The present invention provides methods for preventing or reducing neuronal apoptosis, particularly wherein the apoptosis is associated with a neurodegenerative disorder in a subject. The invention also provides methods for increasing apoptosis in a subject having or at risk for having a cancer, particularly a cancer derived from neural crest cells.
Normal embryonic development of the nervous system involves overproduction of neurons followed by a culling process. When an axonal projection from a neuron successfully reaches its target, various factors such as nerve growth factor (NGF) produced by the target tissue override an apoptotic signaling pathway and the neuron survives. Competing neurons, however, are deprived of these factors and subsequently undergo apoptosis. Failure to cull neurons can lead to overproduction of neuronal mass and may potentially result in cancers such as neuroblastoma and pheochromocytomas. Alternatively, excessive apoptosis of neurons, for example due to constitutive activation of the apoptotic pathway or loss of function in a component of the survival pathway, can result in various neurodegenerative conditions in infant and children.
Adult neurons may undergo a similar apoptotic process due to injury, toxic or hypoxic insult, or neurodegenerative disorders. In many of these disorders, neuronal apoptosis occurs due to a direct insult to the neuron, whereas in others the primary defect is in neuronal support cells such as glial cells. Whatever the underlying cause, all neuronal apoptotic events share common features and involve a prescribed set of factors that include c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), which activates c-Jun and thereby increases transcription of various apoptotic factors. Additionally, the intrinsic mitochondrial death pathway involving Bax, Apaf-1, caspase 9, and caspase 3 has been shown to be critical for apoptosis in both developing and mature injured neurons. Bax, a bcl-2 family protein, is of particular importance in neuronal apoptosis. When overexpressed, Bax promotes cell death (Oltvai et al. (1993) Cell 74:6009-619), and Bax deficient sympathetic neurons deprived of NGF do not undergo normal apoptosis (Deckwerth et al. (1996) Neuron 17:401-411). Other Bcl-2 family members are also important in modulating neuronal apoptosis, e.g. phosphorylation of Bim by JNK potentiates Bax-dependent apoptosis. (See, e.g., Putcha et al. (2001) Neuron 38):899-914.)
Inappropriate neuronal apoptosis can lead to dementia and a decrease in motor control. Current treatment is limited, and improved methods that either delay or prevent neuronal loss would be particularly beneficial to those suffering from neuronal injury or neurodegenerative disease. The present invention provides methods of reducing or delaying neuronal apoptosis, thereby delaying or preventing loss of neuronal function in subjects with neurodegenerative disorders.
A method for treating neuronal disorders, e.g., disorders characterized by undesirable neuronal apoptosis (e.g., neurodegenerative disorders) is described. The method entails administering an effective amount of an inhibitor of EGLN3. Therefore, in one embodiment, the invention provides a method for reducing apoptosis in a cell associated with or derived from the nervous system, the method comprising administering an inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity to the cell. In one aspect, the administering is ex vivo. In another aspect, the administering is in vivo.
In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for reducing apoptosis associated with a neurodegenerative disorder in a subject. In one aspect, the disorder is associated with the central nervous system. In another aspect, the disorder is associated with the peripheral nervous system. In another aspect, the disorder involves both the central and peripheral nervous system.
In some embodiments the inhibitor is a small molecule. In one aspect, the inhibitor is an inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase activity and may be selected from the group consisting of, but not limited to, malonic acid, 3-nitroproprionic acid, and theonyl trifluoracetone. In another aspect, the inhibitor is a 2-oxoglutarate analog. In a particular aspect, the 2-oxoglutarate analog is selected from the group consisting of dimethyloxalylglycine, N-oxalylglycine, N-oxalyl-2S-alanine, and N-oxalyl-2R-alanine. In various embodiments, the inhibitor can be administered alone or in combination with another agent for treating the neuronal disorder.
Among the disorders that might be treated with the current methods are Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, cerebral ischemia, AIDS-related dementia, neurodegeneration associated with bacterial infection, multi-infarct dementia, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord trauma, diabetic neuropathy and neurodegeneration associated with aging. Additionally, the methods may be used to retard or prevent neuronal apoptosis following injury or ischemic insult, e.g., stroke.
In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method comprising (a) identifying a patient suffering from or at risk for a neurodegenerative disorder; and (b) administering to the identified patient an inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity.
In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing apoptosis in a subject by increasing EGLN3 levels or activity. The method comprises administering to the subject an agent that increases EGLN3 levels or activity. Such agents may include expression constructs encoding EGLN3 or an active fragment of EGLN3. Active fragments are those fragments that retain at least a portion of the hydroxylase activity of full-length EGLN3. Alternatively, the agent may be a compound that increases EGLN3 activity, e.g., a cofactor such as 2-oxoglutarate. In one embodiment, the method is used to increase apoptosis in a subject having or at risk for having a cell proliferative disorder. In one embodiment, the method is used to prevent or reduce growth of a tumor in the subject. In certain embodiments, the tumor is derived from neural crest cells. In particular embodiments, the tumor is selected from the group consisting of a melanoma, neuroblastoma, small cell lung carcinoma, and pheochromocytoma.
The details of one or more embodiments of the invention are set forth in the accompanying drawings and the description below. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the description and drawings, and from the claims.
Before the present compositions and methods are described, it is to be understood that the invention is not limited to the particular methodologies, protocols, cell lines, assays, and reagents described, as these may vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is intended to describe particular embodiments of the present invention, and is in no way intended to limit the scope of the present invention as set forth in the appended claims.
It must be noted that as used herein and in the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural references unless context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, a reference to “a fragment” includes a plurality of such fragments; a reference to a “compound” may be a reference to one or more compounds and to equivalents thereof known to those skilled in the art, and so forth.
Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meanings as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this invention belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can be used in the practice or testing of the present invention, the preferred methods, devices, and materials are now described. All publications cited herein are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety for the purpose of describing and disclosing the methodologies, reagents, and tools reported in the publications that might be used in connection with the invention. Nothing herein is to be construed as an admission that the invention is not entitled to antedate such disclosure by virtue of prior invention.
