently large such that the light absorption by the PV window is a significant contributor to the heating of the PV window compared to plasma heating wherein the distance of the window walls from the plasma reduces the plasma heating.
In an embodiment, the light below the PV band gap may be recycled by being reflected from the PV cells, absorbed by the blackbody radiator 5b4c, and re-emitted as the blackbody radiation at the blackbody radiator's operating temperature such as in the range of about 1000 K to 4000 K. The blackbody radiator may comprise an external SunCell wall or a PV window and the hydrino reaction plasma. In an embodiment, the reflected radiation that is below the band gap may be transparent to the PV window such that it is absorbed by the reaction cell chamber 5b31 gases and plasma. The absorbed reflected power may heat the blackbody radiator to assist to maintain its temperature and thereby achieve recycling of the reflected below band gap light. In an embodiment comprising a blackbody radiator such as an external SunCell wall a high emissivity may be applied to the surface. The coating may comprise carbon, carbide, boride, oxide, nitride, or other refractory material of the disclosure. Exemplary coatings are graphite, ZrB2, zirconium carbide, and ZrC composites such as ZrC—ZrB2 and ZrC—ZrB2—SiC. The coating may comprise a powder layer.
To facilitate a match of the radiative power density transferred from the SunCell to an acceptable operating power density of the thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells, the power produced by the SunCell may also be spread over a larger surface area of the at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir by increasing the geometric area of at least one of the reaction cell chamber and reservoir. In an embodiment, a desired power density radiated by at least one of the reaction cell chamber and the reservoir walls is matched to the power produced by the SunCell by increasing at least one dimension of SunCell to increase the corresponding wall surface area. The TPV cells are selected to have high efficiency at the corresponding concentration of light emitted from the walls and made incident on the TPV cells. In an embodiment comprising a PV window wherein the concentration exceeds at least one of the capacity of the TPV cells or the cooling system of the TPV cells, the light concentration may be reduced to an appropriate level by placement of the TPV cells of the PV converter 26a at a larger distance from the PV window 5b4 such as shown in
In an embodiment, the TPV converter is housed in a chamber capable of at least one of vacuum, atmospheric, and above atmospheric pressure. The TPV converter may be maintained under a vacuum or an inert atmosphere such as a noble gas atmosphere such as an agon atmosphere. The chamber may comprise electrical feedthroughs for electrical connections for the ignition, the EM pump, and the plasma discharge cell 900 currents as well as others for sensors such as temperature, gas flow, gas pressure, optical power, and optical spectrum sensors.
In an embodiment, at least a portion of the power to operate at least one of the SunCell, boiler, and air heat exchanger of the disclosure such as at least one of the ignition power, EM pump power, vacuum pump power, controller power, chiller or cooler power, and blower power may be supplied by the SunCell thermophotovoltaic converter. In an exemplary embodiment of a SunCell-TPV-air heat exchanger system wherein the power to operate the SunCell is at least partially provided by TPV conversion of SunCell emission (
In an embodiment, an optical thermal power source comprises the SunCell 812 comprising a PV window 5b4 such as shown in
In an embodiment, SunCell boiler shown in
The SunCell may comprise a PV converter 26a to power parasitic loads. The PV converter 26a such as the one shown in
In another embodiment, the SunCell 812 such as one shown in
In an embodiment, the PV window of the SunCell such as the PV window of the optical thermal oven may comprise a plurality of windows such as spatially separated panes such as the one shown in
In an embodiment, the optical power produced in the reaction cell chamber may be transmitted through the PV window to a photovoltaic converter of the disclosure and converted to electricity. The electricity may be used for any application of electricity known in the art such as exemplary applications or loads of the group of resistive heating, air conditioning, electric ovens, high temperature electric furnaces, electric arc furnaces, electric steam boilers, heat pumps, lighting, motive power trains, electric motors, appliances, power tools, computers, audio-video systems, and data centers. The SunCell may be made to any desired scale to meet any desired load demands, or the SunCell may be ganged to any desired scale. The PV converter may be designed to output a desire current and voltage range. The SunCell may comprise corresponding power conditioning systems for the applications such as at least one inverter, transformer, and DC-DC converter, and DC to DC voltage converter and regulator.
