Inorganic-hydrogen-polymer and hydrogen-polymer compounds and applications thereof

Abstract

Compounds are provided comprising at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species having a binding energy greater than its corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or greater than any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed. Compounds comprise at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. One group of such compounds contains one or more increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from the group consisting of Hn, Hn−, and Hn+ where n is a positive integer, with the proviso that n is greater than 1 when H has a positive charge. Another group of such compounds may have the formula [MHmM′X]n wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. Applications of the compounds include use in batteries, fuel cells, cutting materials, light weight high strength structural materials and synthetic fibers, corrosion resistant coatings, heat resistant coatings, xerographic compounds, proton source, photoluminescent compounds, phosphors for lighting, ultraviolet and visible light source, photoconductors, photovoltaics, chemiluminescent compounds, fluorescent compounds, optical coatings, optical filters, extreme ultraviolet laser media, fiber optic cables, magnets and magnetic computer storage media, superconductors, and etching agents, masking agents, agents to purify silicon, dopants in semiconductor fabrication, cathodes for thermionic generators, fuels, explosives, and propellants. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds are useful in chemical synthetic processing methods and refining methods. The increased binding energy hydrogen ion has application as the negative ion of the electrolyte of a high voltage electrolytic cell. The selectivity of increased binding energy hydrogen species in forming bonds with specific isotopes provides a means to purify desired isotopes of elements.

Description

I. INTRODUCTION

1. Field of the Invention

This invention relates to novel compositions of matter comprising new forms of hydrogen.

2. Background of the Invention

2.1 Hydrinos

A hydrogen atom having a binding energy given by

$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{Binding}\mathrm{Energy}=\frac{13.6\mathrm{eV}}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^2}& \left(1\right)\end{array}$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200, is disclosed in Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, September 1996 Edition (“'96 Mills GUT”), provided by BlackLight Power, Inc., Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa. 19355; and in prior applications PCT/US98/14029, PCT/US96/07949, PCT/US94/02219, PCT/US91/8496, and PCT/US90/1998, the entire disclosures of which are all incorporated herein by reference (hereinafter “Mills Prior Publications”). The binding energy, of an atom, ion or molecule, also known as the ionization energy, is the energy required to remove one electron from the atom, ion or molecule.

A hydrogen atom having the binding energy given in Eq. (1) is hereafter referred to as a hydrino atom or hydrino. The designation for a hydrino of radius a_H/p, where a_H is the radius of an ordinary hydrogen atom and p is an integer, is

$H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right].$

A hydrogen atom with a radius a_H is hereinafter referred to as “ordinary hydrogen atom” or “normal hydrogen atom.” Ordinary atomic hydrogen is characterized by its binding energy of 13.6 eV.

Hydrinos are formed by reacting an ordinary hydrogen atom with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about

m·27.21 eV  (2)

where m is an integer. It is believed that the rate of catalysis is increased as the net enthalpy of reaction is more closely matched to m·27.21 eV. It has been found that catalysts having a net enthalpy of reaction within ±10%, preferably ±5%, of m·27.21 eV are suitable for most applications.

This catalysis releases energy from the hydrogen atom with a commensurate decrease in size of the hydrogen atom, r_n=na_H. For example, the catalysis of H(n=1) to H(n=½) releases 40.8 eV, and the hydrogen radius decreases from a_H to

$\frac{1}{2}a_H.$

One such catalytic system involves potassium. The second ionization energy of potassium is 31.63 eV; and K⁺ releases 4.34 eV when it is reduced to K. The combination of reactions K⁺ to K²⁺ and K⁺ to K, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.28 eV, which is equivalent to m=1 in Eq. (2).

$\begin{array}{cc}27.28\mathrm{eV}+K^{+}+K^{+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to K^{+}K^{2+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(3\right)\\ K+K^{2+}\to K^{+}+K^{+}+27.28\mathrm{eV}& \left(4\right)\end{array}$

The overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(5\right)\end{array}$

Rubidium ion (Rb⁺) is also a catalyst because the second ionization energy of rubidium is 27.28 eV. In this case, the catalysis reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}27.28\mathrm{eV}+{\mathrm{Rb}}^{+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to {\mathrm{Rb}}^{2+}+e^{-}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(6\right)\\ {\mathrm{Rb}}^{2+}+e^{-}\to {\mathrm{Rb}}^{+}+27.28\mathrm{eV}& \left(7\right)\end{array}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(8\right)\end{array}$

The energy given off during catalysis is much greater than the energy lost to the catalyst. The energy released is large as compared to conventional chemical reactions. For example, when hydrogen and oxygen gases undergo combustion to form water

$\begin{array}{cc}{H}_2\left(g\right)+\frac{1}{2}O_2\left(g\right)\to H_2O\left(l\right)& \left(9\right)\end{array}$

the known enthalpy of formation of water is ΔH_f=−286 kJ/mole or 1.48 eV per hydrogen atom. By contrast, each (n=1) ordinary hydrogen atom undergoing catalysis releases a net of 40.8 eV. Moreover, further catalytic transitions may occur:

$n=\frac{1}{2}\to \frac{1}{3},\frac{1}{3}\to \frac{1}{4},\frac{1}{4}\to \frac{1}{5},$

and so on. Once catalysis begins, hydrinos autocatalyze further in a process called disproportionation. This mechanism is similar to that of an inorganic ion catalysis. But, hydrino catalysis should have a higher reaction rate than that of the inorganic ion catalyst due to the better match of the enthalpy to m·27.2 eV.

2.2 Hydride Ions

A hydride ion comprises two indistinguishable electrons bound to a proton. Alkali and alkaline earth hydrides react violently with water to release hydrogen gas which burns in air ignited by the heat of the reaction with water. Typically metal hydrides decompose upon heating at a temperature well below the melting point of the parent metal.

II. SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

An objective of the present invention is to provide novel compounds that can be used in batteries, fuel cells, cutting materials, light weight high strength structural materials and synthetic fibers, corrosion resistant coatings, heat resistant coatings, xerographic compounds, proton source, photoluminescent compounds, phosphors for lighting, ultraviolet and visible light source, photoconductors, photovoltaics, chemiluminescent compounds, fluorescent compounds, optical coatings, optical filters, extreme ultraviolet laser media, fiber optic cables, magnets and magnetic computer storage media, superconductors, and etching agents, masking agents, agents to purify silicon, dopants in semiconductor fabrication, cathodes for thermionic generators, fuels, explosives, and propellants.

Another objective is to provide compounds which may be useful in chemical synthetic processing methods and refining methods.

A further objective is to provide the negative ion of the electrolyte of a high voltage electrolytic cell.

A further objective is to provide a compound having a selective reactivity in forming bonds with specific isotopes to provide a means to purify desired isotopes of elements.

The above objectives and other objectives are achieved by novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy

• • (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or
  • (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions (standard temperature and pressure, STP), or is negative; and

(b) at least one other element. The compounds of the invention are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

By “other element” in this context is meant an element other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species. Thus, the other element can be an ordinary hydrogen species, or any element other than hydrogen. In one group of compounds, the other element and the increased binding energy hydrogen species are neutral. In another group of compounds, the other element and increased binding energy hydrogen species are charged such that the other element provides the balancing charge to form a neutral compound. The former group of compounds is characterized by molecular and coordinate bonding; the latter group is characterized by ionic bonding.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy

• • (i) greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or
  • (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or is negative; and

(b) at least one other element.

The total energy of the hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the hydrogen species. The hydrogen species according to the present invention has a total energy greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. The hydrogen species having an increased total energy according to the present invention is also referred to as an “increased binding energy hydrogen species” even though some embodiments of the hydrogen rim species having an increased total energy may have a first electron binding energy less that the first electron binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species. For example, the hydride ion of Eq. (10) for p=24 has a first binding energy that is less than the first binding energy of ordinary hydride ion, while the total energy of the hydride ion of Eq. (10) for p=24 is much greater than the total energy of the corresponding ordinary hydride ion.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a binding energy

• • (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or
  • (ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the invention are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be formed by reacting one or more hydrino atoms with one or more of an electron, hydrino atom, a compound containing at least one of said increased binding energy hydrogen species, and at least one other atom, molecule, or ion other than an increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Also provided are novel compounds and molecular ions comprising

(a) a plurality of neutral, positive, or negative hydrogen species (hereinafter “increased binding energy hydrogen species”) having a total energy

• • (i) greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen, or
  • (ii) greater than the total energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' total energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions or is negative; and

(b) optionally one other element. The compounds of the invention are hereinafter referred to as “increased binding energy hydrogen compounds”.

The total energy of the increased total energy hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the increased total energy hydrogen species. The total energy of the ordinary hydrogen species is the sum of the energies to remove all of the electrons from the ordinary hydrogen species. The increased total energy hydrogen species is referred to as an increased binding energy hydrogen species, even though some of the increased binding energy. hydrogen species may have a first electron binding energy less than the first electron binding energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen. However, the total energy of the increased binding energy hydrogen species is much greater than the total energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen.

In one embodiment of the invention, the increased binding energy hydrogen species can be H_n, and H_n⁻ where n is a positive integer, or H_n⁺ where n is a positive integer greater than one. Preferably, the increased binding energy hydrogen species is H_n and H_n⁻ where n is an integer from one to about 1×10⁶, more preferably one to about 1×10⁴, even more preferably one to about 1×10², and most preferably one to about 10, and H_n⁺ where n is an integer from two to about 1×10⁶, more preferably two to about 1×10⁴, even more preferably two to about 1×10², and most preferably two to about 10. A specific example of H_n⁻ is H₁₆⁻.

In an embodiment of the invention, the increased binding energy hydrogen species can be H_n^m− where n and m are positive integers and H_n^m+ where n and m are positive integers with m<n. Preferably, the increased binding energy hydrogen species is H_n^m− where n is an integer from one to about 1×10⁶, more preferably one to about 1×10⁴, even more preferably one to about 1×10², and most preferably one to about 10 and m is an integer from one to 100, one to ten, and H_n^m+ where n is an integer from two to about 1×10⁶, more preferably two to about 1×10⁴, even more preferably two to about 1×10², and most preferably two to about 10 and m is one to about 100, preferably one to ten.

According to a preferred embodiment of the invention, a compound is provided, comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species selected from the group consisting of (a) hydride ion having a binding energy according to Eq. (10) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 up to 23, and less for p=24 (“increased binding energy hydride ion” or “hydrino hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom having a binding energy greater than the binding energy of ordinary hydrogen atom (about 13.6 eV) (“increased binding energy hydrogen atom” or “hydrino”); (c) hydrogen molecule having a first binding energy greater than about 15.5 eV (“increased binding energy hydrogen molecule” or “dihydrino”); and (d) molecular hydrogen ion having a binding energy greater than about 16.4 eV (“increased binding energy molecular hydrogen ion” or “dihydrino molecular ion”).

The compounds of the present invention are capable of exhibiting one or more unique properties which distinguishes them from the corresponding compound comprising ordinary hydrogen, if such ordinary hydrogen compound exists. The unique properties include, for example, (a) a unique stoichiometry; (b) unique chemical structure; (c) one or more extraordinary chemical properties such as conductivity, melting point, boiling point, density, and refractive index; (d) unique reactivity to other elements and compounds; (e) enhanced stability at room temperature and above; and/or (f) enhanced stability in air and/or water. Methods for distinguishing the increased binding energy hydrogen-containing compounds from compounds of ordinary hydrogen include: 1.) elemental analysis, 2.) solubility, 3.) reactivity, 4.) melting point, 5.) boiling point, 6.) vapor pressure as a function of temperature, 7.) refractive index, 8.) X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS), 9.) gas chromatography, 10.) X-ray diffraction (XRD), 11.) calorimetry, 12.) infrared spectroscopy (IR), 13.) Raman spectroscopy, 14.) Mossbauer spectroscopy, 15.) extreme ultraviolet (EUV) emission and absorption spectroscopy, 16.) ultraviolet (UV) emission and absorption spectroscopy, 17.) visible emission and absorption spectroscopy, 18.) nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy, 19.) gas phase mass spectroscopy of a heated sample (solids probe and direct exposure probe quadrapole and magnetic sector mass spectroscopy), 20.) time-of-flight-secondary-ion-mass-spectroscopy (TOFSIMS), 21.) electrospray-ionization-time-of-flight-mass-spectroscopy (ESITOFMS), 22.) thermogravimetric analysis (TGA), 23.) differential thermal analysis (DTA), 24.) differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), 25.) liquid chromatography/mass spectroscopy (LCMS), and/or 26.) gas chromatography/mass spectroscopy (GCMS).

According to the present invention, a hydrino hydride ion (H⁻) having a binding energy according to Eq. (10) that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 up to 23, and less for p=24 (H⁻) is provided. For p=2 to p=24 of Eq. (10), the hydride ion binding energies are respectively 3, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.5, 72.4, 71.5, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.6, 19.2, and 0.65 eV. Compositions comprising the novel hydride ion are also provided.

The binding energy of the novel hydrino hydride ion can be represented by the following formula:

$\begin{array}{cc}\mathrm{Binding}\mathrm{Energy}=\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{8{\mu }_e{a_0^2\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^2}-\frac{{\mathrm{\pi \mu }}_0e^2{\hslash }^2}{m_e^2a_0^3}\left(1+\frac{2^2}{{\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^3}\right)& \left(10\right)\end{array}$

where p is an integer greater than one, s=½, π is pi,  is Planck's constant bar, μ_o is the permeability of vacuum, m_e is the mass of the electron, μ_e is the reduced electron mass, a_o is the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge.

The hydrino hydride ion of the present invention can be formed by the reaction of an electron source with a hydrino, that is, a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6\mathrm{eV}}{n^2},\mathrm{where}n=\frac{1}{p}$

and p is an integer greater than 1. The hydrino hydride ion is represented by H⁻(n=1/p) or H⁻(1/p):

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]+e^{-}\to H^{-}\left(n=1/p\right)& \left(11\right)a\\ H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]+e^{-}\to H^{-}\left(1/p\right)& \left(11\right)b\end{array}$

The hydrino hydride ion is distinguished from an ordinary hydride ion comprising an ordinary hydrogen nucleus and two electrons having a binding energy of about 0.8 eV. The latter is hereafter referred to as “ordinary hydride ion” or “normal hydride ion” The hydrino hydride ion comprises a hydrogen nucleus including proteum, deuterium, or tritium, and two indistinguishable electrons at a binding energy according to Eq. (10).

The binding energies of the hydrino hydride ion, H⁻(n=1/p) as a function of p, where p is an integer, are shown in TABLE 1.

TABLE 1
The representative binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion
H−(n = 1/p) as a function of p, Eq. (10).
		r1	Binding	Wavelength
	Hydride Ion	(a0)a	Energyb (eV)	(nm)
	H−(n = 1/2)	0.9330	3.047	407
	H−(n = 1/3)	0.6220	6.610	188
	H−(n = 1/4)	0.4665	11.23	110
	H−(n = 1/5)	0.3732	16.70	74.2
	H−(n = 1/6)	0.3110	22.81	54.4
	H−(n = 1/7)	0.2666	29.34	42.3
	H−(n = 1/8)	0.2333	36.08	34.4
	H−(n = 1/9)	0.2073	42.83	28.9
	H−(n = 1/10)	0.1866	49.37	25.1
	H−(n = 1/11)	0.1696	55.49	22.3
	H−(n = 1/12)	0.1555	60.97	20.3
	H−(n = 1/13)	0.1435	65.62	18.9
	H−(n = 1/14)	0.1333	69.21	17.9
	H−(n = 1/15)	0.1244	71.53	17.3
	H−(n = 1/16)	0.1166	72.38	17.1
	aEquation (33), infra.
	bEquation (34), infra.

Novel compounds are provided comprising one or more hydrino hydride ions and one or more other elements. Such a compound is referred to as a hydrino hydride compound.

Ordinary hydrogen species are characterized by the following binding energies (a) hydride ion, 0.754 eV (“ordinary hydride ion”); (b) hydrogen atom (“ordinary hydrogen atom”), 13.6 eV; (c) diatomic hydrogen molecule, 15.46 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecule”); *(d) hydrogen molecular ion, 16.4 eV (“ordinary hydrogen molecular ion”); and (e) H₃⁺, 22.6 eV (“ordinary trihydrogen molecular ion”). Herein, with reference to forms of hydrogen, “normal” and “ordinary” are synonymous.

According to a further preferred embodiment of the invention, a compound is provided comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species such as (a) a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6\mathrm{eV}}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^2},$

preferably within ±10%, more preferably ±5%, where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200; (b) a hydride ion (H⁻) having a binding energy of about

$\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{8{\mu }_e{a_0^2\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^2}-\frac{{\mathrm{\pi \mu }}_0e^2{\hslash }^2}{m_e^2a_0^3}\left(1+\frac{2^2}{{\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^3}\right),$

preferably within ±10%, more preferably ±5%, where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200, s=½, π is pi,  is Planck's constant bar, μ_o is the permeability of vacuum, m_e is the mass of the electron, μ_e is the reduced electron mass, a_o is the Bohr radius, and e is the elementary charge; (c) H₄⁺(1/p); (d) a trihydrino molecular ion, H₃⁺(1/p), having a binding energy of about

$\frac{22.6}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^2}\mathrm{eV}$

preferably within ±10%, more preferably ±5%, where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200; (e) a dihydrino having a binding energy of about

$\frac{15.5}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^{2}}\mathrm{eV}$

preferably within ±10%, more preferably ±5%, where p is an integer, preferably and integer from 2 to 200; (f) a dihydrino molecular ion with a binding energy of about

$\frac{16.4}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^{2}}\mathrm{eV}$

preferably within ±10%, more preferably ±5%, where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200.

The compounds of the present invention are preferably greater than 50 atomic percent pure. More preferably, the compounds are greater than 90 atomic percent pure. Most preferably, the compounds are greater than 98 atomic percent pure.

According to one embodiment of the invention wherein the compound comprises a negatively charged increased binding energy hydrogen species, the compound further comprises one or more cations, such as a proton, ordinary H₂⁺, or ordinary H₃⁺.

The compounds of the invention further comprise one or more normal hydrogen atoms and/or normal hydrogen molecules, in addition to the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MXM′H_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, M′ is Si, Al, Ni, a transition element, an inner transition element, or a rare earth element, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MAlH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is a transition element, an inner transition element, a rare earth element, or Ni, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MNiH_n wherein n is an w integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, silicon, or aluminum, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MM′H_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, silicon, or aluminum, M′ is a transition element, inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MXAlX′H_n wherein n is 1 or 2,

M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are either a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula TiH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 4, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula AlH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 4, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula Al₂H_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 4, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula [KH_mKCO₃]_n wherein m and n are each an integer, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula [KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻ wherein m and n are each an integer, X is a singly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula [KHKNO₃]_n wherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula [KHKOH]_n wherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound including an anion or cation may have the formula [MH_mM′X]_n wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound including an anion or cation may have the formula [MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound including an anion or cation may have the formula [MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound including an anion or cation may have the formula [MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M is alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound including an anion or cation may have the formula [MH_m]_n^m′−n′m′⁺ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M and M′ are an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H_m of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M⁺(H₁₆)_n⁻ wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and the hydrogen content (H₁₆)_n⁻ of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M⁺(H₁₆)_n⁻ wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₆)_n⁻ of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₆)_n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₆)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₆)_n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₆)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₂₄)_n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₂₄)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₂₄)_n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₂₄)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₆₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₆₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₆₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₆₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₇₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₇₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₇₀)_n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₇₀)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, the monomers may be arranged in any order, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u wherein q, r, s, and t are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, the monomers may be arranged in any order, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula MX wherein M is positive, neutral, or negative such as H₁₆, H₁₆H, H₁₆H₂, H₂₄H₂₃, OH₂₂, OH₂₃, OH₂₄, MgH₂H₁₆, NaH₃H₁₆, H₂₄H₂O, CNH₁₆, CH₃₀, SiH₄H₁₆, (H₁₆)₃H₁₅, SiH₄(H₁₆)₂, (H₁₆)₄, H₇₀, Si₂H₆H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂H₁₆, SiH₄(H₁₆)₃, CH₇₀, NH₆₉, NH₇₀, NHH₇₀, OH₇₀, H₂OH₇₀, FH₇₀, H₃OH₇₀, SiH₂H₆₀, Si(H₁₆)₃H₁₅, Si(H₁₆)₄, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂, SiH₃(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂, O₂(H₁₆)₄, SiH₄(H₁₆)₄, NOH₇₀, O₂H₆₉, HONH₇₀, O₂H₇₀, H₂ONH₇₀, H₃O₂H₇₀, Si₂H₆(H₂₄)₂, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₃, (SiH₄)₃H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₃, (OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, (OH₂₄)H₁₆H₇₀, Si₂H₁₀(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇₀, Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₄, NaOSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, NaKHH₇₀, Si₂H₇(H₇₀), Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₃, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄H₁₆, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₃, Na₂₀SiH₂(H₁₆)₄, Si₃H₈(H₁₆)₄, Na₂KHH₇₀, Si₃H(H₁₆)₄, Na₂HKHH₇₀, SO(H₁₆),(H₁₅), SH₂(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₇, Mg₂H₂H₂₃H₁₆H₇₀, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₄, KH₃O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, KH₅O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, K(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, K₂OHH₇₀, NaKHO₂H₇₀, NaOHNaO₂H₇₀, HNO₃O₂H₇₀, Rb(H₁₆)₅, Si₂H₁₁H₇₀, KNO₂(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₃, KKH(H₁₆)₇, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₄, (KH₂)₂(H₁₆)₃H₇₀, (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, Si₅OH₁₀₂, (SiH₃)₇(H₁₆)₅, Na₃O₃(SiH₃)₁₀SiH(H₁₆)₅, X is other element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

The compound may have the formula MX wherein M is positive, neutral, or negative such as H₁₆, H₁₆H, H₁₆H₂, H₂₄H₂₃, OH₂₂, OH₂₃, OH₂₄, MgH₂H₁₆, NaH₃H₁₆, H₂₄H₂O, CNH₁₆, CH₃₀, SiH₄H₁₆ (H₁₆)₃H₁₅, SiH₄(H₁₆)₂, (H₁₆)₄, H₇₀, Si₂H₆H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂H₁₆, SiH₄(H₁₆)₃, CH₇₀, NH₆₉, NH₇₀, NHH₇₀, OH₇₀, H₂OH₇₀, FH₇₀, H₃OH₇₀, SiH₂H₆₀, Si(H₁₆)₃H₁₅, Si(H₁₆)₄, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂, SiH₃(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂, O₂(H₁₆)₄, SiH₄(H₁₆)₄, NOH₇₀, O₂H₆₉, HONH₇₀, O₂H₇₀, H₂ONH₇₀, H₃O₂H₇₀, Si₂H₆(H₂₄)₂, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₃, (SiH₄)₃H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₃, (OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, (OH₂₄)H₁₆H₇₀, Si₃H₁₀O(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇₀, Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₄, NaOSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, NaKHH₇₀, Si₂H₇(H₇₀), Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₃, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄H₁₆, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₃, Na₂OSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, Si₃H₈(H₁₆)₄, NaKHH₇₀, Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₄, Na₂HKHH₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₆(H₁₅), SH₂(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₇, Mg₂H₂H₂₃H₁₆H₇₀, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₄, KH₃O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, KH₅O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, K(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, K₂OHH₇₀, NaKHO₂H₇₀, NaOHNaO₂H₇₀, HNO₃O₂H₇₀, Rb(H₁₆)₅, Si₃H₁₁H₇₀, KNO₂(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₃, KKH(H₁₆)₇, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₄, (KH₂)₂(H₁₆)₃H₇₀, (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, Si₅OH₁₀₂, (SiH₃)₇(H₁₆)₅, Na₃O₃(SiH₃)₁₀SiH(H₁₆)₅, X is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M⁺(H_x)_n⁻ wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n⁻ of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M⁺(H_x)_n⁻ wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n⁻ of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 22 to 26, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 22 to 26, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 58 to 62, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 58 to 62, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 68 to 72, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_n wherein n is an 0.5 integer, x is an integer from 68 to 72, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, the monomers may be arranged in any order, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The compound may have the formula M(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, the monomers may be arranged in any order, and the hydrogen content (H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_t wherein p, q, r, s, and t are integers, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_t wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, and t are integers, M, M′ and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H₁₀)_q′(H₁₆)_r′(H₂₄)_s′(H₆₀)_t′(H₇₀)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, M, M′ and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H₁₀)_q′(H₁₆)_r′(H₂₄)_s′(H₆₀)_t′(H₇₀)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, M, M′ and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each a metal such as a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula comprising one or more monomers in any order selected from the group comprising [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+N′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u wherein n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each a metal such as a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymer compound may have the formula Si_xH_y(H₁₆)_z wherein x is an integer, y is an integer from 2x+2 to 4x, z is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

The polymers described herein can be formulated to any desired molecular weight for the particular application. Examples of suitable number average molecular weights include from about 3 up to about 1×10⁷. Polymers based primarily on hydrinos usually have a molecular weight towards the lower molecular weight range, while polymers containing heavy elements such as silicon usually have higher molecular weights.

Examples of singly negative charged anions of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds disclosed herein include but are not limited to halogen ions, hydroxide ion, dihydrogen phosphate ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, and nitrate ion. Examples of doubly negative charged anions of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds disclosed herein include but are not limited to carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

Applications of the compounds include use in batteries, fuel cells, cutting materials, light weight high strength structural materials and synthetic fibers, corrosion resistant coatings, heat resistant coatings, xerographic compounds, proton source, photoluminescent compounds, phosphors for lighting, photoconductors, photovoltaics, chemiluminescent compounds, fluorescent compounds, optical coatings, optical filters, an extreme ultraviolet laser media, fiber optic cables, magnets and magnetic computer storage media, superconductors, and etching agents, masking agents, agents to purify silicon, dopants in semiconductor fabrication, cathodes for thermionic generators, fuels, explosives, and propellants. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds are useful in chemical synthetic processing methods and refining methods. The increased binding energy hydrogen ion and the increased binding energy hydrogen molecular ion have application as the negative ion of the electrolyte of a high voltage electrolytic cell. The selectivity of increased binding energy hydrogen species in forming bonds with specific isotopes provides a means to purify desired isotopes of elements.

According to another aspect of the invention, dihydrinos, can be produced by reacting protons with hydrino hydride ions, or by the thermal decomposition of hydrino hydride ions, or by the thermal or chemical decomposition of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds. For example, the hydrino hydride compound KH(1/p) or K(H(1/p))₂I may react with a source of oxygen such as oxygen gas or water to form dihydrino and potassium oxide wherein the hydrino hydride ion has a relatively low binding energy such as H⁻(½).

$\begin{array}{cc}2\mathrm{KH}\left(1/2\right)+1/2O_2\to H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{a_o}{\sqrt{2}}\right]+K_2O& \left(12\right)\end{array}$

Alternatively, the hydrino hydride compound may be heated to release dihydrino by thermal decomposition.

$\begin{array}{cc}2\mathrm{KH}\left(1/2\right)\stackrel{\Delta }{\to }H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{a_o}{\sqrt{2}}\right]+2K_{\left(m\right)}& \left(13\right)\end{array}$

In both cases, the dihydrino product may be analyzed by gas chromatography.

A method is provided for preparing compounds comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion. Such compounds are hereinafter referred to as “hydrino hydride compounds”. The method comprises reacting atomic hydrogen with a catalyst having a net enthalpy of reaction of about

$\frac{m}{2}·27\mathrm{eV},$

where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6\mathrm{eV}}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^2}$

where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200. The increased binding energy hydrogen atom can be reacted with an electron source, to produce an increased binding energy hydride ion. The increased binding energy hydride ion can be reacted with one or more cations to produce a compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydride ion.