The practice of the present invention will employ, unless otherwise indicated, conventional methods of chemistry, biochemistry, molecular biology, cell biology, genetics, immunology and pharmacology, within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature. See, e.g., Gennaro, A. R., ed. (1990) Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences, 18th ed., Mack Publishing Co.; Hardman, J. G., Limbird, L. E., and Gilman, A. G., eds. (2001) The Pharmacological Basis of Therapeutics, 10th ed., McGraw-Hill Co.; Colowick, S. et al., eds., Methods In Enzymology, Academic Press, Inc.; Weir, D. M., and Blackwell, C. C., eds. (1986) Handbook of Experimental Immunology, Vols. I-IV, Blackwell Scientific Publications; Maniatis, T. et al., eds. (1989) Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2nd edition, Vols. I-III, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; Ausubel, F. M. et al., eds. (1999) Short Protocols in Molecular Biology, 4th edition, John Wiley & Sons; Ream et al., eds. (1998) Molecular Biology Techniques: An Intensive Laboratory Course, Academic Press; Newton, C. R., and Graham, A., eds. (1997) PCR (Introduction to Biotechniques Series), 2nd ed., Springer Verlag.
The present invention provides methods for treating neuronal disorders, particularly those disorders characterized by undesirable neuronal apoptosis including, but not limited to, stroke, epilepsy, and neurodegenerative disorders. The methods entail administering an effective amount of an inhibitor of EGLN3. As used herein, the term “EGLN3” refers to various proteins alternatively referred to as EGLN3, PHD3, HPH1, and SM-20. EGLN3 includes, but is not limited to, human EGLN3 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42511; Taylor, supra), mouse EGLN3 (GenBank Accession No. CAC42517), and rat SM-20 (GenBank Accession No. AAA19321). EGLN3 also includes any orthologous protein in a cell derived from another species, particularly a mammalian species.
In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for reducing apoptosis in a cell associated with or derived from the nervous system, the method comprising administering an inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity to the cell. In one aspect, the administering is ex vivo. Cells may be obtained from any source, preferably from a neuronal tissue obtained from a mammal. Cells may be cultured according to standard practices known to those of skill in the art. In another aspect, the administering is in vivo. The subject for in vivo administration may be any suitable eukaryote, particularly a mammal. In particular embodiments, the subject is a human.
In one embodiment, the invention provides a method for reducing apoptosis associated with a neurodegenerative disorder in a subject, the method comprising administering an inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity to the subject. In one aspect, the disorder is associated with the central nervous system. In another aspect, the disorder is associated with the peripheral nervous system. In another aspect, the disorder involves both the central and peripheral nervous system. In some embodiments, the disorder is due to an ischemic or toxic insult that results in increased neuronal apoptosis. In other embodiments, the disorder is a neurodegenerative disorder of known or unknown origin that leads to progressive loss of neuronal function. Among the disorders that may be treated with the current methods are Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, cerebral ischemia, AIDS-related dementia, neurodegeneration associated with bacterial infection, multi-infarct dementia, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord trauma, diabetic neuropathy and neurodegeneration associated with aging. Additionally, the methods may be used to retard or prevent neuronal apoptosis following injury or ischemic insult, e.g., stroke.
In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method comprising (a) identifying a patient suffering from or at risk for a neurodegenerative disorder; and (b) administering to the identified patient an inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity.
In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of increasing apoptosis in a subject by increasing EGLN3 levels or activity. The method comprises administering to the subject an agent that increases EGLN3 levels or activity. Such agents may include expression constructs encoding EGLN3 or an active fragment of EGLN3. Active fragments are those fragments that retain at least a portion of the hydroxylase activity of full-length EGLN3. Such constructs are generally within the skill in the art and may contain any promoter appropriate for expression in the target tissue. Exemplary constructs are provided in the examples below. Alternatively, the agent may be a compound that increases EGLN3 activity, e.g., a cofactor such as 2-oxoglutarate. In one embodiment, the method is used to increase apoptosis in a subject having or at risk for having a cell proliferative disorder. In one embodiment, the method is used to prevent or reduce growth of a tumor in the subject. In certain embodiments, the tumor is derived from neural crest cells. In particular embodiments, the tumor is selected from the group consisting of a melanoma, neuroblastoma, small cell lung carcinoma, and pheochromocytoma.
The terms “inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity” and “EGLN3 inhibitor”, and as abbreviated the term “inhibitor”, are used interchangeably and refer to any agent that reduces an activity of the EGLN3 enzyme. For example, for purposes of measuring activity, the activity of EGLN3 on hydroxylation of one or more proline residues on the alpha subunit of hypoxia inducible factor (HIFα) may be measured in the presence and absence of a test agent. A decrease in hydroxylation of HIFα when agent is present compared to when agent is absent would be indicative of an EGLN3 inhibitor for purposes of the present invention. Conversely, the terms “activator of EGLN3” and “EGLN3 activator”, and as abbreviated the term “activator”, are used interchangeably and refer to any agent that increases expression or activity of the EGLN3 enzyme. Activity of EGLN3, for purposes of identifying activators, can be measured as described above.