In an embodiment, the output power of the SunCell may be controlled to a desire level by controlling the parameters that determine the hydrino reaction rate such as those of the disclosure. The output power may be sensed by at least one of (i) the SunCell optical power sensed by an optical sensor such as a photodiode, (ii) the electrical power output of the PV converter 26a, and (iii) the thermal power sensed by a thermal sensor such as an optical pyrometer or a thermocouple. The output power is determined by the hydrino reaction rate which may be sensed by the intensity and the frequency of the sound produced by the hydrino reaction which may in the range of about 1 Hz to 30,000 Hz. The controlling parameters that determine the hydrino reaction rate such as those of the disclosure (e.g. H2, O2, H2O flow rates, EM pumping rate, ignition current, operating temperature) may be altered based on at least one of the plasma sound and frequency to achieve a desire hydrino reaction rate.
In an embodiment, lack of gravity could be compensated by inertial forces or pressure differentials. Specifically, in an aerospace embodiment, the EM pump, pumps fast and powerfully enough to maintain the molten metal in the corresponding reservoir at a desired molten metal height level while also maintaining molten metal injection. In an embodiment, the EM pump uses inertial forces to overcome gravitational and centrifugal forces that may arise from motion of the SunCell. The EM pump may pump molten metal from the reaction cell chamber. The EM pump may transport molten metal to the reservoir and to the EM pump inlet to maintain injection flow through the injection portion of the EM pump 5k61. In another embodiment, the SunCell may be mounted on a gantry that is spun to create a centrifugal force in the direction of the base of each EM pump reservoir to replace the force of gravity for return molten metal flow. In another embodiment shown in
The hydrino molecule comprises two hydrogen isotope nuclei and two electrons in a single molecular orbital (MO). Uniquely the MO comprises a paired and unpaired electron (Mills GUT, Parameters and Magnetic Energies Due to the Spin Magnetic Moment of H2(¼) section). To conserve spin angular momentum during the formation of a bond between two hydrino atoms, the bond energy must be released as a neutrino such as an electron neutrino of spin ½:
H(1/p)+H(1/p)→H2(1/p)+νe (38)
Specifically, a neutrino comprises a photon having
angular momentum in its electric and magnetic fields (Mills GUT, Neutrinos section). During the reaction of Eq. (38), the angular momentum of the reactants is conserved in the products wherein each of the two reacting hydrino atoms are electron spin ½, and the product molecular hydrino and electron neutrino are also each spin ½. The neutrino emission reaction (Eq. (38)) may be exploited for communication.
In an embodiment, a neutrino communication system and method comprise a neutrino emitter comprising a reaction system to form hydrinos wherein at least one of the hydrino reaction rate and rate of formation of molecular hydrino may be varied in time and intensity to cause a temporally modulated hydrino reaction with a concomitant time modulated neutrino emission. In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction rate may be modulated by controlling the ignition current, the EM pump current, and the flow of reactants. The modulation may comprise frequency-division multiplexing, amplitude modulation, and other methods known in the art to carry a plurality of separate communications, video, or data simultaneously. The neutrino communication system may further comprise a rate modifier of at least one of the hydrino reaction rate and rate of formation of molecular hydrino. The rate modifier may comprise at least one source of field and source of a beam such as at least one of a source of electric field, magnetic field, a beam of photons, and a beam of particles. The particle beam may comprise an electron beam. The beam of photons may comprise a laser such as a UV, visible, or infrared gas or diode laser. The rate modifier may comprise a window such as a photon or laser window or a particle beam window. The laser window may comprise the PV window. An exemplary electron beam window comprises a silicon nitride window. The rate modifier may be at least one of pulsed in time and modulated in intensity to cause a matching variation in the emission of neutrinos which encodes the communication information.
In an embodiment, the neutrino communication system comprises one or more of at least one transducer such as an audio or video transducer to produce a communication signal or data stream, a processor such as a computer, a data stream such as data stored or processed in a computer, at least one memory element to store and to provide a communication signal or data stream, a data stream and communication signal output from the processor, and a controller that receives the data stream and communication signal output from the processor and controls the hydrino reaction rate modifier.