The invention is also directed to a reactor for producing increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the invention, such as hydrino hydride compounds. Such a reactor is hereinafter referred to as a “hydrino hydride reactor”. The hydrino hydride reactor comprises a cell for making hydrinos and an electron source. The reactor produces hydride ions having the binding energy of Eq. (10). The cell for making hydrinos may take the form of an electrolytic cell, a gas cell, a gas discharge cell, or a plasma torch cell, for example. Each of these cells comprises: a source of atomic hydrogen; at least one of a solid, molten, liquid, or gaseous catalyst for making hydrinos; and a vessel for reacting hydrogen and the catalyst for making hydrinos. As used herein and as contemplated by the subject invention, the term “hydrogen”, unless specified otherwise, includes not only proteum (¹H), but also deuterium (²H) and tritium (³H). Electrons from the electron source contact the hydrinos and react to form hydrino hydride ions.

The reactors described herein as “hydrino hydride reactors” are capable of producing not only hydrino hydride ions and compounds, but also the other increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of the present invention. Hence, the designation “hydrino hydride reactors” should not be understood as being limiting with respect to the nature of the increased binding energy hydrogen compound produced.

According to one aspect of the present invention, novel compounds are formed from hydrino hydride ions and cations. In the electrolytic cell, the cation may be either an oxidized species of the material of the cell cathode or anode, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation of the electrolyte (such as a cation comprising the catalyst). The cation of the electrolyte may be a cation of the catalyst. In the gas cell, the cation can be an oxidized species of the material of the cell, a cation comprising the molecular hydrogen dissociation material which produces atomic hydrogen, a cation comprising an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst). In the discharge cell, the cation can be an oxidized species of the material of the cathode or anode, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst). In the plasma torch cell, the cation can be either an oxidized species of the material of the cell, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation present in the cell (such as a cation comprising the catalyst).

A catalyst of the present invention can be an increased binding energy hydrogen compound having a net enthalpy of reaction of about m/2·27 eV, where m is an integer greater than 1, preferably an integer less than 400, to produce an increased binding energy hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

$\frac{13.6\mathrm{eV}}{{\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)}^2}$

where p is an integer, preferably an integer from 2 to 200. Titanium hydrino hydride may be an effective catalyst wherein Ti²⁺ is the active species. Furthermore, titanium hydrino hydride is volatile and may serve as a gaseous transition catalyst. Titanium is typically in a 4+ oxidation state. Increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions may stabilize the 2+ oxidation state. Exemplary titanium (II) hydrino hydride compounds are TiH(1/p)₂ and

${\mathrm{TiH}\left(1/p\right)}_2{\left(H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]\right)}_2$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200. Titanium (II) is a catalyst because the third ionization energy is 27.49 eV, m=1 in Eq. (2). Thus, the catalysis cascade for the p th cycle is represented by

$\begin{array}{cc}27.491\mathrm{eV}+{\mathrm{Ti}}^2+H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to {\mathrm{Ti}}^{3+}+e^{-}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(14\right)\\ {\mathrm{Ti}}^{3+}+e^{-}\to {\mathrm{Ti}}^{2+}+27.491\mathrm{eV}& \left(15\right)\end{array}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]\mathrm{X13}\mathrm{.6}\mathrm{eV}& \left(16\right)\end{array}$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200.

Titanium hydrino hydride may be combined with another element to increase the effectiveness of the catalyst when Ti²⁺ is the active species. Exemplary titanium (II) hydrino hydride compounds are

${\mathrm{TiH}\left(1/p\right)}_2\mathrm{MX},{\mathrm{TiH}\left(1/p\right)}_2{\left(H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]\right)}_2\mathrm{MX},{\mathrm{TiH}\left(1/p\right)}_2{\mathrm{MXH}}_n,\mathrm{and}$ ${\mathrm{TiH}\left(1/p\right)}_2{\left(H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]\right)}_2{\mathrm{MXH}}_n$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200, n is an integer, preferably from 1 to 100, M is an alkaline, alkaline earth, transition metal, inner transition metal, or rare earth cation, X is an anion such as halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, nitrate ion, carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H. Preferably, the more effective titanium hydrino hydride catalyst is TiH(1/p)₂NiO or TiH(1/p)₂ NiOH₂.

Silver hydrino hydride may be an effective catalyst wherein Ag²⁺ and Ag⁺ are the active species. Furthermore, silver hydrino hydride may be volatile and may serve as a gaseous transition catalyst. Silver is typically in a 1+ oxidation state. Increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions may stabilize the 2+ oxidation state. Exemplary silver (II) hydrino hydride compounds are AgH(1/p)₂ and

${\mathrm{AgH}\left(1/p\right)}_2{\left(H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]\right)}_2$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200. Silver may be a catalytic system because the third ionization energy of silver is 34.83 eV; and Ag⁺ releases 7.58 eV when it is reduced to Ag. The combination of reactions Ag²⁺ to Ag³⁺ and Ag⁺ to Ag, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.25 eV, which is equivalent to m=1 in Eq. (2).

$\begin{array}{cc}27.25\mathrm{eV}+{\mathrm{Ag}}^{2+}+{\mathrm{Ag}}^{+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to \mathrm{Ag}+{\mathrm{Ag}}^{3+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(17\right)\\ \mathrm{Ag}+{\mathrm{Ag}}^{3+}\to {\mathrm{Ag}}^{2+}+{\mathrm{Ag}}^{+}+27.25\mathrm{eV}& \left(18\right)\end{array}$

The overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(19\right)\end{array}$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200.

Nickel hydrino hydride may be an effective catalyst wherein Ni²⁺ and Ni⁺ are the active species. Furthermore, nickel hydrino hydride may be volatile and may serve as a gaseous transition catalyst. Nickel is typically in a 2+ oxidation state. Increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions may stabilize the 1+ oxidation state. An exemplary nickel (I) hydrino hydride compounds is NiH(1/p) where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200. Nickel may be a catalytic system because the third ionization energy of nickel is 35.17 eV; and Ni⁺ releases 7.64 eV when it is reduced to Ni. The combination of reactions Ni²⁺ to Ni³⁺ and Ni⁺ to Ni, then, has a net enthalpy of reaction of 27.53 eV, which is equivalent to m=1 in Eq. (2).

$\begin{array}{cc}27.53\mathrm{eV}+{\mathrm{Ni}}^{2+}+{\mathrm{Ni}}^{+}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to {\mathrm{Ni}}^{3+}+\mathrm{Ni}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(20\right)\\ {\mathrm{Ni}}^{3+}+\mathrm{Ni}\to {\mathrm{Ni}}^{2+}+{\mathrm{Ni}}^{+}+27.53\mathrm{eV}& \left(21\right)\end{array}$

The overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]\to H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+\left[{\left(p+1\right)}^2-p^2\right]X13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(22\right)\end{array}$

where p is an integer greater than 1, preferably from 2 to 200.

In the case that titanium, silver, or nickel metal is present in the cell and may be used as the dissociator to provide atomic hydrogen, the titanium, silver, or nickel hydrino hydride catalyst may have an accelerating catalytic rate wherein the product of catalysis, hydrino, may react with the titanium, silver, or nickel metal to produce further titanium, silver, or nickel hydrino hydride catalyst. A method to start the process is to add a catalyst such as KI or K₂CO₃ to the cell to catalyze the initial formation of titanium, silver, or nickel hydrino hydride. Alternatively, some titanium, silver, or nickel hydrino hydride may be added to the cell or generated by reacting the titanium, silver, or nickel with a source of hydrogen atoms and catalyst such as an aqueous solution of K₂CO₃ and H₂O₂.

An exemplary method to generate a hydrogen catalyst comprising hydrino hydride ions is to treat a titanium hydrogen dissociator with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ to form the hydrogen catalyst TiH(1/p)₂. Titanium hydrino hydride may form by a titanium peroxide intermediate. The potassium ions present may catalyze the formation of hydrinos from hydrogen atoms formed by the decomposition of H₂O₂. The hydrinos may react with titanium to form titanium hydrino hydride. In the case of a cell with hydrogen flow, the potassium hydrino hydride may form with the loss of iodine from the cell. Potassium hydrino hydride may react on with titanium metal to form titanium hydrino hydride and potassium metal.

In another method to form hydrogen catalyst, titanium hydrino hydride, the formation of titanium hydrino hydride is initiated by the presence of a titanium compound such as a titanium halide (for example TiCl₄), TiTe₂, Ti₂(SO₄)₃, or TiS₂ which may react with an increased binding energy hydrogen species to form titanium hydrino hydride in an operating gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. The increased binding energy hydrogen species may form in the operating hydrino hydride reactor.

A further example providing the catalytic reaction of Eqs. (3-5) is increased binding energy hydrogen compound KH_n where n is an integer from one to 100. The hydrino hydride compounds which are catalysts may be gaseous catalyst by operating the cell at an elevated temperature.

In the case that the catalyst is reduced to a metal during catalysis, the metal may accumulate in the reactor such as a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor during operation. For example, the potassium catalysis reaction is given by Eqs. (3-5). A potassium metal forming reaction is:

$\begin{array}{cc}2H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+2I^{-}I_2+2H^{-}\left(1/p\right)K+K^{2+}+2H^{-}\left(1/p\right){K\left(H\left(1/p\right)\right)}_2+K\left(m\right)2H\left[\frac{a_H}{\left(p+1\right)}\right]+2I^{-}+K+K^{2+}{K\left(H\left(1/p\right)\right)}_2+K\left(m\right)+I_2& \left(23\right)\end{array}$

Potassium metal may accumulate in the cell as I₂ is pumped from the cell. The potassium metal may form an amalgam with the dissociator which inhibits hydrogen dissociation. Thus, I₂ or HI may be supplied to the cell to regenerate the catalyst KI and regenerate the dissociator. Alternatively, other oxidants such as water, oxygen, or an oxyanion may be supplied to the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor to react with the alkali metal.

Hydrogen polymers such as H₁₆ may be synthesized from increased binding energy hydrogen compounds by polymerization. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may be reacted with polymerizing agents such as oxidizing agents, reductants, or free radical generating agents to form polymers. Increased binding energy hydrogen species of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may also be polymerized by reacting with one or more of the polymerizing agents. Examples of suitable polymerize agents include nitric acid, hydro iodic acid, sulfuric acid, hydro fluoric acid, hydrochloric acid, potassium metal, and a mixture of base and hydrogen peroxide such as K₂CO₃/H₂O₂. Hydrogen polymers may also form during catalysis in the electrolytic cell, gas cell, gas discharge cell, or plasma torch cell hydrino hydride reactor. In one embodiment, hydrogen polymers such as H₁₆ may be synthesized from hydrogen in a gas cell or gas discharge cell wherein the source of catalyst is potassium metal. Hydrogen polymer compounds may be purified from the reaction mixture by the methods given in the Purification of Increased Binding Energy Hydrogen Compounds section of my previous PCT Patent Application, PCT US98/14029 filed on Jul. 7, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference.

Hydrogen polymers such as H₁₆ may also be synthesized from increased binding energy hydrogen compounds by polymerization at high temperature. In one embodiment, an increased binding energy hydrogen compound such as potassium hydrino hydride or titanium hydrino hydride is formed as an intermediate that is polymerized at high temperature in a high temperature reactor. Examples of suitable temperatures are within the range of about 500° C. to about 2800° C. For example, if the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds are formed in a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor at one temperature, such a temperature within the range of about 350° C. to about 800° C., the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may polymerized in the gas cell hydrino hydrided reactor by elevating the reactor temperature to range within about 850° C. to about 2800° C. In an embodiment, the polymerization may be catalyzed by a hot metal surface such as that of a hot refractory metal filament. For example, a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor may comprise a hot tungsten filament maintained at an elevated temperature such as a temperature within the range 1200° C. to 2800° C. wherein hydrogen catalysis occurs to form increased binding energy hydrogen species which polymerize on contact with the hot filament. Based on the disclosure herein, one skilled in the art will be able to select a suitable polymerization temperature to form the desired increased binding energy hydrogen polymer.

Hydrino hydride compounds have been found to be stable to electrolysis at a voltage that is substantially greater than that of ordinary compounds. Hydrino hydride compounds such as potassium hydrino hydride may be purified by electrolysis at a sufficiently high voltage that the anion of the catalyst is oxidized. In one embodiment, the reaction products of the hydrino hydride reactor are collected and run in a molten electrolytic cell such that the reduced cation of the catalyst such as potassium metal forms at the cathode, and the oxidized anion of the catalyst such as halogen gas (for example I₂) forms at the anode. The electrolyzed catalyst products such as iodine gas and potassium metal are separated from the hydrino hydride compounds that are stable to electrolysis. Methods of separation such as distillation and phase separation techniques commonly used by those skilled in the art can be used in a similar manner to isolate hydrino hydride compounds. For example, iodine can be removed at low temperatures as a gas, and potassium metal can be removed with the cathode onto which it electroplates.

A method of isotope separation comprises the step of reacting an element or compound having an isotopic mixture containing the desired element with an increased binding energy hydrogen species in atomic percent shortage based on the stoichiometric amount to fully react with or bond to the desired isotope. The increased binding energy hydrogen species is selected such that the bond energy of the reaction product is dependent on the isotope of the desired element. Thus, an increased binding energy species can be selected such that the predominant reaction product contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species bound to the desired isotope. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the desired isotope can be separated from the reaction mixture. The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be separated from the desired isotope to obtain the desired isotope. The recovered isotope may be reacted with the increased binding energy hydrogen species and these steps may be repeated to obtain a desired level of enrichment. The use of the term “isotope” in this context includes an individual element as well as compounds containing the desired elemental isotope.

Another method of isotope separation comprises the step of reacting an element or compound having an isotopic mixture containing the desired element with an increased binding energy hydrogen species that bonds to the undesired isotope. Since the bond energy of the reaction product is dependent on the isotope of the undesired element, an increased binding energy species can be selected such that the predominant reaction product contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species bound to the undesired isotope, and the desired isotope remains substantially unbound. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the undesired isotope can be separated from the reaction mixture to obtain the desired isotope. The use of the term “isotope” in this context includes an individual element as well as compounds containing the desired elemental isotope.

A further method of separating a desired isotope from a mixture of isotopes comprises:

• • reacting an increased binding energy hydrogen species with an isotopic mixture comprising a molar excess of a desired isotope with respect to the increased binding energy hydrogen species to form a compound enriched in the desired isotope;
  • separating said compound enriched in the desired isotope from the reaction mixture; and
  • separating the increased binding energy hydrogen species from the desired isotope to obtain the desired isotope.

Another method of separating a desired isotope from a mixture of isotopes comprises:

• • reacting a mixture of isotopes with an amount of an increased binding energy hydrogen species sufficient to remove an undesired isotope from a isotopic mixture to form a compound enriched in the undesired isotope, and
  • removing said compound enriched in the undesired isotope.

The mixture of isotopes can comprise elements and/or compounds containing the isotopes.

Other objects, features, and characteristics of the present invention, as well as the methods of operation and the functions of the related elements, will become apparent upon consideration of the following description and the appended claims with reference to the accompanying drawings, all of which form a part of this specification, wherein like reference numerals designate corresponding parts in the various figures.

III. BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a schematic drawing of an electrolytic cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 2 is a schematic drawing of an experimental quartz gas cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 3 is a schematic drawing of an experimental concentric quartz tubes gas cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 4 is a schematic drawing of an experimental stainless steel gas cell hydride reactor in accordance with the present invention;

FIG. 5 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of 99.999% KHCO₃ (HC=hydrocarbon);

FIG. 6 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=200-1000) of 99.999% KHCO₃ (HC=hydrocarbon);

FIG. 7 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of the polymeric material prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and centrifuging the polymeric material (sample #1)(HC=hydrocarbon);

FIG. 8 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=200-1000) of polymeric material prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and centrifuging the polymeric material (sample #1)(HC=hydrocarbon);

FIG. 9 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of 99.999% KHCO₃;

FIG. 10 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=23.5-29.5) of crystals obtained by treating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a cation exchange resin (Purolite C100H) (sample #4);

FIG. 11 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=27-29) of sample #4;

FIG. 12 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=28-29) of sample #4;

FIG. 13 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of crystals isolated from the cathode of the K₂CO₃ INEL Electrolytic Cell (sample #5);

FIG. 14 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of 99.999% KHCO₃;

FIG. 15 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of polymeric material prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and centrifuging the polymeric material (sample #1);

FIG. 16 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of crystals isolated from the cathode of the K₂CO₃ INEL Electrolytic Cell (sample #5);

FIG. 17 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-50) of sample #5;

FIG. 18 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of sample #1;

FIG. 19 is the presputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of sample #1;

FIG. 20 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of sample #1;

FIG. 21 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=30-40) of sample #1;

FIG. 22 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=60-70) of sample #12;

FIG. 23 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of 99.99% pure K!;

FIG. 24 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of sample #6;

FIG. 25 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-50) of sample #15;

FIG. 26 is the negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-200) of sample #15;

FIG. 27 is the positive ESITOFMS spectrum (m/e=15-800) of sample #13;

FIG. 28 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-50) of sample #16;

FIG. 29 is the negative TOFSIMS relative sensitivity factors (RSF);

FIG. 30 is the 0-65 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of sample #17;

FIG. 31 is the post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=50-1100) of sample #18;

FIG. 32 is the negative post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-30) of sample #18;

FIG. 33 is post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=40-50) of control titanium foil (sample #19);

FIG. 34 is the positive post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=40-60) of sample #20;

FIG. 35 is the post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=44-54) of sample #21;

FIG. 36 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-60) of sample #21;

FIG. 37 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=53-61) of sample #22;

FIG. 38 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=53-61) of sample #23;

FIG. 39 is the post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=112-125) of sample #24;

FIG. 40 is the presputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=47.5-50) of sample #24;

FIG. 41 is the post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=47.5-50) of sample #24;

FIG. 42 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=100-200 of sample #24;

FIG. 43 is the presputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-30) of sample #24;

FIG. 44 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-30) of sample #24;

FIG. 45 is the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=50-100 of sample #25;

FIG. 46 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=35-45) of sample #7;

FIG. 47 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=35-45) of sample #15;

FIG. 48 is the positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=35-45) of sample #16;

FIG. 49 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample. #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4);

FIG. 50 shows a shaded time interval of the chromatogram of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 centered on 0.77 minutes wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4);

FIG. 51 is the summation of 21 mass spectra of 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4) recorded over the shaded time interval of the LC/MS spectrum of sample #13 shown in FIG. 50;

FIG. 52 shows a shaded time interval of the chromatogram of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 centered on 17.06 minutes wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4);

FIG. 53 is the summation of 12 mass spectra of 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4) recorded over the shaded time interval of the LC/MS spectrum of sample #13 shown in FIG. 52;

FIG. 54 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal;

FIG. 55 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal;

FIG. 56 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 536.4 ion signal;

FIG. 57 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 702.4 ion signal;

FIG. 58 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 39.0 ion signal;

FIG. 59 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of 99.9% K₂CO₃ control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal;

FIG. 60 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of the sample solvent alone control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal;

FIG. 61 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of 99.99% KI control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal;

FIG. 62 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of the sample solvent alone control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal;

FIG. 63 is the positive ESITOFMS spectrum of 99.9% K₂CO₃;

FIG. 64 is the positive ESITOFMS spectrum of precipitate prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and allowing the precipitate to form on standing at room temperature (sample #3);

FIG. 65 is the positive ESITOFMS spectrum (m/e=50-300) of precipitate prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell until the precipitate just formed (sample #2);

FIG. 66 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-140) of the vapors from pure crystals of iodine that were saturated with distilled water;

FIG. 67 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #3 with a sample heater temperature of 100° C., and an insert of the (m/e=0-45) mass spectrum;

FIG. 68 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-140) of the vapors from sample #8 with a sample heater temperature of 148° C.;

FIG. 69 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #9 with a sample heater temperature of 234° C.;

FIG. 70 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-110) of the vapors from sample #9 with a sample heater temperature of 185° C.;

FIG. 71 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-120) of the vapors from sample #10 with a sample heater temperature of 534° C.;

FIG. 72 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-80) of the vapors from sample #10 with a sample heater temperature of 30° C.;

FIG. 73 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-220) of the vapors from sample #11 with a sample heater temperature of 480° C.;

FIG. 74 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #28 with a sample heater temperature of 325° C. and an ionization potential of 150 eV;

FIG. 75 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #28 with a sample heater temperature of 325° C. and an ionization potential of 70 eV;

FIG. 76 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-110) of vapors from sample #29 whereby the sample was dynamically heated from 90° C. to 120° C. while the scan was being obtained in the mass range m/e=75-100;

FIG. 77 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #30 with a sample heater temperature of 285° C.;

FIG. 78 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #31 with a sample heater temperature of 271° C.;

FIG. 79 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-65) of the vapors from sample #31 with a sample heater temperature of 271° C.;

FIG. 80 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #32 with a sample heater temperature of 102° C.;

FIG. 81 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #33 with a sample heater temperature of 320° C.;

FIG. 82 is the mass spectrum (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #33 with a sample heater temperature of 320° C.;

FIG. 83 is the 0 to 80 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of polymeric material prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell until a precipitate just formed (sample #2) with the primary elements identified;

FIG. 84 is the survey X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of crystals prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and allowing crystals to form on standing at room temperature (sample #3) with the primary elements identified;

FIG. 85 is the 0 to 165 eV binding energy region of the survey. X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of crystals prepared by concentrating K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and allowing crystals to form on standing at room temperature (sample #3) with the primary elements identified;

FIG. 86 is the TOFSIMS spectra (m/e=94-99) of sample #3;

FIG. 87 is the 0-60 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of crystals isolated from the K₂CO₃ INEL Electrolytic Cell (sample #5) with the primary element peaks identified;

FIG. 88 is the survey spectrum of crystals prepared by filtering the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell (sample #9) with the primary elements identified;

FIG. 89 is the 0 to 75 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of crystals prepared by filtering the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell (sample #9);

FIG. 90 is the 0 to 75 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of recrystallized crystals prepared from the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst, stainless steel filament leads, and a W filament (sample #34);

FIG. 91 is the gas chromatographic analysis (60 meter column) of high purity hydrogen;

FIG. 92 is the gas chromatograph of the dihydrino or hydrogen released from the sample #15 when the sample was heated to above 600° C. with melting;

FIG. 93 is the UV spectrum in the region 300-560 nm of light emitted from the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a tungsten filament and 0.5 torr hydrogen at a cell temperature of 700° C.;

FIG. 94 is the UV spectrum in the region 300-560 nm of light emitted from the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a tungsten filament, a titanium dissociator, gaseous RbCl catalyst, and 0.5 torr hydrogen at a cell temperature of 700° C., and

FIG. 95 shows the emission due to a discharge of hydrogen superimposed on the gas cell emission.

IV. DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Formation of a hydrino hydride ion allows for formation of alkali and alkaline earth hydrides having enhanced stability or reduced reactivity in water. Increased binding energy hydrogen species are capable of forming very strong bonds with certain cations and have unique properties with many applications such as cutting materials (as a replacement for diamond, for example); structural materials and synthetic fibers such as novel inorganic polymers. Due to the small mass of the hydrino hydride ion, these materials can be made significantly lighter in weight than present materials containing conventional anions.

Increased binding energy hydrogen species have many additional applications such as cathodes for thermionic generators; formation of photoluminescent compounds (for example Zintl phase silicides and silanes containing increased binding energy hydrogen species); corrosion resistant coatings; heat resistant coatings; phosphors for lighting; optical coatings; optical filters (for example, due to the unique continuum emission and absorption bands of the increased binding energy hydrogen species); extreme ultraviolet laser media (for example, as a compound with a with highly positively charged cation); fiber optic cables (for example, as a material with a low attenuation for electromagnetic radiation and a high refractive index); magnets and magnetic computer storage media (for example, as a compound with a ferromagnetic cation such as iron, nickel, or chromium); chemical synthetic processing methods; and refining methods. The specific p hydrino hydride ion (H⁻(n=1/p) where p is an integer) may be selected to provide the desired property such as voltage following doping with the hydrino hydride ion.

Increased binding energy hydrogen species are useful in mining and refining methods to extract and/or purify a desired element. Increased binding energy hydrogen species may be formulated which are its capable of selectively reacting with an element, such as silver, platinum, or gold, of a mixture of elements and/or compounds to form an increased binding energy hydrogen compound containing the desired element. In the case of silver, an exemplary increased binding energy hydrogen compound is AgHX where X is a halogen and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species. The mixture may be placed in the reaction vessel of the hydrino hydride reactor under conditions such that the reaction of an increased binding energy hydrogen species with the desired element occurs within the reactor. The product may be readily separated from the mixture based on properties of the increased binding energy hydrogen compound using conventional separation methods, such as volatility or solubility. The specific p hydrino hydride ion (H⁻(n=1/p) where p is an integer) may be selected to provide a desired property of the compound which allows for the extraction or separation of the desired element from the mixture. The compound can be purified from the mixture by the methods disclosed in the Purification of Increased Binding Energy Hydrogen Compounds section of my previous PCT Patent Application, PCT US98/14029 filed on Jul. 7, 1998, which is incorporated herein by reference. The desired element can be isolated by decomposition of the increased binding energy hydrogen compound by methods such as thermal or chemical decomposition.

The reactions resulting in the formation of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds are useful in chemical etching processes, such as semiconductor etching to form computer chips, for example. Hydrino hydride ions are useful as dopants for semiconductors, to alter the energies of the conduction and valance bands of the semiconductor materials. Hydrino hydride ions may be incorporated into semiconductor materials by ion implantation, beam epitaxy, or vacuum deposition. The specific p hydrino hydride ion (H⁻(n=1/p) where p is an integer) may be selected to provide a desired property such as band gap following doping.

Due to the high energy released in the formation of a hydrino hydride ion from a hydrino, the hydrino may be a useful etching agent. Hydrinos may be generated such that they collide with the surface to be etched under conditions such that the surface species are oxidized. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may provide hydrinos. The hydrinos may be supplied to the surface by thermally or chemically decomposing increased binding energy hydrogen compounds. Alternatively, the source of hydrinos may be an electrolytic cell, gas cell, gas discharge cell, or plasma torch cell hydrino hydride reactor of the present invention. To contact hydrinos with the surface to be etched, the object having the surface may be placed in the hydrino hydride reactor, for example. Alternatively, hydrinos may be applied as an atomic beam by methods known to those skilled in the art.

Hydrino hydride compounds can be formulated for use as semiconductor masking agents. Hydrino species-terminated (versus normal hydrogen-terminated) silicon may be utilized. In one embodiment hydrino species-terminated (versus hydrogen-terminated) silicon is synthesized by exposure of silicon or a silicon compound such as silicon dioxide to hydrinos. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may provide hydrinos. The hydrinos may be supplied to the surface by thermally or chemically decomposing increased binding energy hydrogen compounds. Alternatively, the source of hydrinos may be an electrolytic cell, gas cell, gas discharge cell, or plasma torch cell hydrino hydride reactor of the present invention. To contact hydrinos with the silicon reactant, the silicon may be placed in the hydrino hydride reactor, for example. Alternatively, hydrinos may be applied as an atomic beam by methods known to those skilled in the art.

Increased binding energy hydrogen silanes that are stable in air and/or are stable at elevated temperatures are useful sources of pure silicon which may be obtained by decomposition of purified increased binding energy hydrogen silanes. For example, the decomposition to pure silicon may be chemical or thermal.

Due to the extraordinary binding energy of increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions, increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may contain protons. Thus, increased binding energy hydrogen compounds may be a source of protons. One method to release protons is thermal decomposition of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds, preferably in vacuum.

The highly stable hydrino hydride ion has application as the negative ion of the electrolyte of a high voltage electrolytic cell. In a further application, a hydrino hydride ion with extreme stability represents a significant improvement as the product of a cathode half flu reaction of a fuel cell or battery over conventional cathode products of present batteries and fuel cells. The hydrino hydride reaction of Eq. (11) releases significantly more energy than oxidants used in conventional batteries.