In various embodiments, the inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity is a small molecule. In one aspect, the inhibitor is an inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase activity and may be selected from the group consisting of, but not limited to, malonic acid, 3-nitroproprionic acid, and theonyl trifluoracetone. In another aspect, the inhibitor is a 2-oxoglutarate analog. In a particular aspect, the 2-oxoglutarate analog is selected from the group consisting of dimethyloxalylglycine, N-oxalylglycine, N-oxalyl-2S-alanine, and N-oxalyl-2R-alanine. Additional compounds that may inhibit EGLN3 are described in, e.g., Majamaa et al. (1984) Eur J Biochem 138:239-245; Majamaa et al. (1985) Biochem J 229:127-133; Kivirikko, and Myllyharju (1998) Matrix Biol 16:357-368; Bickel et al. (1998) Hepatology 28:404-411; Friedman et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4736-4741; Franklin (1991) Biochem Soc Trans 19):812-815; and Franklin et al. (2001) Biochem J 353:333-338. Additionally, compounds that inhibit EGLN3 can be selected from those described in, e.g., International Publication Nos. WO 03/049686, WO 02/074981, WO 03/080566, and WO 2004/108681. Compounds for use in the present methods inhibit EGLN3 enzyme activity, and may additionally inhibit activity of related enzymes, e.g., EGLN2, FIH, etc. Preferred compounds selectively inhibit EGLN3, i.e., show greater inhibition of EGLN3 than of related enzymes. In various embodiments, the inhibitor can be administered alone or in combination with another agent for treating the neuronal disorder.
The examples provided below demonstrate that inhibitors of EGLN3 activity are useful for treating disorders associated with undesirable neuronal apoptosis, e.g., neurodegenerative disorders such as Aizheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, Huntington's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, multiple sclerosis, stroke, cerebral ischemia, AIDS-related dementia, neurodegeneration associated with bacterial infection, multi-infarct dementia, traumatic brain injury, spinal cord trauma, diabetic neuropathy and neurodegeneration associated with aging. For examples, the examples show that induction of neuronal apoptosis may be dependent on hydroxylase activity, particularly EGLN3 activity, when NGF is limiting. In addition, studies described below demonstrate that this EGLN3 pro-apoptotic activity requires SDH activity and that this requirement is due to feedback inhibition of EGLN3 by succinate, a compound that is converted to fumarate by SDH.
Pheochromocytomas are adrenal medullary tumors comprised of chromaffin cells, which are derived from sympathetic neuronal progenitor cells. Germline mutations in either NF1, c-RET, succinate dehydrogenase subunit genes (SDH B, SDH C, SDH D), or VHL are the most frequent cause of familial pheochromocytoma and are also common in seemingly sporadic (non-syndromic) pheochromocytoma. (Maher and Eng (2002) Hum Mol Genet 11:2347-2354; Neumann et al. (2002) N Engl J Med 343:1459-1466.) In contrast, somatic mutations of these genes are rare in non-hereditary pheochromocytomas (Maher and Eng, supra), raising the possibility that their functions must be altered during early development for pheochromocytomas to ensue. During embryogenesis most sympathetic neuronal precursor cells undergo c-Jun-dependent apoptosis as growth factors such as NGF become limiting. (Estus et al. (1994) J Cell Biol 127:1717-1727; Ham et al. (1995) Neuron 14:927-939; Schlingensiepen et al. (1994) Cell Mol Neurobiol 14:487-505; Xia et al. (1995) Science 270:1326-1331.) Disease-associated NF1 and c-RET mutations are known or suspected to enhance signaling by NGF receptors and promote neuronal survival. (Dechant (2002) Neuron 33:156-158; Vogel et al. (1995) Cell 82:733-742.) EGLN3 is induced in sympathetic neurons after NGF withdrawal and provokes apoptosis when overexpressed in pheochromocytoma cells. (Lipscomb et al. (1999) J Neurochem 73:429-432; Lipscomb et al. (2001) J Biol Chem 276:11775-11782; Straub et al. (2003) J Neurochem 85:318-328.)
The examples provided herein demonstrate that (1) EGLN3, but not EGLN1, is sufficient to induce neuronal apoptosis and does so in a hydroxylase-dependent manner; (2) EGLN3 acts downstream of c-Jun and is necessary for apoptosis after NGF withdrawal; and (3) SDH inactivation blocks neuronal apoptosis induced by EGLN3 overproduction or NGF withdrawal. Therefore, EGLN3 activity is both necessary and sufficient for the induction of apoptosis, and inhibition of EGLN3 activity, e.g., by inhibiting SDH, can reduce or prevent neuronal apoptosis and thereby reduce or prevent neuronal loss, e.g., due to neurodegenerative disorders.
The examples described herein provide mechanistic links between SDH mutations, EGLN3 activity, and escape from neuronal apoptosis. Inhibition of EGLN3 after SDH inactivation appears to be due to the accumulation of succinate, which can be transported to the cytosol by the dicarboxylate carrier located on the inner mitochondrial membrane. Thus, succinate dehydrogenase inhibitors including, but not limited to, malonic acid, 3-nitroproprionic acid, and theonyl trifluoracetone, can be utilized in the present methods to inhibit EGLN3 enzyme activity.
Additionally, small molecule compounds which may be used in the present methods include 2-oxoglutarate analogs including, but not limited to, dimethyloxalylglycine, N-oxalylglycine, N-oxalyl-2S-alanine, N-oxalyl-2R-alanine, an enantiomer of N-oxalyl-2S-alanine. Other N-oxalyl-amino acid compounds are among the potentially useful inhibitors.
Additional compounds that may be used to inhibit EGLN3 are described in, e.g., Majamaa et al. (1984) Eur J Biochem 138:239-245; Majamaa et al. (1985) Biochem J 229:127-133; Kivirikko, and Myllyharju (1998) Matrix Biol 16:357-368; Bickel et al. (1998) Hepatology 28:404-411; Friedman et al. (2000) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 97:4736-4741; Franklin (1991) Biochem Soc Trans 19):812-815; and Franklin et al. (2001) Biochem J 353:333-338. Additionally, compounds that inhibit EGLN3 can be selected from those described in, e.g., International Publication Nos. WO 03/049686, WO 02/074981, WO 03/080566, and WO 2004/108681.
Additional inhibitors of EGLN3 enzyme activity may be identified using various methods known to those of skill in the art. For example, a screening assay as described in International Publication No. WO 2005/118836 may be used to screen compounds for selective activity against EGLN3. Compounds which may be screened using the assay may be natural or synthetic chemical compounds. Extracts of plants, microbes, or other organisms, which contain several characterized or uncharacterized components may also be used. Combinatorial libraries (including solid phase synthesis and parallel synthesis methodologies) provide an efficient way of testing larges numbers of different substances for ability to modulate hydroxylation. Further, the compounds described above can be similarly tested in various assays to identify those having particular selectivity for EGLN3. Such compounds are particularly advantageous in the present methods to reduce potential undesirable side effects.