In an embodiment, the hydrino reaction mixture may comprise a solid matrix comprising a source of (i) hydrogen such as at least one of hydrogen molecules, a hydride, or an organic compound, and (ii) a source of HOH catalyst such as water, hydroxide, peroxide, hydrogen, oxide, oxygen, superoxide, and a composition of matter comprising at least one of hydrogen and oxygen. The matrix such as a crystalline matrix such as an alkaline or alkaline earth halide, diamond, quartz, or another inorganic crystalline compound may be transparent to the laser such as a UV, visible, or infrared laser. The laser power may be sufficient to cause the hydrino reaction by illumination of the solid matrix comprising hydrino reactants.
In an embodiment, the reaction system to form hydrinos comprises (i) a reaction chamber containing a hydrino reaction mixture such as at least one of water vapor, hydrogen gas, and oxygen gas, (ii) a least one source of the reaction mixture such as a gas tanks, valves, lines, flow meters, pressure meters, pressure regulators, a controller, and a laser wherein at least one of the hydrino reaction rate and rate of formation of molecular hydrino may be varied in time and intensity or temporally modulated by laser pulses to cause a temporally modulated hydrino reaction with a concomitant time modulated neutrino emission. The laser may cause a temporally modulated plasma in the reaction mixture to cause the modulated hydrino reaction rate and neutrino emission communication signal.
The disclosure also includes a neutrino communication system and method of communication. These may comprise a neutrino receiver comprising a source of molecular hydrino having a bond energy equivalent to the bond energy of the hydrino molecule that emitted a neutrino during bond formation to comprise the emitter signal. A receiver molecular hydrino may absorb an incident neutrino to result in bond breakage to form two hydrino atoms. At least one of the conversion of a molecular hydrino to hydrino atoms and the resulting hydrino atoms from the absorption of a neutrino by a hydrino molecule may be monitored in time and concentration by a hydrino communication sensor. The sensor may comprise a superconducting quantum inference device (SQUID) such as a rf SQUID. The sensor may comprise a transformer such as a superconducting transformer coupled to a SQUID such as an rf-SQUID. An exemplary rf SQUID sensor of very high sensitivity comprises one by R. M. Weisskoff, et al., “rf SQUID detector for single-ion trapping experiments”, Journal of Applied Physics. Vol. 63, p. 4599 (1988); https://doi.org/10.1063/1.340137. The sensor may be magnetized to increase the sensor sensitivity. The SQUID sensor may be responsive to a high frequency communication signal from the emitter over a background of low frequency signal due to the relatively slow back reaction of hydrino atoms to hydrino molecules. The SQUID sensor may comprise at least one signal processing element and method such as ones known in the art for processing an input signal into an output communication signal. The processing element may comprise one or more of (i) at least one filter such as one of a high, low, and bandpass filter to select a desired signal or processed signal frequency band, (ii) a phase shifter to shift the phase of the signal, (iii) an amplifier to amplify the signal, (iv) a feedback circuit to suppress noise signals relative to the communication signal and stabilize the SQUID, (v) at least one inductor, capacitor, and resistor to provide at least one of a desired impedance, resonance frequency, and quality factor Q, (vi) a mixer, heterodyne, modulator, demodulator, or frequency shifter to shift at least one of the frequency and phase of the SQUID sensor signal, and (vii) a processor such as a computer to process the signal and output the communication signal. The SQUID sensor may be responsive to the flux change caused by the conversion of at least one hydrino molecule to corresponding hydrino atoms. The SQUID Josephson junction may comprise at least one hydrino molecule.
In another embodiment, the sensor may comprise a sensor of the hydrino atom such as one responsive to the hyperfine structure line regarding the electron-nuclear spin flip transition. The hyperfine structure sensor may comprise a source of electromagnetic radiation capable of producing a resonant absorption of the hydrino atom hyperfine transition, a detector of the absorption of the resonant electromagnetic radiation, and a processor. In an exemplary embodiment, the H(¼) hyperfine structure has a resonant frequency of about 21.4 cm−1. In another embodiment, a hydrino atom sensor may comprise a sensor of at least one of the hydrino atom nuclear or electron spin flip in an applied magnetic field wherein the hydrino atom sensor or monitoring system comprises a source of magnetic field such as a permanent or electromagnet that applies a magnetic field to the hydrino atom, a source of electromagnetic radiation capable of producing a resonant absorption of the hydrino atom nuclear or electron spin flip transition at the applied magnetic field, a detector of the absorption of the resonant electromagnetic radiation, and a processor. In another embodiment, the sensor may comprise a sensor of the hydrino hydride ion such as one responsive to the emission from the binding of an electron to the corresponding hydrino atom to form the hydrino hydride ion. The sensor may comprise an optical detector capable of detecting at least one specific wavelength or band such as at least one photodiode and at least one filter. Alternatively, the sensor may comprise a spectrometer responsive to the hydrino hydride emission. The hydrino hydride ion (H) emission may correspond to the binding energy according to Eq. (19). In an exemplary embodiment wherein p=2 to p=24 in Eq. (19), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.6, 72.4, 71.6, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.7, 19.3, and 0.69 eV. The emission may comprise continuum radiation with a cutoff of the binding energy and may further comprise fluxon linkage structure of the hydride ion emission.