A further advanced battery application of hydrino hydride ions is in the fabrication of batteries. A battery comprising, as an oxidant compound, a hydrino hydride compound formed of a highly oxidized cation and a hydrino hydride ion (“hydrino hydride battery”), has a lighter weight, higher voltage, higher power, and greater energy density than a conventional battery having a cell voltage of about one volt. In one embodiment, a hydrino hydride battery has a cell voltage of about 100 times that of conventional batteries. The hydrino hydride battery also has a lower resistance than conventional batteries. Thus, the power of the novel battery can be more than 10,000 times the power of conventional batteries. Furthermore, a hydrino hydride battery can be formulated which posses energy densities of greater than 100,000 watt hours per kilogram. In contrast, the most advanced of conventional batteries have energy densities of less that 200 watt hours per kilogram.

The present battery may further comprise an electronic activation circuit which is activated by a user specific input signal called a “password” or “key” such as a swipe card signal. Or the battery may be activated by a signal transmitted to the battery from an electricity supplier such as an electric utility company which permits the battery to be charged. In the latter case, the battery may further comprise an electronic device such as a computer chip which may be installed by the electricity supplier. The signal which activates the battery to be charged may be transmitted to the battery through electrical leads of the charger for example. The activation may signal a debit to the electricity consumer based on the electricity consumed during battery charging.

The catalysis of hydrogen by catalysts such as potassium ions (Eqs. 3-5)) and rubidium (Eqs. 6-8)) to form hydrino atoms and hydrino hydride ions may result in the emission of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photons such as 912 Å and 304 Å. Extreme UV photons may ionize or excite molecular hydrogen resulting in molecular hydrogen emission which includes well characterized ultraviolet lines such as the Balmer series. The hydrogen emission or the hydrogen emission further converted to other wavelengths using a phosphor, for example, is a lighting source of the present invention. The light source may produce wavelengths such as extreme ultraviolet, ultraviolet, visible, and infrared wavelengths.

Due to the rapid kinetics and the extraordinary exothermic nature of the reactions of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds, particularly hydrino hydride compounds, other applications include munitions, explosives, propellants, and solid fuels.

The selectivity of hydrino atoms and hydride ions in forming bonds with specific isotopes based on a differential in bond energy provides a means to purify desired isotopes of elements.

Hydrogen polymers and inorganic hydrogen polymers comprising increased binding energy hydrogen species may be useful as superconductors having a high transition temperature.

1. Hydride Ion

A hydrino atom

$H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]$

reacts with an electron to form a corresponding hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=1/p) as given by Eq. (11). Hydride ions are a special case of two-electron atoms each comprising a nucleus and an “electron 1” and an “electron 2”. The derivation of the binding energies of two-electron atoms is given by the '96 Mills GUT. A brief summary of the hydride binding energy derivation follows whereby the equation numbers of the format (#.###) correspond to those given in the '96 Mills GUT.

The hydride ion comprises two indistinguishable electrons bound to a proton of Z=+1. Each electron experiences a centrifugal force, and the balancing centripetal force (on each electron) is produced by the electric force between the electron and the nucleus. In addition, a magnetic force exits between the two electrons causing the electrons to pair.

1.1 Determination of the Orbitsphere Radius, r_n

Consider the binding of a second electron to a hydrogen atom to form a hydride ion. The second electron experiences no central electric force because the electric field is zero outside of the radius of the first electron. However, the second electron experiences a magnetic force due to electron 1 causing it to spin pair with electron 1. Thus, electron 1 experiences the reaction force of electron 2 which acts as a centrifugal force. The force balance equation can be determined by equating the total forces acting on the two bound electrons taken together. The force balance equation for the paired electron orbitsphere is obtained by equating the forces on the mass and charge densities. The centrifugal force of both electrons is given by Eq. (7.1) and Eq. (7.2) where the mass is 2m_e. Electric field lines end on charge. Since both electrons are paired at the same radius, the number of field lines ending on the charge density of electron 1 equals the number that end on the charge density of electron 2. The electric force is proportional to the number of field lines; thus, the centripetal electric force, F_ele, between the electrons and the nucleus is represented by

$\begin{array}{cc}{F}_{\mathrm{ele}\left(\mathrm{electron}1,2\right)}=\frac{\frac{1}{2}e^2}{4{\mathrm{\pi \varepsilon }}_or_n^2}& \left(24\right)\end{array}$

where ε_o is the permittivity of free-space. The outward magnetic force on the two paired electrons is given by the negative of Eq. (7.15) where the mass is 2m_e. The outward centrifugal force and magnetic forces on electrons 1 and 2 are balanced by the electric force

$\begin{array}{cc}\frac{{\hslash }^2}{2m_er_2^3}=\frac{\frac{1}{2}e^2}{4{\mathrm{\pi \varepsilon }}_or_2^2}-\frac{1}{Z}\frac{{\hslash }^2}{2m_er_2^3}\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}& \left(25\right)\end{array}$

where Z=1. Solving for r₂,

$\begin{array}{cc}{r}_2=r_1=a_o\left(1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right);s=\frac{1}{2}& \left(26\right)\end{array}$

That is, the final radius of electron 2, r₂, is given by Eq. (26); this is also the final radius of electron 1.

1.2 Binding Energy

During ionization, electron 2 moves to infinity. By the selection rules for absorption of electromagnetic radiation dictated by conservation of angular momentum, absorption of a photon causes the spin axes of the antiparallel spin-paired electrons to become parallel. The unpairing energy, E_unpairing(magnetic), is given by Eq. (7.30) and Eq. (26) multiplied by two because the magnetic energy is proportional to the square of the magnetic field as derived in Eqs. (1.122-1.129). A repulsive magnetic force exists on the electron to be ionized due to the parallel alignment of the spin axes. The energy to move electron 2 to a radius which is infinitesimally greater than that of electron 1 is zero. In this case, the only force acting on electron 2 is the magnetic force. Due to conservation of energy, the potential energy change to move electron 2 to infinity to ionize the hydride ion can be calculated from the magnetic force of Eq. (25). The magnetic work, E_magwork, is the negative integral of the magnetic force (the second term on the right side of Eq. (25)) from r₂ to infinity,

$\begin{array}{cc}{E}_{\mathrm{magwork}}={\int }_{r_2}^{\infty }\frac{{\hslash }^2}{2m_er^3}\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}r& \left(27\right)\end{array}$

where r₂ is given by Eq. (26). The result of the integration is

$\begin{array}{cc}{E}_{\mathrm{magwork}}=-\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{4m_e{a_0^2\left[1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right]}^2}\mathrm{where}s=\frac{1}{2}.& \left(28\right)\end{array}$

By moving electron 2 to infinity, electron 1 moves to the radius r₁=a_H, and the corresponding magnetic energy, E_{electron 1 final}(magnetic), is given by Eq. (7.30). In the present case of an inverse squared central field, the binding energy is one half the negative of the potential energy [Fowles, G. R., Analytical Mechanics, Third Edition, Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, New York, (1977), pp. 154-156.]. Thus, the binding energy can be determined by subtracting the two magnetic energy terms from one half the negative of the magnetic work wherein m_e is the electron reduced mass μ_e given by Eq. (1.167) due to the electrodynamic magnetic force between electron 2 and the nucleus given by one half that of Eq. (1.164). The factor of one half follows from Eq. (25).

$\begin{array}{cc}\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{Binding}\mathrm{Energy}=-\frac{1}{2}E_{\mathrm{magwork}}-E_{\mathrm{electron}1\mathrm{final}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)-\\ E_{\mathrm{unpairing}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)\\ =\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{8{\mu }_e{a_0^2\left[1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right]}^2}-\\ \frac{{\mathrm{\pi \mu }}_0e^2{\hslash }^2}{m_e^2a_0^3}\left(1+\frac{2^2}{{\left[1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right]}^3}\right)\end{array}& \left(29\right)\end{array}$

The binding energy of the ordinary hydride ion H⁻(n=1) is 0.75402 eV according to Eq. (29). The experimental value given by Dean [John A. Dean, Editor, Lange's Handbook of Chemistry, Thirteenth Edition, McGraw-Hill Book Company, New York, (1985), p. 3-10.] is 0.754209 eV which corresponds to a wavelength of λ=1644 nm. Thus, both values approximate to a binding energy of about 0.8 eV for normal hydride ion.

1.3 Hydrino Hydride Ion

The hydrino atom H(½) can form a stable hydride ion, namely, the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=½). The central field of the hydrino atom is twice that of the hydrogen atom, and it follows from Eq. (25) that the radius of the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=½) is one half that of an ordinary hydrogen hydride ion, H⁻(n=1), given by Eq. (26).

$\begin{array}{cc}{r}_2=r_1=\frac{a_0}{2}\left(1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right);s=\frac{1}{2}& \left(30\right)\end{array}$

The energy follows from Eq. (29) and Eq. (30).

$\begin{array}{cc}\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{Binding}\mathrm{Energy}=-\frac{1}{2}E_{\mathrm{magwork}}-E_{\mathrm{electron}1\mathrm{final}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)-\\ E_{\mathrm{unpairing}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)\\ =\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{8{\mu }_e{a_0^2\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{2}\right]}^2}-\\ \frac{{\mathrm{\pi \mu }}_0e^2{\hslash }^2}{m_e^2a_0^3}\left(1+\frac{2^2}{{\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{2}\right]}^3}\right)\end{array}& \left(31\right)\end{array}$

The binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=½) is 3.047 eV according to Eq. (31), which corresponds to a wavelength of λ=407 nm. In general, the central field of hydrino atom H(n=1/p); p=integer is p times that of the hydrogen atom. Thus, the force balance equation is

$\begin{array}{cc}\frac{{\hslash }^2}{2m_er_2^3}=\frac{\frac{p}{2}e^2}{2{\mathrm{\pi \varepsilon }}_or_2^2}-\frac{1}{Z}\frac{{\hslash }^2}{2m_er_2^3}\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}& \left(32\right)\end{array}$

where Z=1 because the field is zero for r>r₁. Solving for r₂,

$\begin{array}{cc}{r}_2=r_1=\frac{a_0}{p}\left(1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}\right);s=\frac{1}{2}& \left(33\right)\end{array}$

From Eq. (33), the radius of the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=1/p); p=integer is 1/p that of atomic hydrogen hydride, H⁻(n=1), given by Eq. (26). The energy follows from Eq. (32) and Eq. (33).

$\begin{array}{cc}\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{Binding}\mathrm{Energy}=-\frac{1}{2}E_{\mathrm{magwork}}-E_{\mathrm{electron}1\mathrm{final}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)-\\ E_{\mathrm{unpairing}}\left(\mathrm{magnetic}\right)\\ =\frac{{\hslash }^2\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{8{\mu }_e{a_0^2\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^2}-\\ \frac{{\mathrm{\pi \mu }}_0e^2{\hslash }^2}{m_e^2a_0^3}\left(1+\frac{2^2}{{\left[\frac{1+\sqrt{s\left(s+1\right)}}{p}\right]}^3}\right)\end{array}& \left(34\right)\end{array}$

TABLE 1, supra, provides the binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=1/p) as a function of p according to Eq. (34).

2. Inorganic Hydrogen and Hydrogen Polymer Compounds

In a further embodiment of the present invention, hydrino hydride ions can be reacted or bonded to any atom of the periodic chart or positively or negatively charged ion thereof such as an alkali or alkaline earth cation, or a proton. Hydrino hydride ions may also react with or bond to any compound, organic molecule, inorganic molecule, organometallic molecule or compound, metal, nonmetal, or semiconductor to form an organic molecule, inorganic molecule, compound, metal, nonmetal, organometallic, or semiconductor. Additionally, hydrino hydride ions may react with or bond to ordinary H₂⁺, ordinary H₃⁺, H₃⁺(1/p), H₄⁺(1/p), or dihydrino molecular ions

${H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{2a_o}{p}\right]}^{+}.$

Dihydrino molecular ions may bond to hydrino hydride ions such that the binding energy of the reduced dihydrino molecular ion, the dihydrino molecule

$H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right],$

is less than the binding energy of the hydrino hydride ion

$H^{-}\left(\frac{1}{p}\right)$

of the compound.

The reactants which may react with hydrino hydride ions include neutral atoms or molecules, negatively or positively charged atomic and molecular ions, and free radicals. In one embodiment to form hydrino hydride containing compounds, hydrino hydride ions are reacted with a metal. Thus, in one embodiment of the electrolytic cell hydride reactor, hydrino, hydrino hydride ion, or dihydrino produced during operation at the cathode reacts with the cathode material to form a compound. In one embodiment of the gas cell hydride reactor, hydrino, hydrino hydride ion, or dihydrino produced during operation reacts with the dissociation material or source of atomic hydrogen to form a compound. A metal-hydrino hydride material can thus be produced.

Exemplary types of compounds of the present invention include those that follow. Each compound of the invention includes at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compounds of the present invention may further comprise ordinary hydrogen species, in addition to one or more of the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

H⁻(1/p)H₃⁺; MH, MH₂, and M₂H₂ where M is an alkali cation (in the case of M₂H₂, the alkali cations may be different) and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MH_n n=1 to 2 where M is an alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MHX where M is an alkali cation, X is a neutral atom or molecule or a singly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species; MHX where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species; MHX where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species; M₂HX where M is an alkali cation (the alkali cations may be different), X is a singly negative charged anion, and H an increased binding energy hydrogen species; MH_n n=1 to 5 where M is an alkaline cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; M₂H_n n=1 to 4 where M is an alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H (the alkaline earth cations may be different); M₂XH_n n=1 to 3 where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H (the alkaline earth cations may be different); M₂X₂H_n n=1 to 2 where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H (the alkaline earth cations may be different); M₂X₃H where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species (the alkaline earth cations may be different); M₂XH_n n==1 to 2 where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H (the alkaline earth cations may be different); M₂XX′H where M is an alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, X′ is a doubly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species (the alkaline earth cations may be different); MM′H_n n=1 to 3 where M is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MM′XH_n n=1 to 2 where M is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation, X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MM′XH where M is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation, X is a doubly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy hydrogen species; MM′XX′H where M is an alkaline earth cation, M′ is an alkali metal cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion, and H is an increased binding energy Lab hydrogen species; H_nS n=1 to 2 where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MAlH_n n=1 to 6 where M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MH_n n=1 to =6 where M is a transition, inner transition, or rare earth element cation such as nickel and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MNiH_n n=1 to 6 where M is an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, silicon, or aluminum and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H, and nickel may be substituted by another transition metal, inner transition, or rare earth cation; TiH_n n=1 to 4 where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Al₂H_n n=1 to 4 where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; AlH, n=1 to 4 where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MXAlX′H_n n=1 to 2 where M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion, or a double negative charged anion, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H, and another cation such as Si may replace Al; [KH_mKCO₃]_n m,n=integer where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H;

[KHKOH]_n n=integer where H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; [KHKNO₃]_n n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻ m,n=integer where X is a singly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in to, the case of multiple H; [MH_mM′X]_n m,n=integer comprising a neutral compound or an anion or cation where M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_mM′X′]_n⁺nX⁻ m,n=integer wherein M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻ m,m′,n,n′=integer where M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X are each a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_mM′X′]_n⁻nM″⁺ m,n=integer where M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺ m,m′,n,n′=integer where M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species in the case of multiple H, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; [MH_m]^m′+n′X⁻ m,m′,n,n′=integer where M is alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H;[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺ m,m′,n,′=integer where M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; M(H₁₀)_n n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₁₀)_n n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M⁺(H₁₆)_n⁻ n=integer where M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M⁺(H₁₆)_n⁻ n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₁₆)_n n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₁₆)_n n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₂₄)_n n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₂₄)_n n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₆₀)_n n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₆₀)_n n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₇₀)_n n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₇₀)_n n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u q,r,s,t,u=integer wherein M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, each integer q,r,s,t,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_s(H₇₀)_u q,r,s,t,u=integer wherein M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, each integer q,r,s,t,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; AA where M is positive, neutral, or negative and is selected from the list of H₁₆, H₁₆H, H₁₆H₂, H₂₄H₂₃, OH₂₂, OH₂₃, OH₂₄, MgH₂H₁₆, NaH₃H₁₆, H₂₄H₂O, CNH₁₆, CH₃₀, SiH₄H₁₆, (H₁₆)₃H₁₅, SiH₄(H₁₆)₂, (H₁₆)₄, H₇₀, Si₂H₆H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂H₁₆, SiH₄(H₁₆)₃, CH₇₀, NH₆₉, NH₇₀, NHH₇₀, OH₇₀, H₂OH₇₀, FH₇₀, H₃OH₇₀, SiH₂H₆₀, Si(H₁₆)₃H₁₅, Si(H₁₆)₄, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂, SiH₃(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂, O₂(H₁₆)₄, SiH₄(H₁₆)₄, NOH₇₀, O₂H₆₉, HONH₇₀, O₂H₇₀, H₂ONH₇₀, H₃O₂H₇₀, Si₂H₆(H₂₄)₂, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₃, (SiH₄)₃H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₃, (OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, (OH₂₄)H₁₆H₇₀, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇₀, Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₄, NaOSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, NaKHH₇₀, Si₂H₇(H₇₀), Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₃, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄H₁₆, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₃, Na₂OsiH₂(H₁₆)₄, Si₃H₈(H₁₆)₄, Na₂KHH₇₀, Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₄, Na₂HKHH₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₆(H₁₅), SH₂(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₇, Mg₂H₂H₂₃H₁₆H₇₀, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₄, KH₃O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, KH₅O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, K(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, K₂OHH₇₀, NaKHO₂H₇₀, NaOHNaO₂H₇₀, HNO₃O₂H₇₀, Rb(H₁₆)₅, Si₃H₁₁H₇₀, KNO₂(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₃, KKH(H₁₆)₇, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₄, (KH₂)₂(H₁₆)₃H₇₀, (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, Si₅OH₁₀₂, (SiH₃)₇(H₁₆)₅, Na₃O₃(SiH₃)₁₀SiH(H₁₆)₅, X is other element, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; MX where M is positive, neutral, or negative and is selected from the list of H₁₆, H₁₆H, H₁₆H₂, H₂₄H₂₃, OH₂₂, OH₂₃, OH₂₄, MgH₂H₁₆, NaH₃H₁₆, H₂₄H₂O, CNH₁₆, CH₃₀, SiH₄H₁₆, (H₁₆)₃H₁₅, SiH₄(H₁₆)₂, (H₁₆)₄, H₇₀, Si₂H₆H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂H₁₆, SiH₄(H₁₆)₃, CH₇₀, NH₆₉, NH₇₀, NHH₇₀, OH₇₀, H₂OH₇₀, FH₇₀, H₃H₇₀, SiH₂H₆₀, Si(H₁₆)₃H₁₅, Si(H₁₆)₄, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂, SiH₃(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂, O₂(H₁₆)₄, SiH₄(H₁₆)₄, NOH₇₀, O₂H₆₉, HONH₇₀, O₂H₇₀, H₂ONH₇₀, H₃O₂H₇₀, Si₂H,(H₂₄)₂, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₃, (SiH₄)₃H₁₆, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₃, (OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, (OH₂₄)H₁₆H₇₀, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇₀, Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂, Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₄, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₄, NaOSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, NaKHH₇₀, Si₂H₇(H₇₀), Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₃, Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃, Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄H₁₆ (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₃, Na₂OSiH₂(H₁₆)₄, Si₃H₈(H₁₆)₄, Na₂KHH₇₀, Si₂H₉(H₁₆)₄, Na₂HKHH₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₆(H₁₅), SH₂(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, SO(H₁₆)₇, Mg₂H₂H₂₃H₁₆H₇₀, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₂, (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₄, KH₃O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, KH₅O(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, K(OH₂₃)H₁₆H₇₀, K₂OHH₇₀, NaKHO₂H₇₀, NaOHNaO₂H₇₀, HNO₃O₂H₇₀, Rb(H₁₆)₅, Si₃H₁₁H₇₀, KNO₂(H₁₆)₅, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₃, KKH(H₁₆)₇, (SiH₄)₄(H₁₆)₄, (KH₂)₂(H₁₆)₃H₇₀, (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀, Si₅OH₁₀₂, (SiH₃)₇(H₁₆)₅, Na₃O₃(SiH₃)₁₀SiH(H₁₆)₅, X is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 8 to 10; n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 8 to 10; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M⁺(H_x)_n⁻ x=integer from 14 to 18; n=integer where M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M⁺(H_x)_n⁻ x=integer from 14 to 18; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 14 to 18; n=integer where M is other element such as any L atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 14 to 18; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 22 to 26; n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 22 to 26; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 58 to 62; n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 58 to 62; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 68 to 72; n=integer where M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_n x=integer from 68 to 72; n=integer where M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u q,r,s,t,u=integer; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, each integer q,r,s,t,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M(H_x)_q(H_x′)_r(H_y)_s(H_y′)_t(H_z)_u q,r,s,t,u=integer; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y′=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, wherein each integer q,r,s,t,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; [KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_t p,q,r,s,t=integer wherein each integer p,q,r,s,t may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_t n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t=integers wherein M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X and X are each a singly negative charged anion or a doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H₁₀)_q′(H₁₆)_r′(H₂₄)_s′(H₆₀)_t′(H₇₀)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers wherein M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H₁₀)_q′(H₁₆)_r′(H₂₄)_s′(H₆₀)_t′(H₇₀)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers wherein M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q′(H_x′)_r′(H_y)_s′(H_y′)_t′(H_z)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y′=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q′(H_x′)_r′(H_y)_s′(H_y′)_t′(H_z)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y′=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q′(H_x′)_r′(H_y)_s′(H_y′)_t′(H_z)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y′=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M, M′, and M″ are each a metal such as silicon, aluminum, Group III A elements, Group IVA elements, a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; [MH_m]_n[MM′H_m]_n[KH_mKCO₃]_n[KH_mKNO₃]_n⁺nX⁻[KHKNO₃]_n[KHKOH]_n[MH_mM′X]_n[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_mM′X′]_n^m′−n′M″⁺[MH_m]_n^m′+n′X⁻[MH_m]_n^m′−n′M′⁺M⁺H₁₆⁻[KHKOH]_p[KH₂KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_tM′″(H_x)_q′(H_x′)_r′(H_y)_s′(H_y′)_t′(H_z)_u n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u=integers; x=integer from 8 to 12; x′=integer from 14 to 18; y=integer from 22 to 26; y′=integer from 58 to 62; z=integer from 68 to 72 wherein M, M′, and M″ are each a metal such as silicon, aluminum, Group III A elements, Group IVA elements, a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M′″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, each integer n,n′,m,m′,p,q,r,s,t,q′,r′,s′,t′,u may be zero but not all integers may be zero, the compound contains at least one H, the monomers may be arranged in any order, H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H.

Exemplary silanes, siloxanes, and silicates that may form polymers each have unique observed characteristics different from those of the corresponding ordinary compound wherein the hydrogen content is only ordinary hydrogen H. The observed characteristics which are dependent on the increased binding energy of the hydrogen species include stoichiometry, stability at elevated temperature, and stability in air. Exemplary compounds are:

MSiH_n n=1 to 6 where M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MXSiH_n n=1 to 5 where M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation, Si may be replaced by Al, Ni, transition, inner transition, or rare earth element, X is a singly negative charged anion or a double negative charged anion, and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; M₂SiH_n n=1 to 8 wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation (the cations may be different) and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Si₂H_n n=1 to 8 wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; SiH_n n=1 to 8 wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Si_nH_4n n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_nH_3n n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_xH_4nO m, n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_xH_4x−2yO_y x, y=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_xH_4xO_y x, y=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_nH_4n.H₂O n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_nH_2n+2 n=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; Si_xH_2x+2O_y x, y=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; MSi_4nH_10nO_n n=integer wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; MSi_4nH_10nO_n+1 n=integer wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species; M_qSi_nH_mO_p q,n,m,p=integer wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; M_qSi_nH_m q,n,m=integer wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Si_nH_mO_p n,m,p=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Si_nH_m n,m=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; SiO₂H_n n=1 to 6 wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MSiO₂H_n n=1 to 6 wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; MSi₂H_n n=1 to 14 wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; M₂SiH_n n=1 to 8 wherein M is an alkali or alkaline earth cation and H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; and polyalkylsiloxane wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H; Si_xH_y(H₁₆)_z x=integer; y=integer from 2x+2 to 4x; z=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species.

Examples of the singly negative charged anions disclosed herein include but are not limited to halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, and nitrate ion. Examples of the doubly negative charged anions disclosed herein include but are not limited to carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

Preferred metals M of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds having a formulae such as MH_n n=1 to 8 wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species in the case of multiple H include the Group VIB (Cr, Mo, W) and Group IB (Cu, Ag, Au) elements. The compounds are useful for purification of the metals. The purification is achieved via formation of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds that have a high vapor pressure. Each compound is isolated by cryopumping.

In an embodiment of a superconductor of reduced dimensionality of the present invention, at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and optionally at least one ordinary hydrogen species, is reacted with or bonded to a source of electrons. The source of electrons may be any positively charged other element such as any atom of the periodic chart such as an alkali, alkaline earth, transition metal, inner transition metal, rare earth, lanthanide, or actinide cation to form a structure described by a lattice described in '96 Mills GUT (pages 255-264 which are incorporated by reference). Exemplary superconductors can be formulated from an increased binding energy hydrogen polymer, an inorganic increased binding energy hydrogen polymer, a metal hydrino hydride polymer, an alkali-transition metal hydrino hydride polymer, and a compound comprising a neutral, positive, or negative polymer of increased binding energy hydrogen species.

A xerographic toner may comprise an increased binding energy hydrogen compound. The toner may be a mixture of an increased binding energy hydrogen compound and at least one additional compound or material such as a carbon compound. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds that have one or more of the following properties, 1.) readily form stable charge ions, 2.) form highly charged ions, 3.) attach to carrier particles, and 4.) bind to a substrate such as paper are preferred toner compounds. Exemplary ions and compounds are polyhydrogen ions such as NaH₇₀H₂₃³⁺, OH₂₃⁺, H₁₆⁻, and silanes which may form positive or negative ions such as Si_xH_y(H₁₆)_z x=integer; y=integer from 2x+2 to 4x; z=integer wherein H is at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species, and may optionally comprise at least one ordinary hydrogen species.

Magnetic increased binding energy hydrogen compounds such as metal hydrino hydrides, alkali-transition metal hydrino hydrides, and polyhydrogen compounds may be useful as magnets, magnetic materials, or may comprise a magnetic computer memory storage material to coat a floppy disk for example. The compound may have the formula MH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is a transition element, an inner transition element, a rare earth element, or Ni, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MNiH_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, silicon, or aluminum, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula MM′H_n wherein n is an integer from 1 to 6, M is an alkali cation, alkaline earth cation, silicon, or aluminum, M′ is a transition element, inner transition element, or a rare earth element cation, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. The compound may have the formula M(H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H₁₀)_q(H₁₆)_r(H₂₄)_s(H₆₀)_t(H₇₀)_u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds comprising a desired element may be synthesized by placing the element in the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. The element may be a foil. For example, gold hydrino hydride may be synthesized by placing a gold foil or gold containing substrate into a gas cell such as a gas cell comprising a titanium dissociator and a KI or KBr catalyst. The gold hydrino hydride film that forms may be analyzed by TOFSIMS. Magnetic compounds such as nickel, cobalt, or samarium hydrino hydride may be synthesized by placing foils of these elements in a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. These metal hydrino hydrides may be useful as magnets, magnetic materials, as computer memory storage materials, or wherever magnetic properties are desired. Actinide, lanthanide, silanes, and semiconductor hydrino hydride compounds may be synthesized by placing the reactant actinides, lanthanides, silicon, and semiconductors such as gallium in the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. The products may be collected from the cell, purified, and analyzed by TOFSIMS.