The inhibitors of EGLN3 enzyme activity can be used alone or in combination with other compounds used to treat various neurodegenerative disorders. Combination therapies are useful in a variety of situations, including where an effective dose of one or more of the agents used in the combination therapy is associated with undesirable toxicity or side effects when not used in combination. This is because a combination therapy can be used to reduce the required dosage or duration of administration of the individual agents.
Combination therapy can be achieved by administering two or more agents, each of which is formulated and administered separately, or by administering two or more agents in a single formulation. Other combinations are also encompassed by combination therapy. For example, two agents can be formulated together and administered in conjunction with a separate formulation containing a third agent. While the two or more agents in the combination therapy can be administered simultaneously, they need not be. For example, administration of a first agent (or combination of agents) can precede administration of a second agent (or combination of agents) by minutes, hours, days, or weeks. Thus, the two or more agents can be administered within minutes of each other or within 1, 2, 3, 6, 9, 12, 15, 18, or 24 hours of each other or within 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, 10, 12, 14 days of each other or within 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10 weeks of each other. In some cases even longer intervals are possible. While in many cases it is desirable that the two or more agents used in a combination therapy be present within the patient's body at the same time, this need not be so.
Combination therapy can also include two or more administrations of one or more of the agents used in the combination. For example, if agent X and agent Y are used in a combination, one could administer them sequentially in any combination one or more times, e.g., in the order X-Y-X, X-X-Y, Y-X-Y, Y-Y-X, X-X-Y-Y, etc.
The inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity, alone or in combination, can be combined with any pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or medium. Thus, they can be combined with materials that do not produce an adverse, allergic or otherwise unwanted reaction when administered to a patient. The carriers or mediums used can include solvents, dispersants, coatings, absorption promoting agents, controlled release agents, and one or more inert excipients (which include starches, polyols, granulating agents, microcrystalline cellulose, diluents, lubricants, binders, disintegrating agents, and the like), etc. If desired, tablet dosages of the disclosed compositions may be coated by standard aqueous or nonaqueous techniques.
The inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity can be in the form of a pharmaceutically acceptable salt. Such salts are prepared from pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic bases including inorganic bases and organic bases. Examples of salts derived from inorganic bases include aluminum, ammonium, calcium, copper, ferric, ferrous, lithium, magnesium, manganic salts, manganous, potassium, sodium, zinc, and the like. In some embodiments, the salt can be an ammonium, calcium, magnesium, potassium, or sodium salt. Examples of salts derived from pharmaceutically acceptable organic non-toxic bases include salts of primary, secondary, and tertiary amines, benethamine, N,N′-dibenzylethylenediamine, diethylamine, 2-diethylaminoethanol, 2-dimethylaminoethanol, diethanolamine, ethanolamine, ethylenediamine, N-ethylmorpholine, N-ethylpiperidine, epolamine, glucamine, glucosamine, histidine, hydrabamine, isopropylamine, lysine, methylglucamine, meglumine, morpholine, piperazine, piperidine, polyamine resins, procaine, purines, theobromine, triethylamine, trimethylamine, tripropylamine, and trolamine, tromethamine. Examples of other salts include arecoline, arginine, barium, betaine, bismuth, chloroprocaine, choline, clemizole, deanol, imidazole, and morpholineethanol. In one embodiment, salts are tris salts.
The inhibitor of EGLN3 enzyme activity can be administered orally, e.g., as a tablet or cachet containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, pellet, gel, paste, syrup, bolus, electuary, slurry, capsule; powder; granules; as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non-aqueous liquid; as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion, via a liposomal formulation (see, e.g., EP 736299) or in some other form. Orally administered compositions can include binders, lubricants, inert diluents, lubricating, surface active or dispersing agents, flavoring agents, and humectants. Orally administered formulations such as tablets may optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as to provide sustained, delayed or controlled release of the active ingredient therein. The inhibitors can also be administered by captisol delivery technology, rectal suppository or parenterally.
The compositions may also optionally include other therapeutic ingredients, anti-caking agents, preservatives, sweetening agents, colorants, flavors, desiccants, plasticizers, dyes, and the like. The composition may contain other additives as needed, including for example lactose, glucose, fructose, galactose, trehalose, sucrose, maltose, raffinose, maltitol, melezitose, stachyose, lactitol, palatinite, starch, xylitol, mannitol, myoinositol, and the like, and hydrates thereof, and amino acids, for example alanine, glycine and betaine, and peptides and proteins, for example albumen. Examples of excipients for use as the pharmaceutically acceptable carriers and the pharmaceutically acceptable inert carriers and the aforementioned additional ingredients include, but are not limited to binders, fillers, disintegrants, lubricants, anti-microbial agents, and coating agents.
The EGLN3 inhibitors, either in their free form or as a salt, can be combined with a polymer such as polylactic-glycoloic acid (PLGA), poly-(I)-lactic-glycolic-tartaric acid (P(I)LGT) (WO 01/12233), polyglycolic acid (U.S. Pat. No. 3,773,919), polylactic acid (U.S. Pat, No. 4,767,628), poly(ε-caprolactone) and poly(alkylene oxide) (U.S. 2003/0068384) to create a sustained release formulation. Such formulations can be used to implants that release a compound of the invention or another agent over a period of a few days, a few weeks or several months depending on the polymer, the particle size of the polymer, and the size of the implant (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 6,620,422).