Temporal variation and intensity of the sensor response may be processed by a processor to receive the communication in the transmitted neutrino signal. The signal processing may comprise heterodyne shifting, filtering, and other techniques known in the art to improve the signal to noise ratio and to reduce any background signal. An exemplary, source of molecular hydrino comprises molecular hydrino embedded in a crystalline compound such as KCl:H2(¼) or GaOOH:H2(¼). Another source comprises at molecular hydrino embedded in a lattice that serves as a source of electrons such as a metal lattice such as thin-film aluminum or zirconium wherein the source is at least partially transparent to hydrino hydride emission formed in the lattice during detection of neutrinos.
Neutrino emission may be directional such as line of sight. The line of sight may be through physical structures or even the Earth. The alignment of emitter and receiver may be determined by the locational information such as GPS coordinates of the emitter and receiver. In an embodiment, the communication system further comprises at least one of a steerable source of magnetic field and a steerable source of photons such as a laser to cause directional neutrino emission. The directionality may be achieved by magnetic alignment of at least one of the nuclear and electron spins of the hydrino atoms and the resulting molecular hydrino, and polarization of at least one of the electron and nuclear spins of at least one of the atoms and molecule. The polarization may be achieved by laser irradiation. In another embodiment, a further method of modulation of the neutrino emission is achieved by coupling the neutrino emission to a molecular hydrino excitation. The molecular hydrino excitation may comprise at least one of a hydrino molecular rotational, vibrational, spin flip, spin orbital coupling, fluxon linkage, and magnetic tilt energy transition during neutrino emission wherein the modulation may comprise at least one of an energy shift and a temporal modulation. The neutrino communication system may further comprise a neutrino emission modulation system to cause the resonant molecular hydrino excitation comprising at least one of a source of magnetic field such as a permanent or electromagnet, a source of electromagnetic radiation such as a source of radio frequency radiation, and a source of photons such as a laser. The modulation system may comprise at least one of an electron paramagnetic resonance (EPR) spectrometer and a Raman spectrometer. In an embodiment, the neutrinos may be polarized. The polarization may be achieved by applying a magnetic field to the reaction cell chamber wherein the emission signal modulation may be encoded by at least one of radio frequency, laser, or electron beam irradiation.
References herein to an Appendix or SubAppendix refer to the Appendix of U.S. App. No. 62/236,198, filed Aug. 23, 2021, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety and, in particular, the spectroscopic measurements therein such as EPR and Raman of material produced by systems of the present disclosure and collected following thereof.
Various modifications of a window were performed in order to enhance optical transmission of plasma light therethrough during system operation. A dual molten metal stream injection system of the present disclosure was used to identify suitable modifications to the window to ensure system operability. The system used 10-12 kg of molten tin that was continuously flowed from electrically separated reservoirs through two electromagnetic pumps and through corresponding nozzles in order to cross molten streams and form a closed electrical circuit.
In the first set of experiments a fused silica window was used. The kinetic energy imparted to the molten metal and molten metal oxide during plasma generation induced accumulation on the interior of the window. These defects inhibited optical transmission and thereby limited energy collection after limited operation. System operation resulted in melting and deformation of the fused silica during generation of the second plasma.
The PV window was modified in order to increase operability transmission through the PV window for ultimate energy collection by injecting tin onto its surface during generation of the second plasma from an electromagnetic pump in fluid communication with tin reservoirs.
By incorporating this change to the PV window and system setup, optical transmission through the PV window increased affording a consistently operating window where emission spectra could be measured. These modifications were found to work exceptionally well when tin was used as the molten metal in the second plasma forming reaction (e.g., as compared to gallium).