4. Method of Isotope Separation

The selectivity of hydrino atoms and hydride ions to form bonds with specific isotopes based on a differential in bond energy provides a means to purify desired isotopes of elements such as ₉₂²³⁵U and ₉₄²³⁹Pu. The term isotope as used herein refers to any isotope given in the CRC which is herein incorporated by reference [R. C. Weast, Editor, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 58th Edition, CRC Press, (1977), pp., B-270-B-354]. Differential bond energy can arise from a difference in the nuclear moments of the isotopes, and with a sufficient difference they can be separated.

A method of isotope separation comprises the step of reacting an element or compound having an isotopic mixture containing the desired element with an increased binding energy hydrogen species in atomic percent shortage based on the stoichiometric amount to fully react with the desired isotope. The increased binding energy hydrogen species is selected such that the bond energy of the reaction product is dependent on the isotope of the desired element. Thus, an increased binding energy species can be selected such that the predominant reaction product contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species bound to the desired isotope. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the desired isotope can be separated from the reaction mixture. The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be separated from the desired isotope to obtain the desired isotope. The recovered isotope may be reacted with the increased binding energy hydrogen species and these steps may be repeated to obtain a desired level of enrichment. The use of the term “isotope” in this context includes an individual element as well as compounds containing the desired elemental isotope.

A method of isotope separation comprises the step of reacting an element or compound having an isotopic mixture containing the desired element with an increased binding energy hydrogen species to bond with the undesired isotope. Since the bond energy of the reaction product is dependent on the isotope of the undesired element, an increased binding energy species can be selected such that the predominant reaction product contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species bound to the undesired isotope, and the desired isotope remains substantially unbound. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the undesired isotope can be separated from the reaction mixture to obtain the desired isotope. If less than a stoichiometric amount of increased binding energy hydrogen is used, these steps may be repeated until the desired level of enrichment is obtained. The use of the term “isotope” in this context includes an individual element as well as compounds containing the desired elemental isotope.

A method of isotope separation comprises the step of reacting an element or compound having an isotopic mixture containing the desired element with an increased binding energy hydrogen species in atomic percent shortage based on the stoichiometric amount to fully react with the undesired isotope. Since the bond energy of the reaction product is dependent on the isotope of the undesired element, an increased binding energy species can be selected such that the predominant reaction product contains at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species bound to the undesired isotope, and the desired isotope remains substantially unbound. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the undesired isotope can be separated from the reaction mixture to obtain the desired isotope. The recovered enriched desired isotope may be reacted with the increased binding energy hydrogen species and these steps may be repeated to obtain a desired level of enrichment. The use of the term “isotope” in this context includes an individual element as well as compounds containing the desired elemental isotope.

Sources of reactant increased binding energy hydrogen species include the electrolytic cell, gas cell, gas discharge cell, and plasma torch cell hydrino hydride reactors of the present invention and increased binding energy hydrogen compounds. The increased binding energy hydrogen species may be an increased binding energy hydride ion. The compound comprising at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species and the desired isotopically enriched element can be separated by any conventional method. In a further embodiment, the compound can be reacted to form a different compound. The increased binding energy hydrogen species can be separated from the desired isotope or compound containing the isotope, for example, by a decomposition reaction such as a plasma discharge or plasma torch reaction or displacement reaction of the increased binding energy hydrogen species.

For example, a hydrino hydride electrolytic cell can be operated with a K₂CO₃ catalyst. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds such as KHK¹⁷OH and KHK¹⁸OH form preferentially. The electrolyte comprising a mixture of catalyst, KHK¹⁷OH, and KHK¹⁸OH may be concentrated and KHK¹⁷OH and KHK¹⁸OH allowed to precipitate to yield compounds which are isotopically enriched in ¹⁷O or ¹⁸O, compared to ¹⁶O.

Another method to obtain ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O comprises reacting a hydrino hydride compound such as KH₂I with a source of oxygen such as water to form KHKOH which is enriched in ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O. The desired oxygen isotope may be collected as oxygen gas by decomposing the KHKOH by methods such as thermal decomposition.

For example, a hydrino hydride electrolytic cell can be operated with a K₂CO₃ catalyst. Increased binding energy hydrogen compounds such as KHK¹⁷OH and KHK¹⁸OH form preferentially. The electrolyte comprising a mixture of catalyst, KHK¹⁷OH, and KHK¹⁸OH may be concentrated and KHK¹⁷OH and KHK¹⁸OH allowed to precipitate to yield compounds in which are isotopically enriched in ¹⁶O.

Differential bond energy can arise from a difference in the nuclear moments of the isotopes and/or a difference in masses of the isotopes, and with a sufficient difference they can be separated. This mechanism can be enhanced as the temperature is reduced. Thus, separation can be enhanced by forming the increased binding energy compounds and performing the separation at lower temperatures.

The mass of tritium is the largest of any hydrogen isotope, and the nuclear magnetic moment is the largest. Thus, the electrolyte of a K₂CO₃/D₂O cell may become enriched in tritium compounds during electrolysis due to selective bonding of the tritium isotope to form hydrino hydride compounds. These compounds may be isolated and decomposed to release tritium.

3. Experimental

3.1 Synthesis and Isolation of Inorganic Hydrogen Polymer Compounds

3.1.1 Electrolytic Cell Hydrino Hydride Reactor

An electrolytic cell hydride reactor of the present invention is shown in FIG. 1. An electric current is passed through an electrolytic solution 102 contained in vessel 101 by the application of a voltage. The voltage is applied to an anode 104 and cathode 106 by a power controller 108 powered by a power supply 110. The electrolytic solution 102 contains a catalyst for producing hydrino atoms.

According to one embodiment of the electrolytic cell hydride reactor, cathode 106 is formed of nickel cathode 106 and anode 104 is formed of platinized titanium or nickel. The electrolytic solution 102 comprising an about 0.5M aqueous K₂CO₃ electrolytic solution (K⁺/K⁺ catalyst) is electrolyzed. The cell is operated within a voltage range of 1.4 to 3 volts. In one embodiment of the invention, the electrolytic solution 102 is molten.

Hydrino atoms form at the cathode 106 via contact of the catalyst of electrolyte 102 with the hydrogen atoms generated at the cathode 106. The electrolytic cell hydride reactor apparatus further comprises a source of electrons in contact with the hydrinos generated in the cell, to form hydrino hydride ions. The hydrinos are reduced (i.e. gain the electron) in the electrolytic cell to hydrino hydride ions. Reduction occurs by contacting the hydrinos with any of the following: 1.) the cathode 106, 2.) a reductant which comprises the cell vessel 101, or 3.) any of the reactor's components such as features designated as anode 104 or electrolyte 102, or 4.) a reductant 160 extraneous to the operation of the cell (i.e. a consumable reductant added to the cell from an outside source). Any of these reductants may comprise an electron source for reducing hydrinos to hydrino hydride ions.

A compound may form in the electrolytic cell between the hydrino hydride ions and cations. The cations may comprise, for example, any of the cations described herein, in particular an oxidized species of the material of the cathode or anode, a cation of an added reductant, or a cation of the electrolyte (such as a cation comprising the catalyst).

Inorganic hydrogen polymer compounds were prepared during the electrolysis of an aqueous solution of K₂CO₃ corresponding to the catalyst K⁺/K⁺. The cell comprised a 10 gallon (33 in.×15 in.) Nalgene tank (Model #54100-0010). Two 4 inch long by ½ inch diameter terminal bolts were secured in the lid, and a cord for a calibration heater was inserted through the lid. The cell assembly is shown in FIG. 1.

The cathode comprised 1.) a 5 gallon polyethylene bucket which served as a perforated (mesh) support structure where 0.5 inch holes were drilled over all surfaces at 0.75 inch spacings of the hole centers and 2.) 5000 meters of 0.5 mm diameter clean, cold drawn nickel wire (NI 200 0.0197″, HTN36NOAG1, A1 Wire Tech, Inc.). The wire was wound uniformly around the outside of the mesh support as 150 sections of 33 meter length. The ends of each of the 150 sections were spun to form three cables of 50 sections per cable. The cables were pressed in a terminal connector which was bolted to the cathode terminal post. The connection was covered with epoxy to prevent corrosion.

The anode comprised an array of 15 platinized titanium anodes (10—Engelhard Pt/Ti mesh 1.6″×8″ with one ¾″ by 7″ stem attached to the 1.6″ side plated with 100 U series 3000; and 5—Engelhard 1″ diameter×8″ length titanium tubes with one ¾″×7″ stem affixed to the interior of one end and plated with 100 U Pt series 3000). A ¾″ wide tab was made at the end of the stem of each anode by bending it at a right angle to the anode. A ¼″ hole was drilled in the center of each tab. The tabs were bolted to a 12.25″ diameter polyethylene disk (Rubbermaid Model #JN2-2669) equidistantly around the circumference. Thus, an array was fabricated having the 15 anodes suspended from the disk. The anodes were bolted with ¼″ polyethylene bolts. Sandwiched between each anode tab and the disk was a flattened nickel cylinder also bolted to the tab and the disk. The cylinder was made from a 7.5 cm by 9 cm long×0.125 mm thick nickel foil. The cylinder traversed the disk and the other end of each was pressed about a 10 AWG/600 V copper wire. The connection was sealed with shrink tubing and epoxy. The wires were pressed into two terminal connectors and bolted to the anode terminal. The connection was covered with epoxy to prevent corrosion.

Before assembly, the anode array was cleaned in 3 M HCL for 5 minutes and rinsed with distilled water. The cathode was cleaned by placing it in a tank of 0.57 M K₂CO₃/3% H₂O₂ for 6 hours and then rinsing it with distilled water. The anode was placed in the support between the central and outer cathodes, and the electrode assembly was placed in the tank containing electrolyte. The power supply was connected to the terminals with battery cables.

The electrolyte solution comprised 28 liters of 0.57 M K₂CO₃ (Alfa K₂CO₃ 99±%).

The calibration heater comprised a 57.6 ohm 1000 watt Incolloy 800 jacketed Nichrome heater which was suspended from the polyethylene disk of the anode array. It was powered by an Invar constant power (±0.1% supply (Model #TP 36-18). The voltage (±0.1%) and current (±0.1%) were recorded with a Fluke 8600A digital multimeter.

Electrolysis was performed at 20 amps constant current with a constant current (±0.02%) power supply (Kepco Model # ATE 6—100M).

The voltage (±0.1%) was recorded with a Fluke 8600A digital multimeter. The current (±0.5%) was read from an Ohio Semitronics CTA 101 current transducer.

The temperature (±0.1° C.) was recorded with a microprocessor thermometer Omega HH21 using a type K thermocouple which was inserted through a ¼″ hole in the tank lid and anode array disk. To eliminate the possibility that temperature gradients were present, the temperature was measured throughout the tank. No position variation was found to within the detection of the thermocouple (±0.1° C.).

The temperature rise above ambient (ΔT=T(electrolysis only)−T(blank)) and electrolysis power were recorded daily. The heating coefficient was determined “on the fly” by turning an internal resistance heater off and on, and inferring the cell constant from the difference between the losses with and without the heater. 20 watts of heater power were added to the electrolytic cell every 72 hours where 24 hours was allowed for steady state to be achieved. The temperature rise above ambient (ΔT₂=T(electrolysis+heater)−T(blank)) was recorded as well as the electrolysis power and heater power.

In all temperature measurements, the “blank” comprised 28 liters of water in a 10 gallon (33″×15″) Nalgene tank with lid (Model #54100-0010). The stirrer comprised a 1 cm diameter by 43 cm long glass rod to which an 0.8 cm by 2.5 cm Teflon half moon paddle was fastened at one end. The other end was connected to a variable speed stirring motor (Talboys Instrument Corporation Model #1075C). The stirring rod was rotated at 250 RPM.

The “blank” (nonelectrolysis cell) was stirred to simulate stirring in the electrolytic cell due to gas sparging. The one watt of heat from stirring resulted in the blank cell operating at 0.2° C. above ambient.

The temperature (±0.1° C.) of the “blank” was recorded with a microprocessor thermometer (Omega HH21 Series) which was inserted through a ¼″ hole in the tank lid.

A cell that produced 6.3×10⁸ J of enthalpy of formation of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds was operated by BlackLight Power, Inc. (Malvern, Pa.), hereinafter “BLP Electrolytic Cell”. The cell was equivalent to that described herein. The cell description is also given by Mills et al. [R. Mills, W. Good, and R. Shaubach, Fusion Technol. 25, 103 (1994)] except that it lacked the additional central cathode.

Thermacore Inc. (Lancaster, Pa.) operated an electrolytic cell described by Mills et al. [R. Mills, W. Good, and R. Shaubach, Fusion Technol. 25, 103 (1994)] herein after “Thermacore Electrolytic Cell”. This cell had produced an enthalpy of formation of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds of 1.6×10⁹ J that exceeded the total input enthalpy given by the product of the electrolysis voltage and current over time by a factor greater than 8.

Idaho National Engineering Laboratory (INEL) operated [Jacox, M. G., Watts, K. D., “The Search for Excess Heat in the Mills Electrolytic Cell”, Idaho National Engineering Laboratory, EG&G Idaho, Inc., Idaho Falls, Id., 83415, Jan. 7, 1993] a cell, hereinafter “INEL Electrolytic Cell”, identical to the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell except that it was minus the central cathode and that the cell was wrapped in a one-inch layer of urethane foam insulation about the cylindrical surface. The cell was operated in a pulsed power mode. A current of 10 amperes was passed through the cell for 0.2 seconds followed by 0.8 seconds of zero current for the current cycle. The cell voltage was about 2.4 volts, for an average input power of 4.8 W. The electrolysis power average was 1.84 W, and the stirrer power was measured to be 0.3 W. Thus, the total average net input power was 2.14 W. The cell was operated at various resistance heater settings, and the temperature difference between the cell and the ambient as well as the heater power were measured. The results of the excess power as a function of cell temperature with the cell operating in the pulsed power mode at 1 Hz with a cell voltage of 2.4 volts, a peak current of 10 amperes, and a duty cycle of 20% showed that the excess power is temperature dependent for pulsed power operation, and the maximum excess power was 18 W for an input electrolysis joule heating power of 2.14 W. Thus, the ratio of excess power to input electrolysis joule heating power was 850%.

3.1.2 Electrolytic Cell Sample Preparation

Sample #1 (980623 MP 1). The sample was prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell using a rotary evaporator at 50° C. until a white polymeric suspension formed. White polymeric material was observed after the volume had been reduced from 3000 cc to 150 cc. The inorganic polymer was centrifuged to form a pellet that was collected following decanting of the concentrated electrolyte.

Sample #2 (971104RM). The sample was prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell at room temperature using an evaporation dish until yellow-white solid containing polymers just formed. The remaining electrolyte was decanted and the solid was dried and collected.

Sample #3 (971106DC). The sample was prepared by concentrating 300 cc of the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell using a rotary evaporator at 50° C. until a precipitate just formed. The volume was about 50 cc. Additional electrolyte was added while heating at 50° C. until the crystals disappeared. Crystals were then grown over three weeks by allowing the saturated solution to stand in a sealed round bottom flask for three weeks at 25° C. The yield was 1 g.

Sample #4 (980722 MP 2). The sample was prepared by treating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a cation exchange resin (Purolite C100H) which replaced cations including K⁺ with H⁺ which reacted with the carbonate to form carbon dioxide gas and water. 1.8 liters of the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell was concentrated to 500 ml by distillation of H₂O using a rotary evaporator at 50° C. Purolite C100H cation exchanger (The Purolite Company, Philadelphia, Pa.) was added to the concentrated solution until the evolution of CO₂ gas ceased. The strong-acid cation exchanger is a polystyrene based resin that has pendant H⁺ groups available for exchange. The resin is regenerated by four successive treatments in 3% HCl followed by thorough rinsing with deionized water. The resin is stored and added to the solution in a hydrated state. The spent cation-exchange resin was removed by filtration using a Buchner funnel with Whatman #50 filter paper. The volume of the filtrate was about 1.2 liters which was greater than the volume of the concentrated starting electrolytic solution since water was contributed by the wet cation exchange resin. The filtrate was transferred to a rotary evaporator where it was concentrated to a volume of about 100 ml. The remaining filtrate was gently heated to dryness. White powder was obtained.

Sample #5 (9804168RM B). The cathode of the INEL Electrolytic Cell was placed in 28 liters of 0.6M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂. 200 cc of the solution was acidified with HNO₃. The solution was allowed to stand open for three months at room temperature in a 250 ml beaker. White nodular crystals formed on the walls of the beaker by a mechanism equivalent to thin layer chromatography involving atmospheric water vapor as the moving phase and the Pyrex silica of the beaker as the stationary phase.

Sample #6 (971203RM C). The K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell was reacted with hydro iodic acid and concentrated by heating in an open beaker whereby the temperature was maintained at 80° C. The final volume was made such that the solution was calculated to be 4 M KI. The final pH was 6.5.

Sample #7 (980818 MP 3). The sample was the gelatinous white material that was filtered from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with an 0.1 μm filter paper.

Sample #8 (980122RM A). The sample was prepared by acidifying 400 cc of the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with HNO₃. The acidified solution was concentrated to a volume of 10 cc and placed on a crystallization dish. Crystals formed slowly upon standing at room temperature. Yellow-white crystals formed on the outer edge of the crystallization dish that were collected.

Sample #9 (971010MS W). The sample was prepared by filtering the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a Whatman 110 mm filter paper (Cat. No. 1450 110).

Sample #10 (980622 MP 1). The sample comprised a 10 cm long nickel wire cut from the cathode of the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell.

Sample #11. The sample comprised a 10 cm long nickel wire cut from the cathode of the BLP Electrolytic Cell.

3.1.3 Quartz Gas Cell Hydrino Hydride Reactor

Hydrino hydride compounds were prepared in a vapor phase gas cell with a tungsten filament and KI as the catalyst according to Eqs. (3-5) and the reduction to hydrino hydride ion (Eq. (11)) occurred in the gas phase. The high temperature experimental gas cell shown in FIG. 2 was used to produce hydrino hydride compounds. Hydrino atoms were formed by hydrogen catalysis using potassium ions and hydrogen atoms in the gas phase.

The experimental gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2 comprised a quartz cell in the form of a quartz tube 2 five hundred (500) millimeters in length and fifty (50) millimeters in diameter. The quartz cell formed a reaction vessel. One end of the cell was necked down and attached to a fifty (50) cubic centimeter catalyst reservoir 3. The other end of the cell was fitted with a Conflat style high vacuum flange that was mated to a Pyrex cap 5 with an identical Conflat style flange. A high vacuum seal was maintained with a Viton O-ring and stainless steel clamp. The Pyrex cap 5 included five glass-to-metal tubes for the attachment of a gas inlet line 25 and gas outlet line 21, two inlets 22 and 24 for electrical leads 6, and a port 23 for a lifting rod 26. One end of the pair of electrical leads was connected to a tungsten filament 1. The other end was connected to a Sorensen DCS 80-13 power supply 9 controlled by a custom built constant power controller. Lifting rod 26 was adapted to lift a quartz plug 4 separating the catalyst reservoir 3 from the reaction vessel of cell 2. Optionally, the reactor further comprised a thermal radiation shield at the top of the cell to provide further insulation.

H₂ gas was supplied to the cell through the inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultra high purity hydrogen 11 controlled by hydrogen control valve 13. Helium gas was supplied to the cell through the same inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultrahigh purity helium 12 controlled by helium control valve 15. The flow of helium and hydrogen to the cell is further controlled by mass flow controller 10, mass flow controller valve 30, inlet valve 29, and mass flow controller bypass valve 31. Valve 31 was closed during filling of the cell. Excess gas was removed through the gas outlet 21 by a molecular drag pump 8 capable of reaching pressures of 10⁻⁴ torr controlled by vacuum pump valve 27 and outlet valve 28. Pressures were measured by a 0-1000 torr Baratron pressure gauge and a 0-100 torr Baratron pressure gauge 7. The filament 1 was 0.381 millimeters in diameter and two hundred (200) centimeters in length. The filament was suspended on a ceramic support to maintain its shape when heated. The filament was resistively heated using power supply 9. The power supply was capable of delivering a constant power to the filament. The catalyst reservoir 3 was heated independently using a band heater 20, also powered by a constant power supply. The entire quartz cell was enclosed inside an insulation package comprised of Zicar AL-30 insulation 14. Several K type thermocouples were placed in the insulation to measure key temperatures of the cell and insulation. The thermocouples were read with a multichannel computer data acquisition system.

The cell was operated under flow conditions with a total pressure of less than two (2) torr of hydrogen or control helium via mass flow controller 10. The filament was heated to a temperature in the range from 1000-2000° C. as calculated by its resistance. A preferred temperature was about 1400° C. This created a “hot zone” within the quartz tube of about 700-800° C. as well as causing atomization of the hydrogen gas. The catalyst reservoir was heated to a temperature of 700° C. to establish the vapor pressure of the catalyst. The quartz plug 4 separating the catalyst reservoir 3 from the reaction vessel 2 was removed using the lifting rod 26 which was slid about 2 cm through the port 23. This introduced the vaporized catalyst into the “hot zone” containing the atomic hydrogen, and allowed the catalytic reaction to occur.

As described above, a number of thermocouples were positioned to measure the linear temperature gradient in the outside insulation. The gradient was measured for several known input powers over the experimental range with the catalyst valve closed. Helium supplied from the tank 12 and controlled by the valves 15, 29, 30, and 31, and flow controller 10 was flowed through the cell during the calibration where the helium pressure and flow rates were identical to those of hydrogen in the experimental cases. The thermal gradient was determined to be linearly proportional to input power. Comparing an experimental gradient (catalyst valve open/hydrogen flowing) to the calibration gradient allowed the determination of the requisite power to generate that gradient. In this way, calorimetry was performed on the cell to measure the heat output with a known input power. The data was recorded with a Macintosh based computer data acquisition system (PowerComputing PowerCenter Pro 180) and a National Instruments, Inc. NI-DAQ PCI-MIO-16XE-50 Data Acquisition Board.

Enthalpy of catalysis from the gas energy cell having a gaseous transition catalyst (K⁺/K⁺) was observed with low pressure hydrogen in the presence of potassium iodide (KI) which was volatilized at the operating temperature of the cell. The enthalpy of formation of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds resulted in a steady state power of about 15 watts that was observed from the quartz reaction vessel containing about 200 mtorr of KI when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten filament. However, no excess enthalpy was observed when helium was flowed over the hot tungsten filament or when hydrogen was flowed over the hot tungsten filament with no KI present in the cell.

In a separate experiment RbI or RbCl replaced KI as the gaseous transition catalyst according to Eq. (6), Eq. (7), and Eq. (8).

In two other embodiments, the experimental gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2 comprised a titanium screen (Belleville Wire Cloth Co., Inc.) filament of six titanium screen strips 3 cm wide and 30 cm in length or an 8 meter long coil of a three stand cable of 0.38 mm diameter nickel wire (99+% Alpha #10249) which replaced the tungsten filament 1. The titanium screen filament or nickel coil filament dissociator was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the quartz cell. The filament was suspended on Al₂O₃ cylindrical filament supports. The cell was operated at 800° C. when the filament temperature was from 1000 to 1200° C., and KBr or KI catalyst was vaporized into the gas cell by heating the catalyst reservoir. Hydrogen was flowed through the cell at a steady state pressure of 1 torr.

In two other embodiments, a second 30 cm wide and 30 cm long nickel or titanium screen dissociator was wrapped inside the inner wall of the cell. The screen was heated by the titanium screen or nickel coil filament.

In another embodiment, the experimental gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2 comprised a Ni fiber mat (30.2 g, Fibrex from National Standard) inserted into the inside the quartz cell 2. The Ni mat was used as the H₂ dissociator which replaced the tungsten filament 1. The cell 2 and the catalyst reservoir 3 were each independently encased by split type clam shell furnaces (The Mellen Company) which replaced the Zicar AL-30 insulation 14 and were capable of operating up to 1200° C. The cell and catalyst reservoir were heated independently with their heaters to independently control the catalyst vapor pressure and the reaction temperature. The H₂ pressure was maintained at 2 torr at a flow rate of

$\frac{0.5{\mathrm{cm}}^3}{\min }.$

The Ni mat was maintained at 900° C., and the KI catalyst was maintained at 700° C. for 100 h.

3.1.4 Concentric Quartz Tubes Gas Cell Hydrino Hydride Reactor

Hydrino hydride compounds were prepared in a concentric quartz tubes gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a Ni screen dissociator and KI as the catalyst. The experimental concentric quartz tubes gas cell hydrino hydride reactor is shown in FIG. 3. The reactor cell comprised two concentric quartz tubes 401 and 402 of dimensions 1″ OD×21″ long and ¾″ OD×24″ long, respectively. The 1″ OD tube was closed at the bottom end with a thermowell 403 and the ¾″ OD tube was open at both ends. The quartz tubes were connected to Swagelok fittings 404 and 405 to provide a system capable of maintaining a vacuum. Two sets of external heaters 406 and 407 were used to control the temperature of the catalyst and the Ni fiber dissociator independently. The heaters comprised Chrome Aluminum Iron heating elements imbedded in a high purity Al₂O₃ cement (The Mellen Company).

A Ni fiber mat dissociator −30.2 g (National Standard Company) 408 was placed in the ¾″ quartz tube 402. The Ni mat was pretreated in the cell by flowing H₂ (Scientific Grade—MGS Industries) from a H₂ source 409 at a rate of 20 cm³/min. at a temperature of 900° C. for 24 h. The system was cooled by flowing He (Scientific Grade—MGS Industries) from a helium source 410 for 12 hours. KI catalyst −10.3 g (99.0%, Alfa Aesar) 411 was placed at the bottom of the 1″ OD quartz tube 401. H₂ was introduced in the annular space 412 of the two concentric tubes and the product gas was pumped away via the ¾″ quartz tube using a vacuum pump 413. The total pressure was maintained at 2.0 torr. The Ni dissociator temperature was maintained around 950° C. (measured by a Type C thermocouple 414), and the catalyst temperature was maintained around 650° C. (measured by a Type C thermocouple 415). The reaction was stopped after 170 h, and the reactor was cooled in He for 12 hours before exposing the cell to atmospheric conditions.

3.1.5 Stainless Steel Gas Cell Hydrino Hydride Reactor

Hydrino hydride compounds were prepared in a stainless steel gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a Ti screen dissociator and KI as the catalyst. The experimental stainless steel gas cell hydrino hydride reactor is shown in FIG. 3. It comprised a 304-stainless steel cell 301 in the form of a tube having an internal cavity 317 having dimensions of 359 millimeters in length and 73 millimeters in diameter. The top end of the cell was welded to a high vacuum 4⅝ inch bored through conflat flange 318. The mating blank conflat flange 319 contained a single coaxial hole in which was welded a ¼ inch diameter stainless steel tube 302 that was 100 cm in length. A silver plated copper gasket was placed between the two flanges. The two flanges are held together with 10 circumferential bolts. The bottom of the ¼ inch tube 302 was flush with the bottom surface of the top flange 319. The tube 302 provided a passage for air to be removed from the cell and hydrogen to be supplied to the cell. The cell 301 was surrounded by four heaters 303, 304, 305, and 306. Concentric to the heaters was high temperature AL 30 Zircar insulation 307. Each of the four heaters were individually thermostatically controlled.