The EGLN3 inhibitors can be administered, e.g., by intravenous injection, intramuscular injection, subcutaneous injection, intraperitoneal injection, topical, sublingual, intraarticular (in the joints), intradermal, buccal, ophthalmic (including intraocular), intranasaly (including using a cannula), or by other routes. The inhibitors can be administered orally, e.g., as a tablet or cachet containing a predetermined amount of the active ingredient, gel, pellet, paste, syrup, bolus, electuary, slurry, capsule, powder, granules, as a solution or a suspension in an aqueous liquid or a non-aqueous liquid, as an oil-in-water liquid emulsion or a water-in-oil liquid emulsion, via a micellar formulation (see, e.g. International Publication WO 97/11682) via a liposomal formulation (see, e.g., European Patent 736299, and International Publications WO 99/59550 and WO 97/13500), via formulations described in International Publication WO 03/094886, or in some other form. Orally administered compositions can include binders, lubricants, inert diluents, lubricating, surface active or dispersing agents, flavoring agents, and humectants. Orally administered formulations such as tablets may optionally be coated or scored and may be formulated so as to provide sustained, delayed or controlled release of the active ingredient therein.
The EGLN3 inhibitors can also be administered transdermally (i.e. via reservoir-type or matrix-type patches, microneedles, thermal poration, hypodermic needles, iontophoresis, electroporation, ultrasound or other forms of sonophoresis, jet injection, or a combination of any of the preceding methods (Prausnitz et al. (2004) Nature Rev Drug Discovery 3:115)). The agents can be administered using high-velocity transdermal particle injection techniques using the hydrogel particle formulation described in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2002/0061336. Additional particle formulations are described in International Publications WO 00/45792, WO 00/53160, and WO 02/19989. An example of a transdermal formulation containing plaster and the absorption promoter dimethylisosorbide can be found in International Publication WO 89/04179. International Publication WO 96/11705 provides formulations suitable for transdermal administration. The inhibitors can be administered in the form a suppository or by other vaginal or rectal means. The agents can be administered in a transmembrane formulation as described in International Publication WO 90/07923. The agents can be administered non-invasively via the dehydrated particles described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,485,706. The agent can be administered in an enteric-coated drug formulation as described in International Publication WO 02/49621. The agents can be administered intranasaly using the formulation described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,179,079. Formulations suitable for parenteral injection are described in International Publication WO 00/62759. The agents can be administered using the casein formulation described in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2003/0206939 and International Publication WO 00/06108. The agents can be administered using the particulate formulations described in U.S. Patent Application Publication 2002/0034536.
The inhibitors of EGLN3 enzyme activity, alone or in combination with other suitable components, can be administered by pulmonary route utilizing several techniques including but not limited to intratracheal instillation (delivery of solution into the lungs by syringe), intratracheal delivery of liposomes, insufflation (administration of powder formulation by syringe or any other similar device into the lungs) and aerosol inhalation. Aerosols (e.g., jet or ultrasonic nebulizers, metered-dose inhalers (MDIs), and dry-powder inhalers (DPIs)) can also be used in intranasal applications.
These and other embodiments of the present invention will readily occur to those of ordinary skill in the art in view of the disclosure herein and are specifically contemplated.
The invention is further understood by reference to the following examples, which are intended to be purely exemplary of the invention. The present invention is not limited in scope by the exemplified embodiments, which are intended as illustrations of single aspects of the invention only. Any methods that are functionally equivalent are within the scope of the invention. Various modifications of the invention in addition to those described herein will become apparent to those skilled in the art from the foregoing description and accompanying figures. Such modifications fall within the scope of the appended claims.
The following methods and materials were employed in the examples described below.
The 786-O and A498 renal carcinoma cell line derivatives made by stable transfection or retroviral infection are described elsewhere (Kondo et al. (2003) Cancer Cell 1:237-246; Lonergan et al. (1998) Mol Cell Biol 18:732-741) and were maintained in DMEM containing 10% Fetal Clone (Hyclone, Logan Utah) and, where appropriate, G418 and/or puromycin, in the presence of 10% CO2 at 37° C. Undifferentiated PC12 cells were maintained in DMEM containing 10% Fetal Bovine Serum (Hyclone) and 5% Horse Serum (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis Mo.) in 37° C., 10% C02 incubator.
The human JunB open reading frame cDNA in a Gateway entry plasmid (a gift of Dr. Marc Vidal, Dana-Farber Cancer Institute) was transferred to the Gateway expression vector pDEST47 (Invitrogen Corp., Carlsbad Calif.) by recombination cloning to make pDEST47-JunB. The JunB cDNA was PCR amplified with primer A (5′-ggggacaagtttgtacaaaaaagcaggctatgtgcactaaaatggaacagccct-3′; SEQ ID NO:1) and primer B (5′-ggggaccactttgtacaagaaagctgggtcctagcgcgcgatgcgctccagctt-3′; SEQ ID NO:2) to make the JunBAbZip cDNA, which was transferred to pDEST47 by sequential BP and LR recombination reactions according to manufacturer's instructions (Invitrogen). The human c-RET cDNA, encoding the short 1072 residue c-RET isoform, in a Gateway entry plasmid (a gift of Marc Vidal) was similarly transferred to pDEST47 (Invitrogen) by recombination cloning to make pDEST47-c-RET. The c-RET cDNA was PCR amplified with primer C (5′-ccactgtgcgacgagctgcgccgcacggtgatcgcagcc-3′; SEQ ID NO:3) and primer D (5′-ggctgcgatcaccgtgcggcgcagctcgtcgcacagtgg-3′; SEQ ID NO:4) to make the constitutive active C634R c-RET mutant, which was also transferred to pDEST47.
The pVHL expression plasmids were as described by Hoffman et al. (2001; Hum Mol Genet 10:1019-1027.)