A dual molten metal stream injection system of the present disclosure was used to measure emitted spectra from the second plasma. The system used 10-12 kg of molten tin that was continuously flowed from electrically separated reservoirs through two electromagnetic pumps and through corresponding nozzles in order to cross molten streams and form a closed electrical circuit. Electromagnetic pump reservoirs were oppositely biased in order to flow current through the intersecting streams with an electrical supply set at constant current mode. Repeated tests were performed, for example, in some experiments, the input current was maintained at 790 A.
Hydrogen gas (H2) and oxygen gas (O2) were flowed into a glow discharge cell where the effluence was directed at intersecting biased molten tin streams. Hydrogen had a flow of 2000 sccm and oxygen had a flow of 30 sccm into the glow discharge cell to initiate the formation of a second plasma.
A Mightex UV-Vis_IR spectrometer was used to measure the emission spectra of the second plasma over the range of 180 nm to 800 nm with a 100 ms sampling time and 25 μm slit. The emission spectra of the second plasma were measured by employing the PV window modifications discussed in Example 1.
During a run, the concentration of nascent water and atomic hydrogen was reduced in the reaction cell severely mitigating the power output.
Delivery of hydrogen and trace oxygen to the glow discharge cell were discontinued and replaced by argon which was flowed at a rate to maintain a constant 5 Torr total pressure. The input current maintained at 790 A, but, when reactants were removed, the voltage increased from the initial 48 V (voltage during plasma generation) to 61 V with a corresponding decay in plasma light intensity. The integrated light intensity over the total wavelength range for the high Hydrino power interval at 36 kW input power was 11.7 times that of a low plasma power interval at 40 kW input power corresponding to a 470 kW optical power output in the former case.
A dual molten metal stream injection system of the present disclosure was used to measure emitted spectra from the second plasma. The system used 10-12 kg of molten tin that was continuously flowed from electrically separated reservoirs through two electromagnetic pumps and through corresponding nozzles in order to cross molten streams and form a closed electrical circuit. Electromagnetic reservoirs were oppositely biased in order to flow current through the intersecting streams with an electrical supply set at constant current mode.
The system comprised a first 6″ diameter PV window adjacent to the second plasma that employed the modifications identified in Example 1. A second window surrounded the first PV window to maintain the SunCell reaction cell chamber under vacuum and help direct light to a dense receiver array having an ensemble of concentrator phototovoltaic cells.
The thickness of the refractory liner in the system was adjusted in order to change the internal temperature of the system in system regions of the reaction cell. For example, regions of the system having the appropriate liner were able to reach 3000 K internal temperatures. These refractory lined reaction cell chambers operated as a blackbody cavity. Plasma generation transmits energy to these liners inducing blackbody radiation at a controlled temperature. At 3000K, the dense receiver array was matched to the blackbody light output therefore exploiting light recycling and increasing system efficiency.
Systems having refractory liners sufficient to operate at internal temperatures of 3000K-5000K were operated. These systems produced radiation having a power density of 4.6 to 35 MW/m2. Leveraging dense receiver arrays and infrared light recycling is able to increase energy collection efficiencies by more than 50%.
The present application claims priority to U.S. Ser. No. 63/158,349, filed Mar. 8, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/167,110, filed Mar. 28, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/176,054, filed Apr. 16, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/214,236, filed Jun. 23, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/233,199, filed Aug. 13, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/236,198, filed Aug. 23, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/246,282, filed Sep. 20, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/254,589, filed Oct. 12, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/270,537, filed Oct. 21, 2021; U.S. Ser. No. 63/291,342, filed Dec. 17, 2021; and U.S. Ser. No. 63/298,190, filed Jan. 10, 2022; each of which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/IB2022/052016 | 3/8/2022 | WO |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 63158349 | Mar 2021 | US | |
| 63167110 | Mar 2021 | US | |
| 63176054 | Apr 2021 | US | |
| 63214236 | Jun 2021 | US | |
| 63233199 | Aug 2021 | US | |
| 63236198 | Aug 2021 | US | |
| 63246282 | Sep 2021 | US | |
| 63254589 | Oct 2021 | US | |
| 63270537 | Oct 2021 | US | |
| 63291342 | Dec 2021 | US | |
| 63298190 | Jan 2022 | US |