Titanium screen was used as the dissociator and as a reactant to produce titanium hydrino hydride. The cylindrical wall of the cell 301 was lined with two layers of Ti screen 308. Before placing the titanium dissociator in the cell 301. The titanium was reacted with an aqueous solution of 0.57 M K₂CO₃ and 3% H₂O₂ for ten minutes. The titanium screen was removed from the solution, and the reaction product was allowed to dry on the screen at room temperature. The screen was then baked at 200° C. for 12 hours. 71 grams of powdered KI 309 was poured into the cell 301. The cell was sealed then continuously evacuated with a high vacuum turbo pump 310. The pressure gauge (Varian Convector, Pirrani type) 312 read 50 millitorr. The cell was heated by supplying power to the heaters 303, 304, 305, and 306. The power of the largest heater 305 was measured using a Clarke-Hess model 259 wattmeter. Its 0 to 1 V analog output was fed to the DAS and recorded with the other signals. The temperature of the cell read with an Omega type K thermocouple with a type 97000 controller was then slowly increased over 2 hours to 300° C. The pressure initially increased, then slowly dropped to 10 millitorr. The vacuum pump valve 311 was closed. Hydrogen was supplied from tank 316 through regulator 315 to the valve 314. Hydrogen was slowly added by first filling the tube between valve 314 and valve 313 to 800 torr. Valve 313 was slowly opened to transfer the trapped hydrogen to the cell 301. This hydrogen transfer method was repeated until the pressure in the reactor climbed to 760 torr. The temperature of the cell was then slowly increased to 650° C. over 5 hours. The hydrogen valve 313 was closed. For the next two hours, the vacuum valve 311 was slowly partially opened to bleed off the surplus hydrogen to maintain a pressure between 400 to 500 millitorr. During the next 17 hours the pressure climbed to 1 torr. The cell was then cooled and opened. About 5 grams of blue crystals were observed to have formed in the bottom of the cell.

3.1.6 Gas Cell Sample Preparation

Sample #12 (971215RM A). The sample was prepared from the cryopumped crystals on the 40° C. cap of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a RbI catalyst, stainless steel filament leads, and a W filament by rinsing with distilled water. The solution was filtered to remove water insoluble compounds such as metal. The solution was concentrated by evaporation at 50° C. until a precipitate just formed at a volume of 10 ml. Yellow crystals formed on standing at room temperature for 2 days. The solution was filtered. The crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #13 (980429BD A and 980429BD B). Using a clean stainless steel spatula, the sample was collected from a band of air stable red colored crystals that were cryopumped to the top of the inner tube (¾″ OD) of the concentric quartz tubes hydrino hydride reactor at about 100° C.

Sample #14 (980623BD A). The sample was prepared by rinsing a polymer from the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst and a Ti screen (Belleville Wire Cloth Co., Inc.) filament following a 30 watt excess power event that melted the filament. The cell was rinsed and allowed to stand in an open evaporation dish at room temperature. The polymer formed over 3 weeks. The solution was allowed to evaporate to dryness and the polymer was collected.

Sample #15 (981006BD C). The sample was prepared by collecting the dark blue crystals that formed at the bottom of the stainless steel gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst and a titanium screen dissociator that was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the cell. The stainless steel gas cell was heated to 700° C. by external heaters. The cell ran for 48 hours.

Sample #16 (980908-1w). The sample was prepared by collecting a band of crystals that were cryopumped to the underside of the radiation shield of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor at about 120° C. comprising a KI catalyst and a nickel screen dissociator that was heated to 700° C. by a nickel wire heater.

Sample #17. The sample was prepared by dissolving 0.509 g of crystals from sample #13 (980429BD A) in 100 ml of deionized water. Iodide was removed as a AgI precipitate by titration of the sample with AgNO₃ to the iodide stoichiometric endpoint. 0.8085 g of AgNO₃ (Alfa, 99.995%) was dissolved in 100 ml of deionized water to yield a 4.76×10⁻² M AgNO₃ titration solution. During titration the solution was stirred with a Teflon stirring bar. The titration was followed potentiometrically using a silver electrode. The working electrode comprised a 3.8 cm long Ag wire (0.5 mm diameter, Alfa, 99.9985%) which was in contact with the solution. The other end was soldered to a copper wire, and the union and the copper wire were sealed in a quartz tube with epoxy. The reference electrode was a Hg calomel electrode (HI5412, Hanna Instruments). The voltage read from the electrodes using a potentiometer (HI9025, Hanna Instruments) was due to the following equilibria:

Hg₂Cl₂(s)+2e2Hg(l)+2Cl⁻ E₀=0.268 V

Ag⁺+e⁻Ag(s)·E₀=0.799 V

The Nernst equation for this system reduces to: E_cell=0.558+0.05916 log [Ag⁺] where at the equivalence point, [Ag⁺]=√{square root over (K_sp(AgI))}=9.11×10⁻⁹ and E_cell=82.3 mV. Upon completion of the titration, the AgI precipitate was removed by filtration with a Buchner funnel and either a #50 filter paper or a Whatman 0.45 μm mixed ester filter membrane. The filtrate was concentrated using a rotary evaporator at 50° C. until crystal just formed. A small aliquot of water was then added such that the crystals just dissolved at 50° C. White crystals formed on standing at room temperature for 72 hours. The solution was filtered. The crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #18 (981109-2g1). The sample was collected from the products condensed below the radiation shield of a quartz test cell. Approximately 10 g of RbI (99.8%, Alfa Aesar, Stock #13497, Lot #K12128) was used as the catalyst, and 59 g of Ti screen was used as the hydrogen dissociator. The Ti screen was heated resistively with a tungsten filament, 8 m length, 0.02″ diameter wound around a high density grooved Alumina tube. Approximately 300 Watts of power was supplied to the tungsten filament to heat the Ti screen. The catalyst was heated by a band heater at 40 Watts. The flow rate of hydrogen was 0.7 cm³ min⁻¹ and the pressure was maintained at 0.6 Torr. The temperature at the radiation shield was around 200° C. Thermocouples located near the cell body and the catalyst pot indicated 750° C. and 500° C. respectively. After the catalyst reservoir was opened, the experiment was run for 4 days. The cell produced 15 Watts of excess power.

Sample #19 (981103BDB). The sample comprised a Ti foil (Aldrich Chemical Company (99.7% #34879-1).

Sample #20 (980810BD H). The sample was prepared by collecting a piece of the bottom section of the filament of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KBr catalyst and titanium mesh filament dissociator that was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the quartz cell following a 100 W excess power burst and that the melted the filament.

Sample #21 (980908BDC). The sample comprised the Ti screen that was run in the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a silver foil, a KI catalyst, and a titanium screen dissociator that was heated to 800° C. by external Mellen heater. The Ag foil reacted and may have vaporized or coated on the Ti. The TOFSIMS spectrum was obtained at Xerox Corporation.

Sample #22 (981103BDB). The sample comprised a Fe foil (Alfa Aesar 99.5% #39707).

Sample #23 (981009BDE). The sample comprised a Fe foil that was run in a gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst and a titanium screen dissociator that was heated to 800° C. by external Mellen heaters.

Sample #24 (980910vk1). The sample was prepared by removing the black film from a sample of the cathode wire of the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with 0.1 M HCl. The solution was filtered, and the solid was collected and dried.

Sample #25 (092198vk2). The sample was prepared by removing the black film from a sample of the cathode wire of the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with 0.1 M HCl. The solution was filtered and the green filtrate was treated with K₂CO₃. The precipitate was filtered and dried.

Sample #26 (980519BD C). The sample was prepared by collecting a dark band of crystals that were cryopumped to the top of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor at about 100° C. comprising a KI catalyst and a nickel fiber mat dissociator that was heated to 800° C. by external Mellen heaters.

Sample #27 (Wet Iodine). The sample comprised a mixture of distilled water and pure iodine crystals.

Sample #28 (980218BD B2). Crystal samples were prepared by rinsing a dark colored band of crystals from the top of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst, stainless steel filament leads, and a W filament that were cryopumped there during operation of the cell. The crystals were collected by filtration and dried.

Sample #29 (971215RM B). The sample was prepared from the cryopumped crystals on the 40° C. cap of the quartz gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst, stainless steel filament leads, and a W filament by rinsing with distilled water. The solution was filtered to remove water insoluble compounds such as metal. The solution was concentrated by evaporation at 50° C. until a precipitate just formed. Colloidal reddish-brown crystals formed on standing at room temperature for 2 hours. The solution was filtered. The crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #30 (980218BD E2). The sample was prepared by rinsing cryopumped crystals from the cap of the quartz gas cell comprising a KI catalyst and a W filament with distilled water. The solution was filtered and concentrated by evaporation at room temperature. Yellow colloidal crystals formed which were collected by filtration and dried at room temperature.

Sample #31 (980218BD D). The sample was prepared by collecting a light metallic coating from the quartz gas cell comprising a KI catalyst and a W filament by rinsing with distilled water. The solution was filtered. The filtered crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #32 (980218BD C2). The sample was prepared by collecting a dark band below the flange of the quartz gas cell comprising a KI catalyst and a W filament. The sample was dissolved in distilled water, filtered, concentrated, and evaporated to dryness. The crystals were suspended distilled water, and the solution was filtered. The filtered crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #33 (98218BD A3). The sample was prepared by collecting a dark band below the flange of the quartz gas cell comprising a KI catalyst and a W filament. The sample was dissolved in distilled water, filtered, concentrated, and evaporated to dryness. The crystals were suspended distilled water, and the solution was filtered. The filtered crystals were collected and dried at room temperature.

Sample #34 (971215RM C). The sample was prepared by rinsing the catalyst and increased binding energy hydrogen compounds from the quartz gas cell comprising a KI catalyst and a W filament with distilled water. The solution was filtered and slowly evaporated to dryness on a hot plate. The weight of dry sample was determined, and distilled water was added to form a solution which was approximately 4 M in KI. LiNO₃ crystals were added to make the solution 1 M in LiNO₃. Crystals were allowed to grow for one week at room temperature. The crystals were collected by filtration, recrystallized from distilled water, and dried at room temperature.

3.2 Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Time-of-Flight-Secondary-Ion-Mass-Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)

3.2.1 Time-Of-Flight-Secondary-Ion-Mass-Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)

Time-Of-Flight-Secondary-Ion-Mass-Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) is a method to determine the mass spectrum over a large dynamic range of mass to charge ratios (e.g. m/e=1-600) with extremely high precision (e.g. ±0.005 amu). The analyte is bombarded with charged ions which ionizes the compounds present to form molecular ions in vacuum. The mass is then determined with a high resolution time-of-flight analyzer.

Samples were sent to the Evans East company for TOFSIMS analysis. The powder samples were sprinkled onto the surface of double-sided adhesive tapes. The instrument was a Physical Electronics, PHI-Evans TFS-2000. The primary ion beam was a ⁶⁹Ga⁺ liquid metal ion gun with a primary beam voltage of 15 kV bunched. The nominal analysis regions were (12 μm)₂, (18 μm)², and (25 μm)². Charge neutralization was active. The post acceleration voltage was 8000 V. The contrast diaphragm was zero. No energy slit was applied. The gun aperture was 4. The samples were analyzed without sputtering. Then, the samples were sputter cleaned for 30 s to remove hydrocarbons with a 40 μm raster prior to repeat analysis. The positive and negative SIMS spectra were acquired for three (3) locations on each sample. The post sputtering data is reported except where indicated otherwise. Mass spectra are plotted as the number of secondary ions detected (Y-axis) versus the mass-to-charge ratio of the ions (X-axis). References comprised 99.999% KHCO₃, 99.999% KNO₃, and 99.999% KI.

Samples were also sent to Xerox Corporation for TOFSIMS analysis.

3.2.2 Results and Discussion

In the case that an M+2 peak was assigned as a potassium hydrino hydride compound in TABLES 2-20 and 31-32, the intensity of the M+2 peak significantly exceeded the intensity predicted for the corresponding ⁴¹K peak, and the mass was correct. For example, the intensity of the peak assigned to KHKOH₂ was about equal to or greater than the intensity of the peak assigned to K₂OH as shown in FIG. 86 for the TOFSIMS positive spectrum of sample #3.

For any compound or fragment peak given in TABLES 2-20 and 31-32 containing an element with more than one isotope, only the lighter isotope is given, except that ⁴⁸Ti is reported. In each case, it is implicit that the peak corresponding to the other isotopes(s) was also observed with an intensity corresponding to about the correct natural abundance (e.g. ⁶Li and ⁷Li; ²⁴Mg, ²⁵Mg, and ²⁶Mg; ⁴⁶Ti, ⁴⁷Ti, ⁴⁸Ti, ⁴⁹Ti, and ⁵⁰Ti; ⁵⁶Fe, ⁵⁷Fe, and ⁵⁸Fe; ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, and ⁶¹Ni; ⁶³Cu and ⁶⁵Cu; ⁵⁰Cr, ⁵²Cr, ⁵³Cr, and ⁵⁴Cr; ⁶⁴Zn, ⁶⁶Zn, ⁶⁷Zn, and ⁶⁸Zn; and ¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag).

In the case of ³⁹KH₂⁺, the ⁴¹K peak was not present, and a metastable neutral was present. A broad peak was observed at about m/e=41.36 which may account for the missing ions indicating that the ⁴¹K species (⁴¹KH₂⁺) was a neutral metastable. Or, potassium of KH may saturate the detector due to the much greater atomic percent potassium in this compound. To support this explanation, ³⁹K peak dominated the positive FY spectrum, and the hydride peak dominated the negative ion spectrum when the ⁴¹K peak was much greater than natural abundance. Whereas, the natural abundance of ⁴¹K was observed even when the matched control potassium compound was run such that the ³⁹K peak intensity was an order of magnitude higher.

A more likely alternative explanation is that ³⁹K and ⁴¹K undergo exchange, and for certain hydrino hydride compounds, the bond energy of the ³⁹K hydrino hydride compound exceeds that of the ⁴¹K compound by substantially more than the thermal energy. This must be the case when the mass also indicates ³⁹KH₂⁺. The comparison of the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1 with that of 99.999% KHCO₃ shown in FIGS. 7-8 and 5-6, respectively, demonstrates the presence of ³⁹KH₂⁺ in the absence of ⁴¹KH₂⁺. This result was confirmed by ESITOFMS. The natural ³⁹K/⁴¹K ratio was observed in the case of the control positive ESITOFMS spectrum of 99.9% K₂CO₃ shown in FIG. 63. The ratio was significantly different in the case of the positive ESITOFMS spectrum of sample #3 shown in FIG. 64.

The selectivity of hydrino atoms and hydride ions to form bonds with specific isotopes based on a differential in bond energy provides the explanation of the experimental observation of the presence of ³⁹ KH₂⁺ in the absence of ⁴¹KH₂⁺ in the TOFSIMS spectra of compounds from K₂CO₃ electrolytic cell hydrino hydride reactors. A known molecule which exhibits a differential in bond energy due to orbital-nuclear coupling is ortho and para hydrogen. At absolute zero, the bond energy of para-H₂ is 103.239 kcal/mole; whereas, the bond energy of ortho-H₂ is 102.900 kcal/mole. In the case of deuterium, the bond energy of para-D₂ is 104.877 kcal/mole, and the bond energy of ortho-D₂ is 105.048 kcal/mole [H. W. Wooley, R. B. Scott, F. G. Brickwedde, J. Res. Nat. Bur. Standards, Vol. 41, (1948), p. 379]. Comparing deuterium to hydrogen, the bond energies of deuterium are greater due to the greater mass of deuterium which effects the bond energy by altering the zero order vibrational energy as given in '96 Mills GUT. The bond energies indicate that the effect of orbital-nuclear coupling on bonding is comparable to the effect of doubling the mass, and the orbital-nuclear coupling contribution to the bond energy is greater in the case of hydrogen. The latter result is due to the differences in magnetic moments and nuclear spin quantum numbers of the hydrogen isotopes. For hydrogen, the nuclear spin quantum number is I=½, and the nuclear magnetic moment is μ_p=2.79268μ_N where μ_N is the nuclear magneton. For deuterium, I=1, and μ_D=0.857387μ_N. The difference in bond energies of para versus ortho hydrogen is 0.339 kcal/mole or 0.015 eV. The thermal energy of an ideal gas at room temperature given by 3/2 kT is 0.038 eV where k is the Boltzmann constant and T is the absolute temperature. Thus, at room temperature, orbital-nuclear coupling is inconsequential. However, the orbital-nuclear coupling force is a function of the inverse electron-nuclear distance to the fourth power and its effect on the total energy of the molecule becomes substantial as the bond length decreases. The internuclear distance 2c′ of dihydrino molecule

$H_2^{*}\left[n=\frac{1}{p}\right]\mathrm{is}2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}$

which is 1/p times that of ordinary hydrogen. The effect of orbital-nuclear coupling interactions on bonding at elevated temperature is observed via the relationship of fractional quantum number to the para to ortho ratio of dihydrino molecules. Only para

$H_2^{*}\left[n=\frac{1}{3};2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{3}\right]\mathrm{and}$ $H_2^{*}\left[n=\frac{1}{4};2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{4}\right]$

was observed by BlackLight Power, Malvern, Pa. in the case of dihydrino formed via a hydrogen discharge with the catalyst (KI) where the reaction gasses flowed through a 100% CuO recombiner and were sampled by an on-line gas chromatograph [Mills, R, “NOVEL HYDRIDE COMPOUNDS”, PCT US98/14029 filed on Jul. 7, 1998]. Thus, for p≧3, the effect of orbital-nuclear coupling on bond energy exceeds thermal energy such that the Boltzmann distribution results in only para.

The same effect is predicted for potassium isotopes. For ³⁹K, the nuclear spin quantum number is I=3/2, and the nuclear magnetic moment is μ=0.39097μ_N. For ⁴¹K, I=3/2, and μ=0.21489μ_N [Robert C. Weast, CRC Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 58 Edition, CRC Press, West Palm Beach, Fla., (1977), p. E-69]. The masses of the potassium isotopes are essentially the same; however, the nuclear magnetic moment of ³⁹K is about twice that of ⁴¹K. Thus, in the case that an increased binding energy hydrogen species including a hydrino hydride ion forms a bond with potassium, the ³⁹K compound is favored energetically. Bond formation is effected by orbital-nuclear coupling which could be substantial and strongly dependent of the bond length which is a function of the fractional quantum number of the increased binding energy hydrogen species. As a comparison, the magnetic energy to flip the orientation of the proton's magnetic moment, μ_p, from parallel to antiparallel to the direction of the magnetic flux B_s due to electron spin and the magnetic flux B_o due to the orbital angular momentum of the electron where the radius of the hydrino atom is a_H/n is shown in '96 Mills n GUT [Mills, R., The Grand Unified Theory of Classical Quantum Mechanics, September 1996 Edition, provided by BlackLight Power, Inc., Great Valley Corporate Center, 41 Great Valley Parkway, Malvern, Pa. 19355, pp. 100-101]. The total energy of the transition from parallel to antiparallel alignment, ΔE_total^S/NO/N, is given as

$\begin{array}{cc}\Delta E_{\mathrm{total}}^{S/NO/N}=\frac{{\mathrm{ne}}^2}{8\pi {\varepsilon }_o}\left[\frac{1}{r_{1-}}-\frac{1}{r_{1+}}\right]-\left(\sqrt{l\left(l+1\right)}+\sqrt{\frac{3}{4}}\right)2{\mu }_P\frac{n^3{\mu }_0e\hslash }{m_ea_H^3}& \left(35\right)\\ r_{1\pm }=\frac{a_H+\sqrt{a_H^2\pm \frac{6{\mu }_oe\left(\sqrt{l\left(l+1\right)}+\sqrt{\frac{3}{4}}\right){\mu }_Pa_o}{\hslash }}}{2n}& \left(36\right)\end{array}$

where r₁₊ corresponds to parallel alignment of the magnetic moments of the electron and proton, r₁₋ corresponds to antiparallel alignment of the magnetic moments of the electron and proton, a_H is the Bohr radius of the hydrogen atom, and a_o is the Bohr radius. In increasing from a fractional quantum number of n=1, l=0 to n=5, l=4, the energy increases by a factor of over 2500. As a comparison, the minimum electron-nuclear distance in the ordinary hydrogen molecule is

$\left(1-\frac{\sqrt{2}}{2}\right)a_0=0.29a_0.$

With n=3; l=2 to give a comparable electron-nuclear distance and with two electrons and two protons Eqs. (35) and (36) provide an estimate of the orbital-nuclear coupling energy of ordinary molecular hydrogen of about 0.01 eV which is consistent with the observed value. Thus, in the case of a potassium compound containing at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species with a sufficiently short internuclear distance, the differential in bond energy exceeds thermal energies, and compound becomes enriched in the ³⁹K isotope. In the case of hydrino hydride compounds KH_n, the selectivity of hydrino atoms and hydride ions to form bonds with ³⁹K based on a differential in bond energy provides the explanation of the experimental observation of the presence of ³⁹KH₂⁺ in the absence of ⁴¹KH₂⁺ in the TOFSIMS spectra given in FIGS. 7 and 8. Also, substantially enrichment of ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O was observed by DEPMSMS as given in the corresponding section.

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #1 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 2.

TABLE 2
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the
corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary
Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #1 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino				Observed
Hydride	Nominal			and
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
H23	23	23.180	23.179975	0.000
NaH	24	23.99	23.997625	0.008
Al	27	26.98	26.98153	0.001
AlH	28	27.98	27.989355	0.009
AlH2	29	29.00	28.99718	0.003
OH23	39	39.178	39.174885	0.003
KH2a	41	40.97	40.97936	0.009
KH	40	39.97	39.971535	0.0015
KOH2	57	56.98	56.97427	0.006
NaHKH	64	63.96	63.96916	0.009
NiO	74	73.93	73.93021	0.000
NiOH	75	74.94	74.938035	0.002
K2H	79	78.940	78.935245	0.004
(KH)2	80	79.942	79.94307	0.001
K2H5	83	82.96	82.966545	0.007
KHKOH2	97	96.945	96.945805	0.0008
KKHNaH	103	102.93	102.93287	0.003
KH2(KH)2	121	120.925	120.92243	0.003
KH KHCO2	124	123.925	123.93289	0.008
KH2KHO4	145	144.92	144.930535	0.010
K(KOH)2	151	150.90	150.8966	0.003
KH(KOH)2	152	151.90	151.904425	0.004
KH2(KOH)2	153	152.90	152.91225	0.012
K[KH KHCO3]	179	178.89	178.8915	0.001
AgHBr	187	186.83	186.831215	0.001
KCO(KH)3	187	186.87	186.873225	0.003
K2OHKHKOH	191	190.87	190.868135	0.002
KH2KOHKHKOH	193	192.89	192.883785	0.006
K3O(H2O)4	205	204.92	204.92828	0.008
K2OH[KH KHCO3]	235	234.86	234.857955	0.002
K[H2CO4KH KHCO3]	257	256.89	256.8868	0.003
K3O[KH KHCO3]	273	272.81	272.81384	0.004
[KH2CO3]3	303	302.88	302.89227	0.012
K[KH KHCO3K2CO3]	317	316.80	316.80366	0.004
K[KH KHCO3]2	319	318.82	318.81931	0.001
KH2[KH KOH]3	329	328.80	328.7933	0.007
KOH2[KH KHCO3]2	337	336.81	336.82987	0.020
KH KO2	351	350.81	350.80913	0.001
[KH KHCO3]
[KHCO3]
KKHK2CO3	357	356.77	356.775195	0.005
[KH KHCO3]
KKH[KH KHCO3]2	359	358.78	358.790845	0.011
K2OH[KH KHCO3]2	375	374.78	374.785755	0.005
K2OH[KHKOH]2	387	386.75	386.76238	0.012
[KHCO3]
KKH3KH5	405	404.79	404.80933	0.019
[KH KHCO3]2
K3O[K2CO3]	411	410.75	410.72599	0.024
[KH KHCO3] or
K[KH KOH(K2CO3)2]
K3O[KH KHCO3]2	413	412.74	412.74164	0.002
$K\left[\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{KH}\mathrm{KOH}\\ {\left(\mathrm{KH}{\mathrm{KHCO}}_3\right)}_2\end{array}\right]$	415	414.74	414.75729	0.017
KH2OKHCO3	437	436.81	436.786135	0.024
[KH KHCO3]2
KKHKCO2	442	441.74	441.744375	0.004
[KH KHCO3]2
K[KH KHCO3]3	459	458.72	458.74711	0.027
H[KH KOH]2	469	468.70	468.708085	0.008
[K2CO3]2
or
K4O2H[KH KHCO3]2
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]3	477	476.72	476.744655	0.025
K2OH[KH KHCO3]3	515	514.72	514.713555	0.006
K3O[KH KHCO3]3	553	552.67	552.66944	0.001
K[KH KHCO3]4	599	598.65	598.67491	0.025
K2OH[KH KHCO3]4	655	654.65	654.641355	0.009
K3O[KH KHCO3]4	693	692.60	692.59724	0.003
K[KH KHCO3]5	739	738.65	738.60271	0.047
K3O[KH KHCO3]5	833	832.50	832.52504	0.025
K[KH KHCO3]6	879	878.50	878.53051	0.031
K3O[KH KHCO3]6	973	972.50	972.45284	0.047
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.98	27.97693	0.003
SiO	44	43.97	43.97184	0.002
SiOH	45	44.98	44.979665	0.000
Si4H10O2	154	153.97	153.97579	0.006
Si5H9O	165	164.96	164.949985	0.010
Si5H11O	167	166.95	166.965635	0.016
NaSi5H16O	195	195.00	194.99456	0.005
Si6H15O	199	198.97	198.973865	0.004
NaSi6H18	209	209.00	208.99223	0.008
NaSi5H14O3	225	224.98	224.96873	0.011
NaSi7H18	237	236.95	236.96916	0.019
NaSi7H20	239	238.97	238.98481	0.015
Si8H29	253	253.04	253.042365	0.002
NaSi8H18O	281	280.94	280.941	0.001
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the
41K/39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{3.7\times {10}^6}{6.4\times {10}^6}=57.8\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

Silanes were also observed. The NaSi₆H₁₈ (m/e=209) peak given in TABLE 2 can give rise to silanes Si₅H₁₂ (m/e=152) and NaSiH₆ (m/e=57).

NaSi₆H₁₈(m/e=209)→NaSiH₆(m/e=57)+Si₅H₂(m/e=152)  (37)

The positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of the control 99.999% KHCO₃ taken in the static mode is shown in FIGS. 5 and 6. The positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #1 taken in the static mode is shown in FIGS. 7 and 8. For both samples, the positive ion spectrum was dominated by K⁺, and Na⁺ was also present. The dominant compound identified was K₂CO₃ which gave rise to two series of positive ions of K[K₂CO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+138n) at m/e=39, 177, 315, 453, 591, 729, 867, 1005 and K₂OH[K₂CO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(95+138n) at m/e=95, 233, 371, and 509. Other peaks containing potassium included KC⁺, K_xO_y⁺, K_xO_yH_z⁺, KCO⁺, and K₂⁺. Only in the case of sample #1, three series of positive ions of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds were observed of 1.) K[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+140n) at m/e=39, 179, 319, 459, 599, 739, and 879; 2.) K₂OH[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(95+140n) at m/e=95, 235, 375, 515, and 655; 3.) K₃O[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(133+140n) at m/e=133, 273, 413, 553, 693, 833, and 973. These ions correspond to inorganic polymers containing increased binding energy hydrogen species. These compounds were also present in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #2 and sample #3. The TOFSIMS peaks of sample #1 were much more intense due to purification of the inorganic hydrogen polymer.

As an example of the structures of these compounds, the K[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+140n) series of fragment peaks is assigned to hydrino hydride bridged potassium bicarbonate compounds having a general formula such as [KHCO₃H⁻(1/p)K⁺]_n n=1, 2, 3, 4, . . . and potassium carbonate compounds having a general formula such as K[K₂CO₃]_n⁺H⁻(1/p) n=1, 2, 3, 4, . . . . General structural formulas are

Novel chemistry data further supports the identification of stable compounds comprising potassium carbonate monomers formed by bonding with hydrino hydride ions. TOFSIMS sample #2 was acidified with HNO₃ to pH=2 and boiled to dryness. Ordinarily no K₂CO₃ would be present—the sample would be 100% KNO₃. Crystals were isolated from the acidified solution by dissolving the dried crystals in water, concentrating the solution, and allowing crystals to precipitate. TOFSIMS was performed on these crystals. The spectrum contained elements of the series of inorganic hydrogen polymers fragments (4K[KH KHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+140n), K₂OH[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(95+140n), and K₃O[KHKHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(133+140n)) observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1. In addition, fragments of compounds formed by the displacement of carbonate by nitrate were observed. A general structural formula for the reaction is

The observation by TOFSIMS of hydrino hydride bridged potassium carbonate compounds having the general formulae K[K₂CO₃]_n⁺H⁻(1/p) n=1, 2, 3, 4, . . . was further confirmed by the presence of carbonate carbon (C1s≈289.5 eV) in the XPS of crystals isolated from a K₂CO₃ electrolytic cell wherein the sample was acidified with HNO₃.