The expression plasmids for HA-EGLN1 (Ivan et al. (2002) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:13459-13464) and HA-HIF2α P405A;P531A (Kondo et al. (2003) PLoS Biol 1:439-444) were described previously and the plasmids for HA-EGLN2, HA-EGLN3, and HA-HIF1α P402A;P564A were made analogously. HA-EGLN3 H196A was generated using site-directed mutagenesis kit (GENEEDITOR; Promega Corp., Madison Wis.). The pcDNA-Myc-JunB was made by PCR amplification of IMAGE-clone MGC 10557 with primers that introduced a 5′ BamHI site and 3′ EcoRI site followed by ligation into 5x-myc-pcDNA3. The plasmid encoding human Δc-Jun, which harbors mutations analogous to the chicken v-Jun mutations, was described before (Wei et al. (2005) Cancer Cell 8:25-33). To make the c-Jun leucine zipper mutant, a c-Jun cDNA corresponding to residues 1-255 was amplified by PCR with primers that introduced a 5′ BamHI site and 3′ EcoRI site and ligated into 5x-myc-pcDNA3. All cDNAs were sequence verified.
Synthetic oligonucleotides were end-labeled with [γ32P] ATP and T4 DNA Kinase (New England Biolabs, Ipswich Mass.) according to the manufacturer's instructions and annealed in vitro for use in electophoretic mobility shift assays containing 5 μg of nuclear extract (9 μg for supershift assays), prepared using a NUCLEAR EXTRACT kit (Active Motif, Carlsbad Calif.), in a final volume of 20 μl in the presence of 10 mM Tris-HCI (pH7.5) 50 mM NaCI, 1 mM EDTA, 10% glycerol, 1 mM DTT and 2 μg of poly(dI-dC). The clusterin promoter-derived EMSA probe sequences (sense strands) were: WT 5′-ttctttgggcgtgagtcatgca-3′ (SEQ ID NO:5), ΔAP1 5′-ttctttgggcgtgaggcatgca-3′ (SEQ ID NO:6), ΔSp1 5′-ttctttgttcgtgagtcatgca-3′ (SEQ ID NO:7). Canonical binding site probe sequences (sense) were: Sp1 5′-attcgatcggggcggggcgagc-3′ (SEQ ID NO:8) and AP1 5′-cgcttgatgagtcagccggaa-3′ (SEQ ID NO:9). Competitor unlabeled probes were annealed in vitro and used at 50-fold molar excess of labeled probe. Supershift assays were performed with polyclonal anti-JunB NUSHIFT antibody (Active Motif) and NUSHIFT kit (Active Motif) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Differential supershifts were not observed with antisera against c-Fos or c-Jun (data not shown).
Twenty μg of nuclear extract per lane, prepared using a NE-PER extraction kit (Pierce Biotechnology, Inc., Rockford Ill.) and measured by the Bradford assay, was resolved on 10% or 12% SDS-PAGE gels and transferred to nitrocellulose membrane (Bio-Rad Laboratories, Hercules Calif.) to detect endogenous JunB and HIF2α. After blocking in TBS with 5% nonfat milk, the membranes were probed with anti-JunB monoclonal antibody (C-11; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Inc., Santa Cruz Calif.) or anti-HIF2α rabbit polyclonal antibody (NB100-122; Novus Biologicals, Inc., Littleton Colo.). Bound protein was detected with a Horseradish Peroxidase (HRP)-conjugated secondary antibodies and an enhanced chemiluminesence kit (Pierce).
HA-EGLN1, HA-EGLN2, HA-EGLN3, HA-H196A and HA-HIF2α were detected in whole cell extracts using polyclonal α-HA (Y-11; Santa Cruz Biotechnology). HA-HIF1α was detected using monoclonal anti-HIF1α (BDB Transduction labs, Lexington Key.). The antibody against rat SM-20 was described previously (Straub et al. (2003) J Neurochem 85:318-328). The antibody against rodent HIF1α, which also recognizes HIF2α (data not shown), was described in Berra et al. (2003; EMBO J 22:4082-4090).
siRNA
Short interfering RNA (siRNA) oligonucleotides were purchased from Dharmacon. Sense strand sequences were: rVHL: 5′-aauguugauggacagccuauu-3′ (SEQ ID NO:10), hVHL #7: 5′-aauguugacggacagccuauu-3 (SEQ ID NO:11), GL3: 5′-cuuacgcugaguacuucgauu-3′ (SEQ ID NO:12), Scramble: 5′-aacagucgcguuugcgacugg-3′ (SEQ ID NO:13), SM20 #1: 5′-cagguuauguucgucaugu-dTdT (SEQ ID NO:14), SM20 #2: 5′-uucuccuggucagaccgca-dTdT (SEQ ID NO:15), SDHD #1: 5′-guugccaugcuguggaagc-dTdT (SEQ ID NO:16), SDHD #2: 5′-uuggacaagugguuacuga-dTdT (SEQ ID NO:17).
In vitro kinase assays were performed as described elsewhere (Standaert et al., 2004) using a rabbit polyclonal antibody that recognizes the C-termini of both PKC-λ and PKC-ζ (Santa Cruz Biotechnology). Immunoprecipitated aPKCs were incubated for 8 min at 30° C. in 100 μl buffer containing 50 mM Tris/HCl (pH,7.5), 100 μM Na3V04, 100 μM Na4P2O7, 1 mM NaF, 100 μM PMSF, 4 μg phosphatidylserine (Sigma-Aldrich), 50 μM [γ-32P]ATP (PerkinElmer Life And Analytical Sciences, Inc., Wellesley Mass.), 5 mM MgCl2 and, as substrate, 40 μM serine analogue of the PKC-ε pseudosubstrate (Invitrogen). After incubation, 32P-labeled substrate was trapped on P-81 filter papers and counted.
Undifferentiated PC12 cells were plated onto collagen-coated 6-well plates 1 day before transfection with LIPOFECTAMINE 2000 reagent (Invitrogen) according to the manufacturer's instructions. Transfection mixes contained 500 ng of a plasmid encoding GFP-Histone (a gift of Dr. Geoffrey M. Wahl, The Salk Institute for Biological Studies), 1 μg of the cDNA expression plasmid of interest and, where indicated, 100 nM of siRNA. 48 hours later the cells were trypsinized, transferred to collagen-coated p100 dishes, and grown in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) supplemented with 1% horse serum and NGF (50 ng/ml) for 5-7 days. For NGF withdrawal cells were washed once with serum-free medium followed by incubation in NGF-free medium containing a neutralizing antibody against the 2.5S and 7S forms of NGF (Accurate Chemical & Scientific Corp., Westbury N.Y.) at a 1:400 dilution. Control cells were washed once in NGF-free medium and then returned to NGF-containing medium. Nuclei that were condensed or fragmented were scored as apoptotic. Approximately 400 cells were scored for each set of conditions and all assays were performed in triplicate.
Sympathetic neurons were isolated from the superior cervical ganglia (SCG) as described by Palmada et al. (2002; J Cell Biol 158:453-461). Briefly, SCG from Sprague-Dawley rats were isolated at postnatal day 4, and sympathetic neurons were dissociated with 0.25% trypsin and 0.3% collagenase for 30 min at 37° C. After dissociation, the neurons were electroporated with pmax-GFP alone (Amaxa, Inc., Gaithersburg Md.) or pmax-GFP along with JunB expression plasmid according to the manufacturer's instructions (rat neuron NUCLEOFECTOR kit; Amaxa). The neurons were then cultured on poly-L-ornithine and laminin coated 4 well slides (Nalge Nunc International, Rochester N.Y.) in ULTRACULTURE medium (BioWhittaker, Inc., Walkersville Md.) supplemented with 3% fetal calf serum (Invitrogen), 2 mM L-glutamine (Invitrogen), and 20 ng/ml NGF (Harlan, Indianapolis Ind.). The neurons were maintained for 3 days in the presence of NGF and then washed twice in ULTRACULTURE medium lacking NGF, once with ULTRACULTURE containing an antibody to NGF at 0.1 μg/ml (Chemicon International, Temecula Calif.), and returned to NGF-free media. The cells were fixed in paraformaldehyde 48 hours later and the number of GFP positive neurons with apoptotic nuclei, identified by DAPI staining (Vector Laboratories, Burlingame Calif.), were counted. At least 75 neurons were evaluated for each condition.
Hydroxylation assays were performed essentially as described by Ivan et al. (2002; Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 99:13459-13464).
PC12 cells were incubated for 1 hr with 5 μM CM-H2DCFDA (Molecular Probes), harvested, resuspended at 106 cells/ml in PBS supplemented with 7% FBS, and analyzed by FACS.
The HRE reporter was described in Kondo et al. (2002; Cancer Cell 1:237-246). The SM20 promoter reporter was described in Menzies et al. (2004; Biochem Biophys Res Commun 317:801-810). Luciferase assays were performed in triplicate using a luciferase dual reporter assay system (Promega).
The Adenovirus encoding c-Jun was described by Yu et al. (2001; Circulation 104:1557-1563).
Total RNAs were extracted with RNeasy Mini Kit (Qiagen, Inc., Valencia Calif.). cDNA synthesis and PCR amplification were performed with Superscript One-Step RT-PCR (Invitrogen) using 1 μg total RNA. EGLN3 cDNA was amplified with sense primer (5′-gcgtctccaagcgaca; SEQ ID NO: 18) and antisense primer (5′-gtcttcagtgagggcaga; SEQ ID NO: 19) for 32 cycles. As a control, GAPDH cDNA was also amplified with sense primer (5′-ctacactgagcaccaggtggtctc; SEQ ID NO:20) and antisense primer (5′-gatggatacatgacaaggtgcggc; SEQ ID NO:21). 10 μl aliquots of the PCR reaction (50 μl) were separated on a 2% agarose gel.
The von Hippel Lindau protein (pVHL) is part of an E3 ubiquitin ligase complex that targets proteins, particularly the alpha subunit of the heterodimeric transcription factor HIF (hypoxia-inducible factor), for degradation. Mutations in pVHL result in abnormal growth of blood vessels in various organs, and can lead to hemangioblastomas and renal cell carcinomas. Certain mutations in pVHL, referred to as Type 2 pVHL mutants, are associated with a high incidence of pheochromocytomas. Although most mutations in pVHL lead to increased levels of HIF, Type 2C pVHL mutants show normal regulation of HIF. Although HIF is the most well characterized target, other proteins appear to be regulated by pVHL. For example, although mRNA levels for the secreted protein clusterin were attenuated in VHL (−/−) renal carcinoma cells, clusterin did not behave like a HIF target and Type 2C pVHL mutants, in contrast to wild-type pVHL, did not restore clusterin expression when reintroduced into such cells. The clusterin promoter contains binding sites for Myb, AP-1, and Sp1. (Cervellera et al. (2000) J Biol Chem 275:21055-21060; Herault et al. (1992); Nucleic Acids Res 20:6377-6383; Jin and Howe (1997) J Biol Chem 272:26620-26626.) We found that wild-type, but not mutant, pVHL activated luciferase reporter plasmids containing the clusterin promoter unless the AP-1 site was destroyed (data not shown). This led us to examine the status of specific AP-1 family members in cells that do or do not contain wild-type pVHL. In electrophoretic mobility shift assays (EMSA) we detected increased API activity (
786-O VHL (−/−) cells produce HIF2α but not HIF1α. (Maxwell et al. (1999) Nature 399:271-275.) Type 2C pVHL mutants normalize HIF2α levels when reintroduced into 786-O cells (Clifford et al. (2001) Hum Mol Genet 10:1029-1038; Hoffman et al. (2001) Hum Mol Genet 10:1019-1027) (see also
The increased JunB protein levels observed in pVHL-defective cells, including those producing Type 2C mutants, was associated with an ˜2-3 fold increase in JunB mRNA levels (