During acidification of the K₂CO₃ electrolyte the pH repetitively increased from 3 to 9 at which time additional acid was added with carbon dioxide release. The increase in pH (release of base by the titration reactant) was dependent on the temperature and concentration of the solution. A reaction consistent with this observation is the displacement reaction of NO₃⁻ for CO₃²⁻ as given by Eq. (38). The observation of inorganic hydrogen polymer fragments such as K[KHKHCO₃] following acidification indicates the stability of the bridged potassium carbonate hydrino hydride compounds. The novel nonreactive potassium carbonate compound observed by TOFSIMS without identifying assignment to conventional chemistry corresponds and identifies inorganic hydrogen polymer compounds, according to the present invention.

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #1 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 3.

TABLE 3
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #1 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
	Nominal			Observed
	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Hydrino Hydride
Compound
or Fragment
H16	16	16.130	16.1252	0.005
H24	24	24.181	24.1878	0.007
H25	25	25.195	25.195625	0.001
NaH3	26	26.01	26.013275	0.003
MgH3	27	27.01	27.008515	0.001
CH23	35	35.183	35.179975	0.003
NH23	37	37.185	37.183045	0.002
KH3	42	42.00	41.987185	0.013
(NaH)2	48	48.00	47.99525	0.005
Na2H3	49	49.00	49.003075	0.003
Mg2H4	52	52.00	52.00138	0.001
KHOH	57	56.98	56.97427	0.006
NaH3NaO	65	65.00	64.997985	0.002
NaH2KH5	69	69.00	69.008285	0.008
(KH)2	80	79.95	79.94307	0.007
69GaOH2	87	86.94	86.93626	0.004
KHKO	95	94.93	94.930155	0
KH2KOH	97	96.945	96.945805	0.0008
GaO2H	102	101.92	101.923345	0.003
GaO2H2	103	102.93	102.93117	0.001
GaKH	109	108.895	108.897235	0.002
KHKNO	109	108.923	108.933225	0.010
K2O2H	111	110.92	110.925065	0.005
KH3KCl	116	115.92	115.919745	0.000
KOHNO3	118	117.95	117.954245	0.004
H2I	129	128.92	128.92005	0.000
Ga2O3H	187	186.85	186.843955	0.006
Ga2O4H	203	202.83	202.838865	0.009
AgI2	361	360.71	360.71389	0.004
Silanes/Siloxanes
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005
KSiH4	71	70.97	70.97194	0.002
KSiH5	72	71.975	71.979765	0.005
KSiH6	73	72.99	72.98759	0.002
Si4H10O2	154	153.99	153.97579	0.014
Si4H11O2	155	154.99	154.983615	0.006
Si4H15O2	159	159.01	159.014915	0.005

The negative ion spectrum was dominated by the oxygen and OH⁻ peaks. The dominant compound identified was K₂CO₃ which gave rise to a series of negative ions of KCO₃[K₂CO₃]_n⁻ m/e=(99+138n) at m/e=99, 237, 375, 513, 651, 789, and 927. The chloride peaks were also present with small peaks of the other halogens and S⁻.

In addition to alkali metals such as potassium, alkaline earths such as magnesium may form hydrino hydride polymers. Magnesium hydrino hydride ions MgH₃⁻ (m/e=27.008515) and Mg₂H₄⁻ (m/e=52.00138) were observed in the negative TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1. MgH₃⁻ (m/e=27.008515) was observed in the TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1 with a hydrocarbon peak at m/e=27.03, and CN⁻ was observed at m/e=26.00 as shown in FIG. 19. Sample #1 was sputtered to remove hydrocarbons. The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=20-30 of sample #1 is shown in FIG. 20. The hydrino hydride compounds NaH₃⁻ (m/e=26.013275) and MgH₃⁻ (m/e=27.008515) were observed at m/e=26.01 and m/e=27.01, respectively.

MgH₃⁻ was purified from the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell using a cation exchange resin (Purolite C100H). The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of 99.999% KHCO₃ is shown in FIG. 9. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=23.5-29.5) of crystals obtained by treating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a cation exchange resin (Purolite C100H) (sample #4) is shown in FIG. 10. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=27-29) of sample #4 is shown in FIG. 11. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=28-29) of sample #4 is shown in FIG. 12. The spectra were calibrated on O⁻, F⁻, and Cl⁻. A contribution to the m/e=28 peak by silicon was observed. Otherwise, the integrations matched the ratios of the magnesium isotopes ²⁴Mg, ²⁵Mg, and ²⁶Mg within experimental error. There is close agreement between the calculated and experimental masses given in TABLE 5. No peaks are present at these masses in the control. No other possibility exists that fits the mass and isotope data. The TOFSIMS data dispositively identifies magnesium hydrino hydride, according to the present invention. The identification was confirmed by SPMSMS. The magnesium hydrino hydride compounds Mg₂H⁺ (m/e=48.977905), Mg₂H₂⁺ (m/e=49.98573), and Mg₂H₃⁺ (m/e=50.993555) were observed as given in TABLES 22, 23, and 25. Other monomers of inorganic hydrogen polymers were observed. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive and negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #4 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 4 and TABLE 5, respectively.

TABLE 4
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #4 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Si	28	27.97	27.97693	0.007
KH2a	41	40.97	40.97936	0.009
KHKOH2	97	96.94	96.945805	0.006
Ag	107	106.91	106.90509	0.005
AgH	108	107.92	107.912915	0.007
KH2(KH)2	121	120.92	120.92243	0.002
AgHBr	187	186.83	186.831215	0.001
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by complaining the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1.15\times {10}^6}{3.4\times {10}^6}=33.8\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

TABLE 5
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of
Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #4 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
NaH3	26	26.01	26.013275	0.003
MgH3	27	27.008	27.008515	0.0005
KH4	43	43.00	42.99501	0.005
KHKO	95	94.93	94.930155	0
KH4KOH	99	98.97	98.961455	0.009
K2OKH3	136	135.91	135.909515	0.0005
K2OKH4	137	136.91	136.91734	0.007
IOH	144	143.90	143.903135	0.003

Polyhydrogen ion OH₂₃⁺ as well as hydrino hydride compounds (e.g. NaH and KH₂) and inorganic hydrogen polymers (e.g. (KH[KHKNO₃])_n) were observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #5. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #5 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 6.

TABLE 6
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #5 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
NaH	24	23.99	23.997625	0.008
NaH2	25	25.00	25.00545	0.005
OH23	39	39.178	39.174885	0.003
KH	40	39.97	39.971535	0.0015
KH2a	41	40.98	40.97936	0.0006
Na2H	47	46.98	46.987425	0.007
(NaH)2	48	47.99	47.99525	0.005
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
NiH4	62	61.96	61.9666	0.007
K2H	79	78.94	78.935245	0.004
K2H3	81	80.94	80.950895	0.011
KH2NO2	87	86.97	86.97225	0.002
KO4H	104	103.9479	103.951175	0.003
KO4H2	105	104.95	104.959	0.009
K2O2H	111	110.925	110.925065	0.000
KH2(KH)2	121	120.93	120.92243	0.008
(KH)2KNO3	181	180.89	180.89458	0.005
(KH)2KNO4	197	196.89	196.88949	0.001
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si6H23O	207	207.04	207.036465	0.0035
NaSi8H18	265	264.94	264.94609	0.006
NaSi8H24	271	270.99	270.99304	0.003
NaSi8H18O	281	280.94	280.941	0.001
NaSi8H34	281	281.07	281.07129	0.001
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{0.82\times {10}^6}{1.15\times {10}^6}=71.3\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The positive ion spectrum was dominated by K⁺, and Na⁺ was also present. Other peaks containing potassium included K_xH_yO_z⁺, K_xN_yO_z⁺, and K_wH_xP_yO_z⁺. Sputter cleaning caused a decrease in the intensity of phosphate peaks while it significantly increased the intensity of K_xH_yO_z⁺ ions and resulted in a moderate increase in K_xN_yO_z⁺ ions. Other inorganic elements observed included Li, B, and Si.

The positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-200 of sample #5 is shown in FIG. 13. The peak assigned to OH₂₃⁺ (m/e=39.174885) is shown in FIG. 13. The experimental mass is 39.178 which is in excellent agreement with the calculated mass. The peak was not a function of sputtering and the mass resolution was equivalent to that of the potassium peak.

The observation of (KH)₂KNO₃ confirms the formation of a potassium nitrate hydrino hydride polymer ((KH[KHKNO₃])_n) from a potassium carbonate hydrino hydride polymer according to Eq. (38). The ³⁹ KH₂⁺ peak shown in FIG. 13 may be a fragment.

The polyhydrogen ion H₁₆⁻ was observed in the negative TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #5. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #5 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 7.

TABLE 7
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #5 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
	Nominal			Observed
	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Hydrino Hydride
Compound
or Fragment
H16	16	16.130	16.1252	0.005
KH4	43	43.00	42.99501	0.005
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si4H11O2	155	154.99	154.983615	0.006
Si6H19O	203	203.00	203.005165	0.005

The negative ion spectra showed similar trends as the positive ion spectra with phosphates observed to be more intense before sputter cleaning. Other ions detected in the negative spectra were Cl⁻, and I⁻.

The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of 99.999% KHCO₃ is shown in FIG. 14. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of polymeric material prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and centrifuging the polymeric material (sample #1) is shown in FIG. 15. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=10-20) of crystals isolated from the cathode of the K₂CO₃ INEL Electrolytic Cell (sample #5) is shown in FIG. 16. A peak with a high nominal mass which does not match any known compound was observed at m/e=16.125 in the case of sample #1 and at m/e16.130 in the case of sample #5. Each peak has the same width as the oxygen peak; thus, each is not a metastable peak. No such peak with a high nominal mass is seen at the position of any of the other identifiable peak such as hydroxyl (OH) at m/e=17.003 which has a greater intensity; thus, each peak is not due to detector ringing. Each peak cannot be explained as an instrument artifact since each is present at the earliest times of acquisition. In both samples, the unidentifiable peak is assigned to H₁₆⁻ which is consistent with

$H^{-}\left(\frac{1}{16}\right)$

as the most stable hydrino hydride ion according to Eq. (10). The principle quantum number p=16 provides sixteen multipoles (l=0 to l=n−1) comprising the molecular orbitals of

$H^{-}\left(\frac{1}{16}\right).$

The agreement between the observed mass and the calculated mass (m/e=16.1252) is excellent. No other compound of this mass is possible.

Other positive and negative TOFSIMS peaks observed for sample #1 and sample #5 confirm polyhydrogen compounds and ions. The positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-50) of sample #5 is shown in FIG. 17. The positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of sample #1 is shown in FIG. 18. The presputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=20-30) of sample #1 is shown in FIG. 19. The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=30-40) of sample #1 is shown in FIG. 21. The peak assigned to OH₂₃⁺ (m/e=39.174885) is shown in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #5 (FIG. 17). The experimental mass is 39.175 which is in excellent agreement with the calculated mass. The peak assigned to H₂₃⁺ (m/e=23.179975) is shown in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1 (FIG. 18). The experimental mass is 23.180. This peak is assigned to a fragment of a parent polyhydrogen molecule containing 24 hydrogen atoms. The corresponding negative ion, H₂₄⁻, is shown in FIG. 19 with the M+1 peak, H₂₅⁻. These peaks are also observed in FIG. 20. OH₂₃⁺ shown in FIG. 13 and FIG. 17 may be a fragment of OH₂₄, and OH⁻ may also be a fragment. The OH⁻ (m/e=17.002735) peak intensity of the negative spectrum of sample #5 shown in FIG. 16 is at least twice that of the control. The increased intensity is assigned to the fragmentation of OH₂₄ to OH⁻. In addition to substitution reactions with oxygen, the 24 atom polyhydrogen molecule may react with carbon and nitrogen. The negative ions CH₂₃⁻ and NH₂₃⁻ are shown in FIG. 21.

Polymer compounds and ions comprising 24 hydrogen atoms may form because H₂₄⁻ is the last stable hydride ion of the series 1/p=1 to 1/24 given by Eq. (10). H₁₆⁻ is the most stable hydride ion which may give rise to a compounds and ions containing 16 hydrogen atoms. Positive polyhydrogen ions peaks observed from the TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1 are given in TABLE 2. Negative polyhydrogen ions peaks observed from the TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #1 are given in TABLE 3.

Further polyhydrogen compounds containing multiples of 16 hydrogen species were observed. The peak assigned to SiH₂(H₁₆)₂⁻ (m/e=62.24298) is shown in the negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=60-70 of sample #12 (FIG. 22). The experimental mass is 62.24 which is in excellent agreement with the calculated mass. The corresponding positive fragment SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805) was observed at m/e=63.3 by Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy. Novel silanes with excess hydrogen such as the series Si_nH_2n+2(H₁₆)_m to Si_nH_4n(H₁₆)_m, polymers of hydrogen, H₁₆, which add to these silanes, and polyhydrogen compounds comprising H₆₀ and H₇₀ which may be cage compounds were observed by Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy as given in the corresponding section.

The negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-200 of 99.99% pure KI is shown in FIG. 23. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-200 of sample #6 is shown in FIG. 24. The peak assigned to Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁻ (m/e=127.267265) is shown in the negative TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #6 (FIG. 24). The experimental mass is 127.2640 which is in excellent agreement with the calculated mass. The peak was not due to a metastable. The peak was not a function of sputtering, it was symmetrical, and the mass resolution was better than that of the iodide peak.

Using the oxygen peak as an intensity standard, an intense hydride ion H⁻(1/p) (m/e=1.007825) relative to that of the control, 99.999% pure KI was observed. The normal source of hydride ion, H⁻( 1/1), is hydrocarbons. The source of the increase of the hydride ion peak of sample #6 may be due to hydrino hydride ions, H⁻(1/p), 1/p=½ to 1/24.

During acidification and concentration of the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell to prepare sample #6, the pH repetitively increased from 3 to 9 at which time additional acid was added with carbon dioxide release. A reaction consistent with this observation is the displacement reaction of I⁻ for HCO₃⁻ of an inorganic hydrogen polymer comprising monomers such as [KHKHCO₃] analogous to the reaction of Eq. (38). Further evidence of a potassium iodide hydrino hydride polymer comprised extreme shifts of the iodide XPS peaks. The I3d₅ and I3d₃ peaks of the XPS of sample #6 as given in TABLE 33 comprised two sets of peaks. The binding energies of the first set was 13d₅=618.9 eV and I3d₃=630.6 eV corresponding to KI. The binding energies of the second extraordinary set peaks was I3d₅=644.8 eV and I3d₃=655.4 eV. The maximum I3d₅ shift given is 624.2 eV corresponding to KIO₄.

A peak assigned to KHI (m/e=166.875935) was observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #13. The positive TOFSIMS of sample #14 also showed a KHI peak. The peak assigned to KHI was of greater intensity than that assigned to KI. A general structure for an alkali metal-halide hydrino hydride compound which may form a polymer is

The hydrino hydride compounds KHKHCO₃ and KHKI which may form polymers were assigned to LC/MS peaks of sample #13 as described in the Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Liquid-Chromatography/Mass-Spectroscopy (LC/MS) Section.

An alkali-metal-halide hydrino hydride compound of the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst is KH₂I which may be a polymer fragment. The positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-50 of sample #15 is shown in FIG. 25. The ⁴¹K/³⁹K ratio of the positive TOFSIMS of 99.999% pure KI was the natural abundance ratio and was equivalent to that shown in FIG. 5. An intense ³⁹ KH₂⁺ peak was observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum. The negative post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-200 of sample #15 is shown in FIG. 26. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum was dominated by the hydride ion and the iodide ion. The positive and negative TOFSIMS spectra of sample #15 are consistent with hydrino hydride compounds KH₂I and KH. Other hydrino hydride compounds were present in less abundances. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #15 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 8.

TABLE 8
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks
or the secondary fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #15 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
NaH70H233+	38	38.901	28.9058417	0.005
KH2a	41	40.97	40.97936	0.009
Ti	48	47.95	47.95	0.000
TiH	49	48.96	48.957825	0.002
KHKOH2	97	96.945	96.945805	0.0008
Ag	107	106.90	106.90509	0.005
KKHKOH	135	134.90	134.90169	0.002
KH2KHKO	136	135.92	135.909515	0.0100
KH KHKOH2	137	136.92	136.91734	0.003
K(KH)2NO	149	148.91	148.90476	0.005
K(HNO3)2	165	164.95	164.95496	0.005
KHI	167	166.89	166.875935	0.014
Silanes/Siloxanes
NaSi5H14O	193	192.98	192.97891	0.001
Si6H15O	199	198.97	198.973865	0.004
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1.8\times {10}^6}{2.2\times {10}^6}=82\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #15 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 9.

TABLE 9
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks
or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #15 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
Ag	107	106.90	106.90509	0.005
aIntensity = 890,000 (post sputtering) dominates the negative spectrum; whereas, the intensity of the oxygen peak = 600,000 which was significant relative to previous samples wherein the oxygen peak dominated the negative spectrum.

KH₂I was identified by ESITOFMS of sample #13. The positive ESITOFMS spectrum (m/e=15-800) of sample #13 is shown in FIG. 27. The m/e=167.9368 peak was assigned to KH₂I. This peak was absent in the control positive ESITOFMS spectrum of 99.999% KI. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) of sample #13 appear in TABLE 10.

TABLE 10
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Electrospray-
Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) of sample
#13.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
KH2a	41	40.9747	40.97936	0.005
K2OH	95	94.9487	94.930155	0.019
KHKOH2	97	96.9459	96.945805	0.000
IOH	144	143.9205	143.907135	0.013
IO2H2	161	160.9198	160.90987	0.010
KH2I	168	167.9368	167.88376	0.053
K(KIO) KH	261	260.8203	260.798265	0.022
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=22\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

Potassium hydrino hydride compounds were identified by TOFSIMS spectra of sample #16. The positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-50 of sample #16 is shown in FIG. 28. An intense ³⁹KH₂⁺ peak was observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum. The negative TOFSIMS spectrum was dominated by the hydride ion and the iodide ion. The positive and negative TOFSIMS spectra of sample #16 were consistent with hydrino hydride compounds KH₂I and KH. Other hydrino hydride compounds were present in less abundances. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #16 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 11.

TABLE 11
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #16 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Si	28	27.97	27.97693	0.007
NaH70H233+	38	38.900	38.9058417	0.006
KH2a	41	40.97	40.97936	0.009
Ag	107	106.90	106.90509	0.005
AgH	108	107.92	107.912915	0.007
KH KHCO2	124	123.93	123.93289	0.003
KNO2KH	125	124.92	124.928135	0.008
KKHKOH	135	134.90	134.90169	0.002
K2HSO4	175	174.89	174.886955	0.003
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1.2\times {10}^6}{2.0\times {10}^6}=60\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #16 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 12.

TABLE 12
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #16 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
Ag	107	106.90	106.90509	0.005
Ga2H	139	138.85	138.859225	0.009
aIntensity = 1,750,000 (presputtering) dominates the negative spectrum; whereas, the intensity of the oxygen peak = 1,300,000 which was significant relative to previous samples wherein the oxygen peak dominated the negative spectrum. The hydride ion also dominated the post sputtering negative spectrum. The intensity was equivalent to that of the iodide peak.

The power from the catalysis of hydrogen (e.g. Eqs. (3-5)) and hydride formation (Eqs. (11a-11b)) can be quantified from the weight of increased binding energy hydrogen compound product and the energy of formation of the product. One method to determine the product yield is TOFSIMS. The negative TOFSIMS relative sensitivity factors (RSF) are shown in FIG. 29. The RSF for the halides are all about equivalent. The RSF of normal hydride ion has not been obtained since it reacts violently with air and is unstable under ultrahigh vacuum. The hydrino hydride ion is in the same group as the halide ions. Thus, its RSF is projected to be equivalent to that of the halides. Thus, the atomic percentage of hydrino hydride ion may be determined by comparison of its intensity with that of the halide ion of the catalyst such as KX wherein X is a halide ion. The atomic percentage of hydrino hydride ion determined from the negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-200 of sample #15 (FIG. 26) is given by 100 times the hydride ion counts divided by the sum of the hydride ion and iodide ion counts

$\left(\frac{890,000}{89,000+1,150,000}\times 100=44\%\right).$

The original moles of KI was 0.36. Thus, 0.36×0.44=0.16 moles of hydrino hydride ion were produced.

The distribution of hydrino hydride ions may be determined by X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy (XPS). Iodide may be removed by titrating the sample with AgNO₃ so that the binding energy spectrum of the hydride ions can be observed. AgI precipitates to the endpoint which can confirm the iodide anion deficit which corresponds to the amount of hydrino hydride ion. Except for the samples containing inorganic hydrino hydride polymers such as sample #1, sample #2, and sample #3, the hydrino hydride distribution over the states p of H⁻(n=1/p) were similar. For example, the X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of sample #17 is shown in FIG. 30. Since XPS relative sensitivity factors (RSF) are dependent on the geometric cross section, the hydrino hydride ion H⁻(n=1I/p) RSFs are predicted to be a function of the inverse of the radius squared as given in TABLE 1. Quantitative XPS can give the hydrino hydride population distribution to within a few percent. As an example of the determination of the energy of formation of a hydrino hydride ion consider the H⁻(n=⅕) peak shown in FIG. 30 at a binding energy of 16.7 eV. The corresponding enthalpy of formation from molecular hydrogen is given by one half the quantity of two times the binding energy of H(n=⅕) (340 eV), minus the total energy of molecular hydrogen (31.6 eV), plus two times the binding energy of H⁻(n=⅕) (16.7 eV). Thus, the enthalpy of formation of H⁻(n=⅕) is 341 eV which is equivalent 3.3×10⁷ J/moles. As an exemplary energy calculation consider that 100% of the product of the reaction that produced sample #15 is H⁻(n=⅕). The corresponding energy of the reaction that produced sample #15 is 0.16 moles×3.3×10⁷ J/moles=5.3 MJ. The cell was operated for 48 hours; thus, the average power based on the formation of H⁻(n=⅕) was 31 W.

Rubidium is a further example of an alkali hydrino hydride. The positive post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=50-100 of sample #18 is shown in FIG. 31. The negative post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=50-100 of sample #18 is shown in FIG. 32. ⁸⁷Rb⁺ may saturate the detector for samples which may contain hydrino hydride compounds under TOFSIMS conditions which yield normal results in the case of the corresponding control. The observed m/e=87 peak of the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #18 was more intense than the m/e=85 peak. The natural abundance of ⁸⁵Rb is 72.15%, and the natural abundance of ⁸⁷Rb is 27.85%. ⁸⁵Rb⁺ from RbH may saturate the detector due to the much greater atomic percent rubidium in this compound. Or, may RbH may have a greater rubidium ion TOFSIMS relative sensitivity factors (RSF). In support of either explanation, the ⁸⁵Rb peak dominated the positive spectrum of sample #18 shown in FIG. 31, and the hydride peak dominated the negative ion spectrum shown in FIG. 32 wherein the ⁸⁷Rb peak was much greater than the natural abundance. Whereas, the natural abundance of ⁸⁷Rb was observed in the post sputtering positive TOFSIMS of the matched RbI control. Hydrino hydride peaks KHKOH₂⁺, RbHKOH₂⁺ and RbHRbOH₂⁺ were also observed in the positive post sputtering TOFSIMS spectrum of sample #18 having a greater intensity than the KKOH⁺, RbKOH⁺, and RbRbOH⁺ peaks, respectively. Thus, rubidium is observed to form alkali hydrino hydride compounds that are also formed by potassium. Hydrino hydride compounds containing rubidium and potassium are also formed. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #18 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 13.

TABLE 13
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #18 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
87Rba	87	86.91	86.909184	0.001
KHKOH2	97	96.94	96.945805	0.006
RbHKOH2	143	142.89	142.893795	0.004
RbHRbOH2	189	188.94	188.841785	0.002
aThe observed 87Rb/85Rb ratio was significantly greater than the natural
abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{2.4\times {10}^6}{2.3\times {10}^6}=104\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{27.85}{72.15}=38.6\%\right).$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #18 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 14.

TABLE 14
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #18 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
aIntensity = 1,150,000 (post sputtering) dominates the negative spectrum; whereas, the intensity of the oxygen peak = 850,000 which was significant relative to previous samples wherein the oxygen peak dominated the negative spectrum.

The significant presence of hydrino hydride compounds in sample #14 and sample #20 matched the exceptional power signatures. An accelerating power surge was observed with KI or KBr as the catalyst, respectively. For example, the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor of sample #20 comprised a KBr catalyst and titanium mesh filament dissociator that was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the quartz cell. The cell was operated at 800° C., and KBr catalyst was vaporized into the gas cell by heating the catalyst reservoir. Hydrogen was flowed through the cell at a steady state pressure of 0.5 torr. The cell produced a 100 W excess power burst and then the filament melted. The power burst may have been due to the formation of titanium hydrino hydride. Titanium hydrino hydride may be an effective catalyst wherein Ti²⁺ is the active species. Furthermore, titanium hydrino hydride is volatile and may serve as a gaseous transition catalyst. Titanium is typically in a 4+ oxidation state. Increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions may stabilize the 2+ oxidation state. Exemplary titanium (II) hydrino hydride compounds are TiH(1/p)₂. Since titanium was used as the dissociator to provide atomic hydrogen, the titanium hydrino hydride catalyst may have been the cause of the observed accelerating catalytic rate wherein the product of catalysis, hydrino, reacted with the titanium to produce further titanium hydrino hydride catalyst. The method to start the process may have been the formation of hydrino by the transition catalyst KBr, or titanium hydrino hydride may have been generated by the reaction of the titanium with an aqueous solution of about 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂. A large TiH⁺ (m/e=48.957825) peak was observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectrum of the titanium with an aqueous solution of about 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂. To determine whether titanium hydrino hydride was further produced in the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor to serve as a catalyst according to Eqs. (14-16), XPS and positive TOFSIMS were performed at a Xerox Corporation. The shifts of the titanium XPS peaks was consistent with titanium hydride.

The post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=40-50 of control titanium foil (sample #19) is shown in FIG. 33. The post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=40-60 of sample #20 is shown in FIG. 34. TiH⁺(m/e=48.957825) was observed. The experimental mass of (m/e=48.96) was in close agreement with the calculated mass. Thus, the production of TiH(1/p)₂ was confirmed which may have served as a catalyst to form further titanium hydrino hydride as well as other increased binding energy hydrogen compounds (e.g. the potassium-iodide-hydrino-hydride polymer in the case of the cell wherein the catalyst was KI (sample #14)).

M+1 metal hydride peaks may be observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectra of control metal foils wherein the intensity is a function of the en particular metal and hydrocarbon surface contamination. This possibility can be eliminated by sputtering the sample. Post sputtering metal foil controls show only the metal peaks in the correct isotopic ratios. In some cases such as transition metal hydrides, M+1 peaks are not normally observed in the negative ion spectrum. Thus, to confirm the presence of the titanium hydrino hydride, the pre and post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectra were obtained. A significant ⁴⁸TiH⁻ peak was observed with an intensity that was greater than that of ⁴⁸Ti⁻. These peaks were not present in the case of the titanium foil control.