Pheochromocytoma cells are derived from sympathetic neuronal precursor cells and PC12 rat pheochromocytoma cells, which are VHL +/+, have been used as a model to study the regulation of neuronal survival by Nerve Growth Factor (NGF). During normal neuronal development many cells undergo apoptosis as they compete for NGF. Loss of NGF leads to activation of c-Jun and the induction of apoptosis. (Ham et al. (1995) Neuron 14:927-939; Palmada et al. (2002) J Cell Biol 158:453-461; Schlingensiepen et al. (1994) Cell Mol Neurobiol 14:487-505; Xia et al. (1995) Science 270:1326-1331.) PC12 cells resemble differentiated sympathetic neurons when grown under low serum conditions in the presence of NGF, displaying plasma membrane ruffling, cellular flattening and enlargement, and formation of stable neurites (Greene (1978) J Cell Biol 78:747-755; Greene and Tischler (1976) Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 73:2424-2428) (
JunB was downregulated after NGF withdrawal from PC12 cells (
EGLN3, which in rat cells is called SM-20, was rapidly induced in PC12 cells after NGF withdrawal and killed these cells when ectopically expressed (Lipscomb et al. (1999) J Neurochem 73:429-432; Lipscomb et al. (2001) J Biol Chem 276:11775-11782; Straub et al. (2003) J Neurochem 85:318-328) (
EGLN1, and not EGLN3, appears to be the primary HIF prolyl hydroxylase under normal conditions in cells. (Berra et al. (2003) EMBO J 22:4082-4090.) Moreover, EGLN3-induced apoptosis was not diminished when PC12 cells were cotransfected to produce HIF1α or HIF2α variants that can not be hydroxylated on proline (
EGLN3/SM20-prolyl hydroxylase activity is required for apoptosis after NGF withdrawal. Transfection of PC12 cells with SM-20 siRNAs, but not various irrelevant or scrambled siRNAs, prior to differentiation and NGF withdrawal substantially decreased apoptosis (
Prolyl hydroxylation by EGLN family members, which belong to a superfamily of 2-oxoglutarate-dependent dioxygenases, is coupled to conversion of 2-oxoglutarate (2-OG) into succinate. (Aravind and Koonin (2001) Genome Biol 2:RESEARCH0007; Gunzler and Weidmann (1998) In: Prolyl Hvdroxylase, Protein Disulfide Isomerase, and Other Structurally Related Proteins. (Guzman, Ed.) Marcel Dekker, Inc., New York N.Y., pp. 65-95; Schofield and Zhang (1999) Curr Opin Struct Biol 9:722-731.) SDH is an inner mitochondrial membrane enzyme that oxidizes succinate into fumarate as part of the Krebs cycle and also participates in electron transport. Two predictable outcomes of SDH inactivation would be the accumulation of succinate, which feedback inhibits 2-OG-dependent dioxygenases such as collagen prolyl hydroxylase and thymine-7-hydroxylase in vitro (Holme (1975) Biochemistry 14:4999-5003; Myllyla et al. (1977) Eur J Biochem 80:349-357), and increased production of reactive oxygen species (Lenaz et al. (2004) Biochim Biophys Acta 1658:89-94; McLennan and Degli Esposti (2000) J Bioenerg Biomembr 32-153-162; Yankovskaya et al. (2003) Science 299:700-704), which can inhibit EGLN activity (Gerald et al. (2004) Cell 118:781-794). To test whether succinate can also inhibit EGLN3 prolyl hydroxylase activity, we exploited the fact that EGLN3 can hydroxylate a HIF1α-derived peptide in vitro, as determined by capture of 35S-labeled pVHL. (Bruick and McKnight (2001) Science 294:1337-1340; Epstein et al. (2001) Cell 107:43-54.) As predicted, EGLN3 hydroxylase activity was diminished in the face of increasing amount of succinate (
Motivated by these findings, we asked whether SDH activity influences EGLN3-induced apoptosis by cotransfecting undifferentiated PC12 cells with plasmids encoding HA-EGLN3 and GFP-Histone in the presence or absence of pharmacological SDH inhibitors. Three different inhibitors, malonic-Acid (MA), 3-nitroproprionic acid (3-NPA), and thenoyl trifluoroacetone (TTFA), conferred substantial protection against EGLN3-induced apoptosis (
To assess the role of SDH in neuronal apoptosis in a more physiological context, we next transfected PC12 cells with the GFP-histone plasmid along with siRNAs prior to NGF treatment and withdrawal. Two different SDH D siRNAs, but not various control siRNAs, dramatically decreased apoptosis after NGF withdrawal (
We next asked if SM20/EGLN3 and c-Jun function in the same pathway. Apoptosis induced by overexpression of EGLN3 in PC12 cells, in contrast to that induced by NGF withdrawal, was not reduced by co-expression of the c-Jun antagonist JunB (
EGLN3 is induced by NGF withdrawal but also by HIF. (Aprelikova et al. (2004) J Cell Biochem 92:491-501; Cioffi et al. (2003) Biochem Biophys Res Commun 303:947-953; del Peso et al. (2003) J Biol Chem 278:48690-48695; Marxsen et al. (2004) Biochem J 381:761-767.) Therefore, pVHL has opposing effects on EGLN3 and the balance of those effects might dictate the risk of developing pheochromocytoma. In support of this, we detected high basal EGLN3 mRNA and protein levels in 786-O cells producing Type I pVHL mutants (as well as in 786-O cells stably transfected with an empty vector), which are associated with a low risk of pheochromocytoma, and low EGLN3 levels in 786-O cells producing Type 2 pVHL mutants, which are associated with a high risk of pheochromocytoma (
In experiments comparable to those described in Example 4, expression of EGLN3 induced apoptosis in a variety of murine and human cell lines of neural crest origin including cells derived from pheochromocytomas, neuroblastomas, and melanomas (see, e.g.,
A number of embodiments of the invention have been described. Nevertheless, it will be understood that various modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. Accordingly, other embodiments are within the scope of the following claims.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/698,879, filed Jul. 13, 2005, incorporated by reference herein in its entirety.
Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
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PCT/US2006/027210 | 7/13/2006 | WO | 00 | 6/15/2009 |
Number | Date | Country | |
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60698879 | Jul 2005 | US |