Metal hydrides such as TiH(1/p)₂ may form polymers. A general structural formulae for a linear polymer is

and a general structural formula for a bridged polymer is

where M is a metal such as a transition metal or tin, m and n are integers, and the hydrogen content H_n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species. M may also represent the combination of a metal such as a transition metal or tin and an alkali or alkaline earth.

The observation of metal hydrino hydride compounds with all of the isotopes present was well as the unique mass deficit at these nominal masses corresponds to and dispositively identifies metal hydrino hydrides. Several metals were analyzed and serve as examples of metal hydrino hydrides.

The post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=44-54 of sample #21 is shown in FIG. 35. The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=0-60 of sample #21 is shown in FIG. 36. The titanium hydrino hydride ion ⁴⁸TiH⁺ was assigned to the m/e=49.96 peak. The hydride ion dominated the post sputtering negative spectrum. The TOFSIMS results were consistent with a thick titanium hydride coat. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #21 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 15.

TABLE 15
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #21 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ti	48	47.95	47.95	0.000
TiH	49	48.96	48.957825	0.002
Ag	107	106.90	106.90509	0.005

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #21 taken in the in static mode appear in TABLE 16.

TABLE 16
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #21 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
TiH	49	48.96	48.957825	0.002
aIntensity = 70,000 (post sputtering) dominates the negative spectrum; whereas, the intensity of the oxygen peak = 50,000 which was significant relative to previous samples wherein the oxygen peak dominated the negative spectrum.

The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=53-61 of sample #22 is shown in FIG. 37. No iron hydride peak was observed in the post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=53-61 of the control iron foil (sample #20). The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=53-61 of sample #23 is shown in FIG. 38. The iron hydrino hydride ion ⁵⁶FeH⁻ was assigned to the m/e=56.94 peak. The hydride ion dominated the post sputtering negative spectrum.

The post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=112-125 of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 39. Tin and tin hydride peaks were observed.

The presputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=47.5-50) of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 40. The post sputtering positive TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=47.5-50) of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 41. Titanium hydride was observed that was independent of sputtering.

The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=100-200 of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 42. Platinum and platinum hydrino hydride peaks were observed.

The presputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-30) of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 43. The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum (m/e=0-30) of sample #24 is shown in FIG. 44. The hydride peak dominated the spectra and was independent of sputtering. The hydride peak is assigned to metal hydrino hydride compounds. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #24 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 17.

TABLE 17
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight
Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #24 taken in the
static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
Mg	24	23.98	23.98504	0.005
MgH	25	24.99	24.992865	0.003
Al	27	26.98	26.98153	0.001
AlH	28	27.98	27.989355	0.009
Ti	48	47.95	47.95	0.000
TiH	49	48.96	48.957825	0.002
Cr	52	51.94	51.9405	0.000
CrH	53	51.94	52.948325	0.008
CrH2	54	53.96	53.95615	0.004
Mn	55	54.94	54.9381	0.002
Fe	56	55.93	55.9349	0.005
FeH	57	56.94	56.942725	0.003
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
Cu	63	62.93	62.9293	0.001
Zn	64	63.93	63.9291	0.001
120SnH	121	120.91	120.911225	0.001
120SnOH	137	136.90	136.906135	0.006
120SnNiO	194	193.82	193.83361	0.014
120SnNiOH	195	194.84	194.841435	0.001
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.98	27.97693	0.003
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005
KSi2H6	101	100.96	100.96452	0.005
KSi2H7	102	101.97	101.972345	0.002
aIntensity = 18,000 with a
$H{\text{/}}^{39}K=\frac{2\times {10}^4}{2\times {10}^4}=100\%$
which was significant relative to the control KHCO3 with a
$H{\text{/}}^{39}K=\frac{7.8\times {10}^3}{3.3\times {10}^6}=0.24\%.$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #24 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 18.

TABLE 18
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #24 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
Mg2H4	52	52.00	52.00138	0.001
194PtH	195	194.97	194.970625	0.001
aIntensity = 2,600,000 (post sputtering) dominates the negative spectrum; whereas, the intensity of the oxygen peak = 100,000 which was significant relative to previous samples wherein the oxygen peak dominated the negative spectrum.

Nickel hydrino hydride compounds such as NiH were observed in the positive and negative TOFSIMS spectra of sample #25. The post sputtering negative TOFSIMS spectrum m/e=50-100 of sample #25 is shown in FIG. 45. Nickel hydrino hydride peaks NiH were observed. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #25 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 19.

TABLE 19
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #25 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
	Nominal			Observed
	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Hydrino Hydride
Compound
or Fragment
Mg	24	23.98	23.98504	0.005
Al	27	26.98	26.98153	0.001
Ca	40	39.96	39.96259	0.003
Ti	48	47.95	47.95	0.000
TiH	49	48.96	48.957825	0.002
Cr	52	51.94	51.9405	0.000
Mn	55	54.94	54.9381	0.002
Fe	56	55.93	55.9349	0.005
FeH	57	56.94	56.942725	0.003
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
Zn	64	63.93	63.9291	0.001
NiCH2	72	71.95	71.95095	0.001
NiCH3	73	72.96	72.958775	0.001
NiO	74	73.93	73.93021	0.000
NiOH	75	74.94	74.938035	0.002
NaNiH2	83	82.94	82.94075	0.001
NaNiH3	84	83.95	83.948575	0.001
NaNiH4	85	84.95	84.9564	0.006
NaNiH5	86	85.96	85.964225	0.004
NaNiH6	87	86.97	86.97205	0.002
KHKOH	96	95.94	95.93798	0.002
KHKOH2	97	96.95	96.945805	0.004
KH2KOH2	98	97.96	97.95363	0.006
KH3KOH2	99	98.97	98.961455	0.009
KH4KOH2	100	99.97	99.96928	0.001
Ni2	116	115.865	115.8706	0.006
Ni2H	117	116.875	116.878425	0.003
CuNi	121	120.86	120.8651	0.005
CuNiH	122	121.87	121.872925	0.003
Ni2O	132	131.86	131.86551	0.006
Ni2OH	133	132.87	132.873335	0.003
Ni2OH2	134	133.88	133.88116	0.001
Ni2OH3	135	134.88	134.888985	0.009
Cu2OH	143	142.87	142.862335	0.008
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.98	27.97693	0.003
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005
SiOH	45	44.98	44.979665	0.000

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #25 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 20.

TABLE 20
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative
Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS)
of sample #25 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
	Nominal			Observed
	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Hydrino Hydride
Compound
or Fragment
KH4	43	42.99	42.99501	0.005
(NaH)2	48	47.99	47.99525	0.005
Na2H3	49	49.00	49.003075	0.003
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
NiO	74	73.93	73.93021	0.000
NiOH	75	74.94	74.938035	0.002
NiHOH	76	75.94	75.94586	0.006
NiH2OH	77	76.95	76.953685	0.004
NiO2	90	89.92	89.92512	0.005
NiO2H	91	90.93	90.932945	0.003
Ni(OH)2	92	91.94	91.94077	0.001
GaKH	109	108.89	108.897235	0.007
Fe2	112	111.86	111.8698	0.010
K3H	118	117.89	117.898955	0.009
K3H2	119	118.90	118.90678	0.007
Ni2HO	133	132.87	132.873335	0.003
Ni2HOH	134	133.88	133.88116	0.001
KO2(KH)2	151	150.89	150.8966	0.007
KO2H(KH)2	152	151.905	151.904425	0.001
KHKSO3	159	158.89	158.892045	0.002
Ni2O3	164	163.86	163.85533	0.005
Ni2O3H	165	164.87	164.863155	0.007
Ni2O3H2	166	165.87	165.87098	0.001
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.98	27.97693	0.003
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005

In addition to TOFSIMS, polyhydrogen species were observed by XPS, ESITOFMS, Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS), and Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPQMS) given in the respective sections. The most common parent or fragment ion was found to arise from a compound comprising 16, 24, or 70 hydrogen atoms, such as H₁₆⁻, OH₂₃⁺, and CH₇₀⁺, respectively. The formation of 16 and 24 atom hydrogen species may be due to the stability of the hydrino hydride ions H⁻( 1/16) and H⁻( 1/24). The formation of 70 hydrogen atom species may be due to the stability of a cage structure.

A polyhydrogen compound comprising 23 and 70 hydrogens with 3⁺ charge, NaH₇₀H₂₃³⁺, was observed in the positive TOFSIMS spectra of sample #7, sample #15, and sample #16. In each case, the agreement between the experimental mass m/e=38.903, m/e=38.901, and m/e=38.900, respectively, and the calculated mass m/e=38.9058417 is excellent. The positive TOFSIMS spectra m/e=35-45 of sample #7, sample #15, and sample #16 are shown in FIG. 46, FIG. 47, and FIG. 48, respectively. Each peak assigned to NaH₇₀H₂₃³⁺ has a mass resolution that is better than that of the potassium peak; thus, each is not a metastable peak. No such peak with a high nominal mass is seen at the position of any of the other identifiable peaks including ⁴¹K; thus, each peak is not due to detector ringing or energetic ions. Each peak cannot be explained as an instrument artifact since each was present at the earliest times of acquisition.

3.3 Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Liquid-Chromatography/Mass-Spectroscopy (LC/MS)

3.3.1 Liquid-Chromatography/Mass-Spectroscopy (LC/MS)

Liquid-Chromatography/Mass-Spectroscopy (LC/MS) is a widely used technique for the separation, isolation, and identification of soluble substances. Compounds are separated by liquid chromatography, and analyzed by mass spectroscopy. In liquid chromatography (LC), a sample is dissolved in a solvent known as the mobile phase. The mobile phase is forced through a column of tightly packed solid particles which form the stationary phase. In the case of reversed phase partition chromatography, a polar solvent serves as the mobile phase, and the stationary phase is formed of particles, usually porous silica, coated with chemically or physically bonded non-polar moieties. As the mobile phase is eluted through the column under high pressure, the solute interacts with the stationary phase which retards its migration through the column. The constituents of the sample are thus fractionated according to the retention time, the time to elute from the column. In reversed phase partition chromatography, highly polar or ionic species are eluted first since they have virtually no interaction with the stationary phase. Non-polar molecules such as hydrocarbons are eluted later.

In LC/MS, each eluted fraction with a characteristic and reproducible retention time is fed into a mass spectrometer for analysis. A turbo electrospray ionization (ESI) and triple-quadrapole mass spectrometer was used. The turbo ESI converts the mobile phase to a fine mist of ions. These ions are then separated according to mass in a quadrapole radio frequency electric field. LC/MS provides information comprising 1.) the solute polarity based the retention time, 2.) quantitative information comprising the concentration based on the chromatogram peak area, and 3.) compound identification based on the mass spectrum or mass to charge ratio of a peak.

Samples were sent to Ricerca, Inc., Painesville, Ohio for LC/MS analysis. The instrument was a PE Sciex API 365 LC/MS/MS System. The column was a LC C18 column, 5.0 μm, 50×2 mm (Columbus Serial #205129). The samples were dissolved in 50/50 water/methanol, 0.05% formic acid at a concentration of 2 mg/ml. The sample was eluted using a gradient technique with the eluents of a solution A (water+5 mM ammonium acetate+1% formic acid) and a solution B (acetonitrile/water (90/10)+5 mM ammonium acetate+0.1% formic acid). The gradient profile was:

	Time (min.):
	0	1	20	21	25	25
	% A	90	90	0	90	90	100
	% B	10	10	100	10	10	Stop

The flow rate was 0.3 ml/min. The injection volume was 20 μl. The pump pressure was 35 PSI.

The mass spectroscopy mode was positive. The secondary ion mass to charge ratios (SIM) were m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4. The Dwell was 200 ms, and the Pause was 5 ms. The turbo gas was 8 L/min. (25 PSI).

3.3.2 Results and Discussion

FIG. 49 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4). Chromatographic peaks such as the peak at 0.77 minutes and the peak at 17.06 minutes were observed. FIG. 50 shows a shaded time interval of the chromatogram of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 centered on 0.77 minutes wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4). FIG. 51 is the summation of 21 mass spectra of 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4) recorded over the shaded time interval of the LC/MS spectrum of sample #13 shown in FIG. 50. Peaks were observed at m/e=39.0, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4. The LC peak shown in FIG. 50 was observed immediately which indicates that it corresponds to one or more ionic compounds. The masses of FIG. 51 are assigned to K⁺ and K(KI)_x⁺.

FIG. 52 shows a shaded time interval of the chromatogram of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 centered on 17.06 minutes wherein the mass spectrum comprised the sum of the ion signals from 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4). FIG. 53 is the summation of 12 mass spectra of 5 ions (m/e=39.0, 176.8, 204.8, 536.4, and 702.4) recorded over the shaded time interval of the LC/MS spectrum of sample #13 shown in FIG. 52. Peaks were observed at m/e=39.0, 176.8, and 204.8. The LC peak shown in FIG. 52 was a real chromatographic peak which indicates that it corresponds to one or more nonpolar compounds. The masses of FIG. 53 are assigned to K⁺, K(K₂CO₃)⁺, and K(KI)⁺. These peaks are fragments of hydrino hydride compounds KHKHCO₃ and KHKI.

FIG. 54 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal. Real chromatographic peaks were observed which correspond to multiple nonpolar compounds having the K(K₂CO₃)⁺ mass spectrum fragment. The m/e=176.8 mass peak is a fragment of polymeric hydrino hydride f, compounds having KHKHCO₃ as a monomer.

FIG. 55 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal. Real chromatographic peaks were observed which correspond to multiple nonpolar compounds having the K(KI)⁺ mass spectrum fragment. The m/e=204.8 mass peak is a fragment of polymeric hydrino hydride compounds having KHKI as a monomer.

FIGS. 56-58 are the results of the LC/MS analysis of sample #13 wherein the mass spectrum comprised the ion signals from the 536.4, 702.4, and 39.0 ions, respectively. No chromatographic peaks were observed.

FIG. 59 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of 99.9% K₂CO₃ control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal. No chromatographic peaks were observed. FIG. 60 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of the sample solvent alone control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 176.8 ion signal. No chromatographic peaks were observed.

FIG. 61 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of 99.99% KI control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal. No chromatographic peaks were observed. FIG. 62 is the results of the LC/MS analysis of the sample solvent alone control wherein the mass spectrum comprised the 204.8 ion signal. No chromatographic peaks were observed.

3.4 Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS)

3.4.1 Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS)

Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) is a method to determine the mass spectrum over a large dynamic range of mass to charge ratios (e.g. m/e=1-600) with extremely high precision (e.g. ±0.005 amu). Essentially the M+1 peak of each compound is observed without fragmentation. The analyte is dissolved in a carrier solution. The solution is pumped into and ionized in an electrospray chamber. The ions are accelerated by a pulsed voltage, and the mass of each ion is then determined with a high resolution time-of-flight analyzer.

Samples were sent to Perkin-Elmer Biosystems (Framingham, Mass.) for ESITOFMS analysis. The data was obtained on a Mariner ESI TOF system fitted with a standard electrospray interface. The samples were submitted via a loop injection system with a 5 μl loop at a flow rate of 20 μl/min. The solvent was water. Mass spectra are plotted as the number of ions detected (Y-axis) versus the mass-to-charge ratio of the ions (X-axis). A reference comprised 99.9% K₂CO₃.

3.4.2 Results and Discussion

In the case that an M+2 peak was assigned as a potassium hydrino hydride compound in TABLE 21, the intensity of the M+2 peak significantly exceeded the intensity predicted for the corresponding ⁴¹K peak, and the mass was correct. For example, the intensity of the peak assigned to KHKOH₂ was at least twice that predicted for the intensity of the ⁴¹K peak corresponding to K₂OH. In the case of ³⁹KH₂⁺, the ⁴¹K peak was not present and peaks corresponding to a metastable neutral were observed m/e=42.14 and m/e=42.23 which may account for the missing ions indicating that the ⁴¹K species (⁴¹KH₂⁺) was a neutral metastable. A more likely alternative explanation is that ³⁹K and ⁴¹K undergo exchange, and for certain hydrino hydride compounds, the bond energy of the ³⁹K hydrino hydride compound exceeds that of the ⁴¹K compound by substantially more than the thermal energy due to the larger nuclear magnetic moment of ³⁹K. The selectivity of hydrino atoms and hydride ions to form bonds with specific isotopes based on a differential in bond energy provides the explanation of the experimental observation of the presence of ³⁹KH₂⁺ in the absence of ⁴¹KH₂⁺ in the TOFSIMS spectra presented and discussed in the corresponding section. Taken together ESITOFMS and TOFSIMS confirm the isotope selective bonding of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.

The ESITOFMS spectra of sample #2 and sample #3 were essentially the same with differences in the intensities of the peaks. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) of sample #2 and sample #3 appear in TABLE 21.

TABLE 21
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Electrospray-
Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) of sample #2 and sample #3.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
KH2a	41	40.9747	40.97936	0.005
NaH3 H16	42	42.1377	42.138475	0.001
CH30	42	42.23	42.23475	0.005
H2O(H16)4+	82	82.5560	82.51136	0.045
NH4(H16)4+	82	82.5560	82.53517	0.021
CH(H23)3+	82	82.5560	82.54775	0.0008
K2OH	95	94.9470	94.930155	0.017
KHKOH2	97	96.9458	96.945805	0.000
KO4H	104	103.9479	103.951175	0.003
K2O2	110	109.9353	109.91724	0.018
K2O2H2	112	111.9343	111.93289	0.001
KO5H	120	119.9343	119.946085	0.012
KH KHKOH2	137	136.9150	136.91734	0.002
KH2 KHKOH2	138	137.9202	137.925165	0.005
KH3 KHKOH2	139	138.9364	138.93299	0.003
KH4 KHKOH2	140	139.9307	139.940815	0.010
[K+140n]+ n = 1	179	178.8792	178.8915	0.012
K[KH KHCO3]
K2OHKHKOH	191	190.87	190.868135	0.002
K3O6	213	212.8652	212.86059	0.005
K2OH[K2CO3]	233	232.8532	232.842305	0.011
K2OH[KH KHCO3]	235	234.869413	234.857955	0.011
K[KHCO3]2	239	238.896937	238.87624	0.021
KKH(KOH)3	247	246.83	246.83458	0.005
KHKOHKH(KOH)2	248	247.8459	247.842405	0.003
KH2(KH)3KH5KOH	261	260.8605	260.863245	0.003
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]	277	276.8581	276.832125	0.026
K[KH KHCO3][KHCO3]	279	278.847679	278.847775	0.000
K2OHKHKOH	291	290.84	290.837415	0.003
[KH5KOH]
[KH2CO3]3	303	302.902723	302.89227	0.010
[K+140n]+ n = 2	317	316.806702	316.80366	0.003
K[KH KHCO3K2CO3]
KH2[KH KOH]3	329	328.8303	328.7933	0.037
KH4[KH KOH]3	331	330.8303	330.80895	0.021
K[KHCO3]3	339	338.8518	338.832505	0.019
KH4[KHCO3]3	343	342.874451	342.863805	0.011
K2O2[K2CO3][KHCO3]	348	347.7724	347.78655	0.014
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]2	377	376.8010	376.78839	0.013
K[KH KHCO3][KHCO3]2	379	378.805793	378.80404	0.002
K2OHKHKOH	391	390.8251	390.806695	0.018
[KH5KOH]2
$K\left[\begin{array}{c}\mathrm{KH}\mathrm{KOH}\\ {\left(\mathrm{KH}{\mathrm{KHCO}}_3\right)}_2\end{array}\right]$	415	414.7748	414.75729	0.018
K[KHCO3]4	439	438.7950019	438.78877	0.006
KH4[KHCO3]4	443	442.8233	442.82007	0.003
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]3	477	476.7556	476.744655	0.011
K[KH KHCO3][KHCO3]3	479	478.759513	478.760305	0.001
KH2KHKHCO3[KHCO3]3	481	480.777374	480.775955	0.001
KH4KHKHCO3[KHCO3]3	483	482.787598	482.791605	0.004
K2OHKHKOH	491	490.7976	490.775975	0.022
[KH5KOH]3
K2OH[KH KHCO3]3	515	514.7171	514.713555	0.004
K[KHCO3]5	539	538.7441	538.745035	0.001
KH2[KHCO3]5	541	540.7653	540.760685	0.005
KH4[KHCO3]5	543	542.7922	542.776335	0.016
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]4	577	576.7168	576.70092	0.016
K2OHKHKOH	591	590.7365	590.745255	0.009
[KH3KOH]4
KHOH(KOH)3	625	624.7243	624.750725	0.026
[KH5KOH]4
K[KHCO3]6	639	638.7100	638.7013	0.009
KH4[KHCO3]6	643	642.7226	642.7326	0.010
KKHH2O(KOH)3	665	664.7399	664.72226	0.018
[KH5KOH]4
K[K2CO3][KHCO3]5	677	676.65	676.657185	0.007
K2OHKHKOH	691	690.7193	690.714535	0.005
[KH5KOH]5
K[KHCO3]7	739	738.6685	738.657565	0.011
KH2[KHCO3]7	741	740.6695	740.673215	0.004
KH4[KHCO3]7	743	742.6804	742.688865	0.008
K4OKHKOH	768	767.6490	767.63413	0.015
[KH5KOH]5
K2OHKHKOH	791	790.70	790.683815	0.016
[KH5KOH]6
Silanes/Siloxanes
NaSiH6	57	56.9944	57.01368	0.019
Na2SiH6	80	80.0087	80.00348	0.005
Na2Si2O2H3	137	136.9545	136.946755	0.008
Si5H11	151	150.9658	150.970725	0.005
Si5H9O	165	164.9414	164.949985	0.009
NaSi7H12O	247	246.8929	246.91712	0.024
Si9H19O2	303	302.9068	302.930865	0.024
Si12H36O12	564	563.9549	563.94378	0.011
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/39K ratio with the
natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=25\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The positive Electrospray-Ionization-Time-Of-Flight-Mass-Spectroscopy (ESITOFMS) of the control 99.9% K₂CO₃ is shown in FIG. 63. The positive ESITOFMS spectrum of the precipitate prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the BLP Electrolytic Cell with a rotary evaporator and allowing the precipitate to form on standing at room temperature (sample #3) is shown in FIG. 64. The positive ESITOFMS spectrum (m/e=50-300) of a precipitate prepared by concentrating the K₂CO₃ electrolyte from the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell until the precipitate just formed (sample #2) is shown in FIG. 65. The ESITOFMS spectrum of sample #2 and sample #3 was compared with that of the control 99.9% K₂CO₃. For the samples, the positive ion spectrum was dominated by K⁺, and Na⁺ was also present. The dominant compound identified was K₂CO₃ which gave rise to a series of positive ions of K[K₂CO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+138n) at m/e=39, 177, and 315 and K₂HCO₃⁺ at m/e=139. Other peaks containing potassium included KC⁺, K_xO_y⁺, K_xO_yH_z⁺, KCO⁺, and K₂⁺. Only in the cases of sample #2 and sample #3, three series of positive ions of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds were observed of 1.) K₂OHKHKOH[KH₅KOH]_n⁺ m/e=(191+100n) at m/e=191, 291, 391, 491, 591, 691, and 791; 2.) K[KHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(39+100n) at m/e=39, 139, 239, 339, 4329, 539, 639, and 739 with KH₄[KHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(43+100n); 3.) K[K₂CO₃][KHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(177+100n) at m/e=277, 377, 477, 577, and 677 with K[KHKHCO₃][KHCO₃]_n⁺ m/e=(179+100n). These ions are fragments of inorganic polymers containing increased binding energy hydrogen species of the following formula:

[KHKOH]_p[KH₅KOH]_q[KHKHCO₃]_r[KHCO₃]_s[K₂CO₃]_t

where the monomers may be arranged in any order and p, q, r, s, and t are integers. These monomers are also observed with TOFSIMS except for [KH₅KOH]_q which may fragment with gallium ion bombardment.

The ESITOFMS spectra of experimental samples had a greater intensity potassium peak per weight than the starting material control samples. The increased weight percentage potassium is assigned to potassium hydrino hydride compound KH_n n=1 to 5 (weight % K>88%) as a major component of the sample. The ⁴¹K peak of each ESITOFMS spectrum of an experimental sample was much greater than predicted from natural isotopic abundance. The inorganic m/e=41 peak was assigned to KH₂⁺. The ESITOFMS spectrum was obtained for a potassium carbonate control run at 10 times the weight of material as the experimental samples. The spectra showed the normal ⁴¹K/³⁹K ratio.

Thus, saturation of the detector did not occur. As further confirmation of the anomalous ratio, the spectra were repeated with mass chromatograms on a series of dilutions (10×, 100×, and 1000×) of each experimental and control sample. The ⁴¹K/³⁹K ratio was constant as a function of dilution.

Hydrino hydride compounds were identified by both techniques, ESITOFMS and TOFSIMS which confirmed each other. Taken together they provide redoubtable support of hydrino hydride compounds such as inorganic hydrogen polymers as assigned herein.

ESITOFMS also confirmed polyhydrogen compounds. A peak assigned to 16 hydrogen species NaH₃H₁₆⁺ (m/e=42.138475) of intensity and mass resolution equivalent to that of the H₃O⁺ peak was observed in the positive ESITOFMS spectrum of sample # 2 and sample #3. The experimental mass is 42.1377 which is in agreement with the calculated mass.

A peak of experimental mass 82.5560 is shown in FIG. 65. The mass resolution was equivalent to that of KH₂O (m/e=56.97427) which was observed at (m/e=56.994366). Twice the nominal mass corresponds to an organic peak. Since only an inorganic peak of less intensity is in the region the peak can not be assigned as a doubly ionized peak. Metastable peaks are not observed with ESITOFMS. The only possibility is a polyhydrogen compound. The peak may be one of: H₂O(H₁₆)₄⁺ (m/e=82.51136), NH₄(H₁₆)₄⁺ (m/e=82.53517) or CH(H₂₃)₃⁺ (m/e=82.54775). The peak is assigned to CH(H₂₃)₃⁺ (m/e=82.54775) as shown in TABLE 21 which has a calculated mass that best matches the experimental mass.

A peak with a high mass excess was also observed at an experimental mass of 42.23. The peak is assigned to CH₃₀⁺ (m/e=42.23475) which may be a fragment of CH(H₂₃)₃⁺. The bonding of CH(H₂₃)₃⁺ may be a cage compound of 70 hydrogen atoms with a trapped carbon atom. A similar structure to the proposed structure is observed in the case of C₇₀. Nitrogen or oxygen may also be trapped as indicated by the polyhydrogen fragments (H₂₃⁺ (m/e=23.179975), OH₂₃⁺ (m/e=39.174885), H₁₆⁻ (m/e=16.1252), H₂₄⁻ (m/e=24.1878), H₂₅⁻ (m/e=25.195625), CH₂₃⁻ (m/e=35.179975), NH₂₃⁻ (m/e=37.183045)) observed in the TOFSIMS data given in the corresponding section. Additional polyhydrogen cage compounds and fragments (H₇₀⁺ (m/e=70.54775), CH₇₀⁺ (m/e=82.54775), H₃OH₇₀⁺ (m/e=89.566135), SiH₄(H₁₆)₄⁺ (m/e=96.50903), HONH₇₀ ⁺ (m/e=101.553555), H₂ONH₇₀⁺ (m/e=102.56138), H₃O₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=105.561045), Si₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=126.50161), NaKHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=133.509085), Na₂ KHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=156.498885), Na₂HKHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=157.50671), NaKHO₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=165.498905), HNO₃O₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=165.533195), KKH(H₁₆)₇⁺ (m/e=191.811645), (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=258.676725)) were observed by SPMSMS as given in the corresponding section.

3.5 Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS)

Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) is a method to determine the mass spectrum of volatile compounds over a large dynamic range of mass to charge ratios (e.g. m/e=1-500) with extremely high precision (e.g. ±0.005 amu). The analyte is placed in an inert sample holder in a vacuum chamber which is on-line to a high resolution magnetic sector mass spectrometer. The sample is heated to 500° C. The volatilized compounds are ionized with an electron beam (electron ionization, EI). The high resolution masses are determined by a magnetic sector mass spectrometer wherein the ions are separated and strike different locations on the detector based on the Lorentzian deflection in a magnetic field as a function of the mass to charge ratio.

3.5.1 Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS)

Samples were sent to South West Research Institute for SPMSMS analysis. The instrument was a Micromass AutoSpec Ultima trifocusing EBE geometry high resolution sector-field mass spectrometer. The magnet type was high field. The accelerating voltage was 8 KV. The ionization mode was positive electron impact. The ion source was MK-II EI+. The source temperature was 265° C. The mass scan range was from 350 to 35 daltons exponential magnet down scan. The scan rate was 3.0 sec/decade. The mass resolution at PFK m/z=331 was m/Δm=5500 at 5% definition. The solids probe was a 500° C. water cooled type. The initial temperature was 50° C. The heating rate was 30° C./min. The sample was held at maximum temperature for 10 minutes.

The solids probe was pre-fired overnight in a kiln at 400° C. The sample cup was loaded onto the probe tip, and the probe containing the empty sample cup was then inserted into vacuum lock of the instrument for initial pump-down. After attaining 0.05 mbar in the lock, the vacuum lock was opened to high vacuum, 1.7×10⁻⁷ mbar. The probe was then fully inserted into the ion source and programmed up to temperature and held for approximately 10 min to remove any contaminants that may have collected since the last firing of the probe tip. After approximately 10 min, the probe was extracted from the hot ion source and allowed to cool in high vacuum. After cooling, the probe was retracted, and the solid sample was carefully loaded into the sample cup. The probe was reinserted into the vacuum lock. Data acquisition was then started prior to introducing the probe into the ion source. After insertion into the ion source, the probe temperature program was started. The spectrum from each sample was taken by averaging several scans across the apex of the desorption profile and background subtracting. List files containing the mass measured mass peaks were generated by the software and down loaded from the VaxStations to the PC and transferred electronically to BLP.

3.5.2 Results and Discussion

For any compound or fragment peak given in TABLES 22-25 containing an element with more than one isotope, only the lighter isotope is given except that ⁴⁸Ti is reported. In each case, it is implicit that the peak corresponding to the other isotopes(s) was also observed with an intensity corresponding to about the correct natural abundance (e.g. ²⁴Mg, ²⁵Mg, and ²⁶Mg; ³²S and ³⁴S; ⁴⁶Ti, ⁴⁷Ti, ⁴⁸Ti, ⁴⁹Ti, and ⁵⁰Ti; ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, and ⁶¹Ni; ⁶³Cu and ⁶⁵Cu; ⁵⁰Cr, ⁵²Cr, ⁵³Cr, and ⁵⁴Cr; and ⁶⁴Zn, ⁶⁶Zn, ⁶⁷Zn, and ⁶⁸Zn).

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #2 appear in TABLE 22.

TABLE 22
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-
Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #2.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
KH2a	41	40.9949	40.97936	0.017
KH3	42	42.0029	41.987185	0.016
(NaH)2	48	47.9985	47.99525	0.003
Mg2H	49	48.9769	48.977905	0.001
Mg2H2	50	49.9778	49.98573	0.008
Mg2H3	51	51.00	50.993555	0.006
NaSiH3	54	53.9998	53.990205	0.010
NaSiH4	55	55.0076	54.99803	0.010
NaSiH5	56	56.0098	56.005855	0.004
Si2H8	64	64.0192	64.01646	0.003
NiH2O	76	75.9319	75.94586	0.014
NiH4O	78	77.9707	77.96151	0.009
NiH5O	79	78.9746	78.969335	0.005
NaNiH2	83	82.9318	82.94075	0.009
NaNiH3	84	83.9393	83.948575	0.009
NaNiH4	85	84.9483	84.9564	0.008
NiCO	86	85.9359	85.93021	0.006
SiH4(H16)4	96	96.4915	96.50903	0.018
KNiH4	101	100.9261	100.93031	0.004
Cu2	126	125.8405	125.8596	0.019
Si4H15	127	127.0353	127.025095	0.010
Si4H16	128	128.0391	128.03292	0.006
Si4H17	129	129.0366	129.040745	0.004
Si4H18	130	130.0469	130.04857	0.004
KSi3H8	131	130.9628	130.9571	0.006
Si4H19	131	131.0624	131.056395	0.006
KH3 KNO3	143	142.9481	142.938695	0.009
K(KH)2CO	147	146.916	146.90169	0.014
Na2KH H70	156	156.4830	156.498885	0.016
Fe2SO	160	159.8327	159.83678	0.004
Cu2Cl	161	160.8027	160.82845	0.026
NaKHO2H70	165	165.5107	165.498905	0.012
KKH3N2O4	173	172.9268	172.936675	0.010
KKH5N2O4	175	174.9321	174.952325	0.020
KH2KH5N2O4	177	176.9584	176.967975	0.010
KKH(H16)7	191	191.7982	191.811645	0.013
K(KH2)2O5	201	200.8899	200.89698	0.007
NaSi6H12O	219	218.9411	218.94019	0.001
NaSi5H12O3	223	222.9268	222.95308	0.026
(NiH2)2HCl(H16)2H70	258	258.6803	258.676725	0.004
(KH2OH)5	290	289.8978	289.910475	0.013
Ni4Zn	296	295.6423	295.6703	0.028
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1700}{17.9\times {10}^3}=9.5\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #8 appear in TABLE 23.

TABLE 23
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-
Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #8.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
KH2a	41	40.9777	40.97936	0.002
KH5b	44	44.000	44.002835	0.003
Mg2	48	47.9842	47.97008	0.014
(NaH)2	48	47.9871	47.99525	0.008
Mg2H	49	48.9957	48.977905	0.018
Mg2H2	50	49.982	49.98573	0.004
FeH4	60	59.977	59.9662	0.011
Si2H8	64	64.0169	64.01646	0.000
CrH2O	70	69.9502	69.95106	0.001
H70	70	70.5471	70.54775	0.001
NiH2O	76	75.9587	75.94586	0.013
NaNiH	82	81.9382	81.932925	0.005
CH70	82	82.5464	82.54775	0.001
NaNiH2	83	82.954	82.94075	0.013
NaNiH3	84	83.9653	83.948575	0.017
NaNiH4	85	84.964	84.9564	0.008
H3OH70	89	89.5516	89.566135	0.015
NiO2H4	94	93.96	93.95642	0.004
SiH4(H16)4	96	96.5201	96.50903	0.011
HONH70	101	101.558	101.553555	0.004
H2ONH70	102	102.5632	102.56138	0.002
KH HNO3	103	102.9762	102.96716	0.009
H3O2H70	105	105.5497	105.561045	0.011
Si2H70	126	126.5144	126.50161	0.013
NaKH H70	133	133.5253	133.509085	0.016
KH(KH2)2HNO	153	152.9332	152.93606	0.003
Na2KH H70	156	156.5185	156.498885	0.020
Na2HKH H70	157	157.5251	157.50671	0.018
HNO3 O2 H70	165	165.5453	165.533195	0.012
(KHKNO3)2	282	281.8365	281.84609	0.010
(KH)2(KNO3)4	484	483.7738	483.74911	0.025
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1600}{5400}=30\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$
bmost intense peak

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #3 appear in TABLE 24.

TABLE 24
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive
Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy
(SPMSMS) of sample #3.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ti	48	47.9603	47.95	0.010
(NaH)2	48	47.996	47.99525	0.001
TiH	49	48.978	48.957825	0.020
TiH2	50	49.9692	49.96565	0.004
FeH4	60	59.9593	59.9662	0.007
Si2H7	63	63.0147	63.008635	0.006
Si2H8	64	64.02	64.01646	0.004
CuH3	66	65.9506	65.953275	0.003
KSiH5	72	71.9758	71.979765	0.004
NaNiH2	83	82.9349	82.94075	0.006
NaNiH3	84	83.9419	83.948575	0.007
NiCO	86	85.9392	85.93021	0.009
SiH4(H16)4	96	96.4923	96.50903	0.017
KH HNO3	103	102.9514	102.96716	0.016
Si4H14	126	126.0281	126.01727	0.011
Si4H15	127	127.039	127.025095	0.014
Si4H16	128	128.0458	128.03292	0.013
Si4H17	129	129.0435	129.040745	0.003
Si4H18	130	130.0553	130.04857	0.007
Si4H19	131	131.0667	131.056395	0.010
NaKHH70	133	133.4993	133.509085	0.010
Na2KHH70	156	156.4882	156.498885	0.011
NaSi7H16	235	234.9469	234.95351	0.007

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #26 appear in TABLE 25.

TABLE 25
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Solids-Probe-
Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPMSMS) of sample #26.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
KH2a	41	40.9777	40.97936	0.002
Mg2	48	47.9727	47.97008	0.003
(NaH)2	48	48.0089	47.99525	0.014
Mg2H	49	48.9898	48.977905	0.012
Mg2H3	51	50.9854	50.993555	0.008
FeH4	60	59.9727	59.9662	0.007
NiH2O	76	75.9488	75.94586	0.003
KH HCl	76	75.9526	75.94821	0.004
(KH)2	80	79.9456	79.94307	0.003
NaNiH	82	81.9333	81.932925	0.000
CH70	82	82.5407	82.54775	0.007
NaNiH2	83	82.9509	82.94075	0.010
NaNiH3	84	83.9583	83.948575	0.010
NaNiH4	85	84.9691	84.9564	0.013
SiH4(H16)4	96	96.511	96.50903	0.002
HONH70	101	101.5452	101.553555	0.008
Si4H15	127	127.0611	127.025095	0.036
Si4H16	128	128.0673	128.03292	0.034
NaKH H70	133	133.5211	133.509085	0.012
KH2 KNO3	142	141.934	141.93087	0.003
IOH	144	143.9103	143.907135	0.003
H3OHI	147	146.944	146.93061	0.013
KHKN2O3	155	154.9418	154.926115	0.016
Na2KH H70	156	156.5099	156.498885	0.011
NaSi4H8O	159	158.9709	158.95503	0.016
NaSi5H8O	187	186.9561	186.93196	0.024
Si8H19O	259	258.9493	258.959025	0.010
Si8H17O3	289	288.9297	288.933195	0.003
Si8H18O3	290	289.9404	289.94102	0.001
aInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{1500}{5100}=29.4\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

Ions arising from polyhydrogen cage compounds and polyhydrogen compounds comprising 16 hydrogen atom species observed by SPMSMS given in TABLES 22-25 were (H₇₀⁺ (m/e=70.54775), CH₇₀⁺ (m/e=82.54775), H₃OH₇₀⁺ (m/e=89.566135), SiH₄(H₁₆)₄⁺ (m/e=96.50903), HONH₇₀⁺ (m/e=101.553555), H₂ONH₇₀⁺ (m/e=102.56138), H₃O₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=105.561045), Si₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=126.50161), NaKHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=133.509085), Na₂KHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=156.498885), Na₂HKHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=157.50671), NaKHO₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=165.498905), HNO₃O₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=165.533195), KKH(H₁₆)₇⁺ (m/e=191.811645), and (NiH₂)₂HCl(H₁₆)₂H₇₀⁺ (m/e=258.676725)). These high mass excess peaks could not be assigned to a doubly ionized peak. Metastable peaks are not observed with SPMSMS. In each case, the only possibility was a polyhydrogen compound. The assignments given are the best match to the data and the most consistent with the XPS, TOFSIMS, and ESITOFMS results.

3.6 Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS)

Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) is a method to determine the elemental composition as well as a method to determine the mass spectrum of heat stable compounds over a large dynamic range of mass to charge ratios (e.g. m/e=1-500) with extremely high precision (e.g. ±0.005 amu). The analyte is coated on a platinum wire which is placed in a vacuum chamber which is on-line to a high resolution magnetic sector mass spectrometer. The sample is heated to over 1000° C. The volatilized elements and compounds are ionized with an electron beam (electron ionization, EI). The high resolution masses are determined by a magnetic sector mass spectrometer wherein the ions are separated and strike different locations on the detector based on the Lorentzian deflection in a magnetic field as a function of the mass to charge ratio.

3.6.1 Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS)

Samples were sent to South West Research Institute for DEPMSMS analysis. The instrument was a Micromass AutoSpec Ultima trifocusing EBE geometry high resolution sector-field mass spectrometer. The magnet type was high field. The accelerating voltage was 8 KV. The ionization mode was positive electron impact. The ion source was MK-II EI+. The source temperature was 265° C. The mass scan range was from 350 to 35 daltons exponential magnet down scan. The scan rate was 3.0 sec/decade. The mass resolution at PFK m/z=331 was m/Δm=5500 at 5% definition. The direct exposure probe type was modified with a platinum retaining screen. The filament was platinum. The temperature was over 1000° C.

A small platinum aperture screen was placed in front of the desorption coil, and some of the sample crystals were placed in front of the coil on this screen. The direct exposure probe (DEP) was then coated with the smaller of the crystals. Once the DEP was inserted into the ion source the acquisition was started, and the coil was brought to a high temperature. The estimated temperature of the coil and the platinum screen was over 1000° C. List files containing the mass measured mass peaks were generated by the software and down loaded from the VaxStations to the PC and transferred electronically to BLP.

3.6.2 Results and Discussion

For any compound or fragment peak given in TABLES 26-29 containing an element with more than one isotope, only the lighter isotope is given except that ⁴⁸Ti is reported. In each case, it is implicit that the peak corresponding to the other isotopes(s) was also observed with an intensity corresponding to about the correct natural abundance (e.g. ²⁴Mg, ²⁵Mg, and ²⁶Mg; ⁴⁶Ti, ⁴⁷Ti, ⁴⁸Ti, ⁴⁹Ti, and ⁵⁰Ti; ⁵⁰Cr, ⁵²Cr, ⁵³Cr, and ⁵⁴Cr; ⁵⁶Fe and ⁵⁷Fe; ⁵⁸Ni, ⁶⁰Ni, and ⁶¹Ni; ⁶³Cu and ⁶⁵Cu; ⁶⁴Zn, ⁶⁶Zn, ⁶⁷Zn, and ⁶⁸Zn; and ¹⁰⁷Ag and ¹⁰⁹Ag).

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of sample #3 appear in TABLE 26.

TABLE 26
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-
Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of
sample #3.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
16Oa	16	15.9893	15.99491	0.006
17Oa	17	16.9857	16.9991	0.013
18Oa	18	17.9824	17.9992	0.017
Mg	24	23.9800	23.98504	0.005
MgH	25	24.9992	24.992865	0.006
MgH2	26	26.0065	26.00069	0.006
MgH3	27	27.0145	27.008515	0.006
AlH	28	27.9972	27.989355	0.008
AlH2	29	28.9935	28.99718	0.003
AlH3	30	30.0014	30.005005	0.004
KH2	41	40.9564	40.97936	0.023
KH3	42	41.9984	41.987185	0.011
KH4	43	42.9926	42.99501	0.002
SiO	44	43.9576	43.97184	0.014
SiOH	45	44.9599	44.979665	0.020
TiH2	50	49.9600	49.96565	0.006
TiO	64	63.9463	63.94491	0.001
KH2CO	69	68.9801	68.97427	0.006
NiC	70	69.9219	69.9353	0.013
NiO	74	73.9166	73.93021	0.014
NaNiH	82	81.9208	81.932925	0.012
NaNiH2	83	82.9284	82.94075	0.012
FeO2H	89	88.9334	88.932545	0.001
K2H2CO4	156	155.9238	155.92271	0.001
aWater peak (observed m/e = 18.0037; calculated m/e = 18.01056) was the most intense peak which was assigned a relative intensity of 100.00. The hydroxide peak (observed m/e = 16.9962; calculated m/e = 17.002735) relative intensity was 78.19. The oxygen isotope peak relative intensities were 16O = 17.70, 17O = 21.57, and 18O = 44.32. The natural abundances of the oxygen isotopes are 16O = 99.79, 17O = 0.037, and 18O = 0.204.

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (ml e) of the positive Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of sample #2 appear in TABLE 27.

TABLE 27
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-
Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of
sample #2.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
16Oa	16	15.9944	15.99491	0.001
17Oa	17	16.9892	16.9991	0.010
18Oa	18	17.9861	17.9992	0.013
Mg	24	23.9818	23.98504	0.003
MgH	25	24.9950	24.992865	0.002
MgH2	26	26.0081	26.00069	0.007
MgH3	27	27.0074	27.008515	0.001
AlH	28	27.9940	27.989355	0.005
AlH2	29	29.0028	28.99718	0.006
AlH3	30	29.9975	30.005005	0.008
KH2	41	40.9607	40.97936	0.019
KH3	42	41.9957	41.987185	0.009
KH4	43	42.9846	42.99501	0.010
SiO	44	43.9640	43.97184	0.036
KH5	44	44.0008	44.002835	0.001
TiH	49	48.9720	48.957825	0.014
48TiH3	51	50.9797	50.973475	0.006
NaNiH2	83	82.9511	82.94075	0.010
KHNO2	86	85.9479	85.964425	0.017
aThe nitrogen peak (observed m/e = 28.0050; calculated m/e = 28.00614) was observed to have a relative intensity of 95.37. The oxygen isotope peak relative intensities were 16O = 9.11, 17O = 32.26, and 18O = 100.00. The natural abundances of the oxygen isotopes are16O = 99.79, 17O = 0.037, and 18O = 0.204.

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of sample #8 appear in TABLE 28.

TABLE 28
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-
Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of
sample #8.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
16Oa	16	15.9914	15.99491	0.004
17Oa	17	16.9842	16.9991	0.015
18Oa	18	17.9957	17.9992	0.003
MgH3	27	27.0145	27.008515	0.006
AlH	28	27.9910	27.989355	0.002
AlH2	29	28.9994	28.99718	0.002
(NaH)2	48	47.9928	47.99525	0.002
Mg2H4	52	52.0016	52.00138	0.000
CrH2	54	53.9646	53.95615	0.008
KOH3	58	58.0013	57.98202	0.019
NiH2O	76	75.9408	75.94586	0.005
KHKNO3	141	140.9132	140.923045	0.010
KH2KNO3	142	141.9234	141.93087	0.007
IOH	144	143.9026	143.907135	0.005
KH2(KOH)2	153	152.9039	152.91225	0.008
KH5(KOH)2	156	155.9368	155.935725	0.001
aThe 16OH peak (observed m/e = 16.9992; calculated m/e = 17.002735) was observed with a relative intensity of 11.80. The hydroxide peak (observed m/e = 16.9962; calculated m/e = 17.002735) relative intensity was 78.19. The oxygen isotope peak relative intensities were 16O = 40.97, 17O = 0.02, and 18O = 0.23. The natural abundances of the oxygen isotopes are 16O = 99.79, 17O = 0.037, and 18O = 0.204.

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of sample #26 appear in TABLE 29.

TABLE 29
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Direct-
Exposure-Probe-Magnetic-Sector-Mass-Spectroscopy (DEPMSMS) of
sample #26.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
AlH2	29	29.0049	28.99718	0.008
Mg2H	49	48.9861	48.977905	0.008
NaNiH3	84	83.9541	83.948575	0.006
NaNiH5	86	85.9534	85.964225	0.011
Ag	107	106.9043	106.90509	0.001
CuZn	127	126.8365	126.8589	0.022
K2NO3	140	139.9116	139.91522	0.004
KHKNO3	141	140.9197	140.923045	0.003
KH2KNO3	142	141.9280	141.93087	0.003
KH(KOH)2	152	151.9125	151.904425	0.008
KH2(KOH)2	153	152.9083	152.91225	0.004
KH3(KOH)2	154	153.9301	153.920075	0.010
KH5(KOH)2	156	155.9450	155.935725	0.009
CuI	190	189.8365	189.8342	0.002
Cu2I	253	252.7704	252.764	0.006

Hydrino hydride compounds may demonstrate isotope selective bonding. Substantially enrichment of ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O was observed by DEPMSMS of sample #3 and sample #2. For sample #3, the relative intensities of the oxygen isotope peaks given in TABLE 26 were ¹⁶O=17.70, ¹⁷O=21.57, and ¹⁸O=44.32. The corresponding abundances of the oxygen isotopes of sample #3 were ¹⁶O=21.17, ¹⁷O=25.80, and ¹⁸O==53.02. The natural abundances of the oxygen isotopes are ¹⁶O=99.79, ¹⁷O=0.037, and ¹⁸O=0.204. Sample #3 was prepared from the BLP electrolyte. Sample #2 was prepared from the Thermacore electrolyte. The enrichment of ¹⁷O and ¹⁸O was predicted to be higher since the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell produced more energy that the BLP Electrolytic Cell (1.6×10⁹ J versus 6.3×10⁸ J). For sample #2, the relative intensities of the oxygen isotope peaks given in TABLE 27 were ¹⁶O=9.11, ¹⁷O=32.26, and ¹⁸O=100.00. The corresponding abundances of the oxygen isotopes of sample #2 were ¹⁶O=6.44, ¹⁷O=22.82, and ¹⁸O=70.74. The oxygen isotopic selective bonding of hydrino hydride compounds may be due to a mass effect since the mass of oxygen is relatively small. The heavier isotopes are predicted to form stronger bonds. A representative hydrino hydride compound containing oxygen is KHKOH. Nitric acid may cause hydroxide and carbonate of hydrino hydride compounds such as KHKOH and KHKHCO₃, respectively, to be displaced by nitrate. Thus, a control for the oxygen isotope intensities is the Thermacore electrolyte treated with nitric acid (sample #8). For sample #8, the relative intensities of the oxygen isotope peaks given in TABLE 28 were ¹⁶O=40.97, ¹⁷O=0.02, and ¹⁸O=0.23. The corresponding abundances of the oxygen isotopes were ¹⁶O=99.4, ¹⁷O=0.048, and ¹⁸O=0.56. The oxygen isotopic ratios observed by DEPMSMS of sample #8 were similar to the natural abundances.

3.7 Identification of Inorganic Hydrogen and Hydrogen Polymers by Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPOMS)

Elemental analysis of the electrolyte of the 28 liter K₂CO₃ BLP Electrolytic Cell demonstrated that the potassium content of the electrolyte had decrease from the initial 56% composition by weight to 33% composition by weight. The measured pH was 9.85; whereas, the pH at the initial time of operation was 11.5. The pH of the Thermacore Electrolytic Cell was originally 11.5 corresponding to the K₂CO₃ concentration of 0.57 M which was confirmed by elemental analysis. Following the 15 month continuous energy production run, the pH was measured to be 9.04, and it was observed by drying the electrolyte and weighing it that over 90% of the electrolyte had been lost from the cell. The loss of potassium in both cases was assigned to the formation of volatile potassium hydrino hydride compounds whereby hydrino was produced by catalysis of hydrogen atoms that then reacted with water to form hydrino hydride compound and oxygen. The reaction is:

$\begin{array}{cc}2H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]+H_2O\to 2H^{-}\left(1/p\right)+2H^{+}+\frac{1}{2}O_2& \left(39\right)\\ \underset{\_}{2H^{-}\left(1/p\right)+2K_2{\mathrm{CO}}_3+2H^{+}\to 2{\mathrm{KHCO}}_3+2\mathrm{KH}\left(1/p\right)}& \left(40\right)\\ 2H\left[\frac{a_H}{p}\right]+H_2O+2K_2{\mathrm{CO}}_3\to 2{\mathrm{KHCO}}_3+2\mathrm{KH}\left(1/p\right)+\frac{1}{2}O_2& \left(41\right)\end{array}$

This reaction is consistent with the elemental analysis (Galbraith Laboratories) of the electrolyte of the BlackLight Power, Inc. cell as predominantly KHCO₃ and hydrino hydride compounds including KH(1/p)_n, where n is an integer, based on the excess hydrogen content which was 30% in excess of that of KHCO₃ (1.3 versus 1 atomic percent). The volatility of KH(1/p)_n, where n is an integer, would give rise to a potassium deficit over time.

Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPQMS) is a convenient sensitive method to determine the mass spectrum of volatile compounds over the range of mass to charge ratios (e.g. m/e=1-200) with a low mass resolution (e.g. ±0.1 amu). The analyte is placed in an inert sample holder in a vacuum chamber which is on-line to a quadrapole mass spectrometer. The sample is heated up to 600° C. The volatilized compounds are ionized with an electron beam (electron ionization, EI). The masses are determined by a quadrapole mass spectrometer wherein the each ion passes through a quadrapole electrodynamic field and strikes the detector when the scanned field is resonant with the mass to charge ratio of each ion.

The possibility of using mass spectroscopy to detect volatile hydrino hydride compounds was explored. A number of hydrino hydride compounds were identified by mass spectroscopy by forming vapors of heated crystals from electrolytic cell and gas cell hydrino hydride reactors. In all cases, hydrino hydride ion peaks were also observed by XPS of the crystals used for mass spectroscopy that were isolated from each hydrino hydride reactor. For example, the XPS of the crystals isolated from the electrolytic cell hydride reactor (sample #9) having the mass spectrum shown in FIGS. 69 and 70 is shown in FIGS. 88 and 89. The XPS of recrystallized crystals isolated from the entire gas cell hydride reactor (sample #34) is shown in FIG. 90.

3.7.1 Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy (SPQMS)

Mass spectroscopy was performed by BlackLight Power, Inc. on the crystals from the electrolytic cell and the gas cell hydrino hydride reactors. A Dycor System 1000 Quadrapole Mass Spectrometer Model #D200MP with a HOVAC Dri-2 Turbo 60 Vacuum System was used. One end of a 4 mm ID fritted capillary tube containing about 5 mg of the sample was sealed with a 0.25 in. Swagelock union and plug (Swagelock Co., Solon, Ohio). The other end was connected directly to the sampling port of a Dycor System 1000 Quadrapole Mass Spectrometer (Model D200MP, Ametek, Inc., Pittsburgh, Pa.). The mass spectrometer was maintained at a constant temperature of 115° C. by heating tape. The sampling port and valve were maintained at 125° C. with heating tape. The capillary was heated with a Nichrome wire heater wrapped around the capillary. The mass spectrum was obtained at the ionization energy of 70 eV (except where reported otherwise) at different sample temperatures in the region m/e=0-220.

3.7.2 Results and Discussion

Solids-Probe-Quadrapole-Mass-Spectroscopy was used to confirm polyhydrogen compounds. Although the mass: resolution was 0.1 AMU, peaks with significant mass excess that could only be polyhydrogen compounds were easily identified. Only water and trace air contamination peaks were observed in the mass spectrum of 99.99% pure K₂CO₃, 99.999% pure KNO₃, and 99.999% pure KI below the decomposition temperatures. For some experimental samples, peaks were observed at the nominal masses of those of iodine. A mixture of distilled water and pure iodine (sample #26) was run as a control which shown in FIG. 66. The water peaks and singly and doubly ionized atomic iodine peaks are shown. The experimental peaks given herein could not be assigned to iodine or hydrated, or protonated iodine. The observed masses and branching ratios were different from those of water plus iodine. Peak assignments were based on consistency with the ESITOFMS, SPMSMS, and TOFSIMS high resolution data. The observed peaks from polyhydrogen compounds are given in TABLE 30. The silane fragment SiH₂⁺ (m/e=29.99258) was observed at (m/e=30.0). For sample #32, the silane fragment SiH₄⁺ (m/e=32.00823) was observed at (m/e=32.0). Silanes with excess hydrogen such as the series Si_nH_2n+2(H₁₆)_m to Si_nH_4n(H₁₆)_m were observed. The silane stoichiometry is unique in that the chemical formulae for normal silanes is the same as that of alkanes. Whereas, the formulae for hydrino hydride silanes may be the hydrogen series from that of alkanes to Si_nH_4n which is indicative of a unique bridged hydrogen bonding. Only the ordinary silanes SiH₄ and Si₂H₄ are indefinitely stable at 25° C. The higher ordinary silanes decompose giving hydrogen and mono- and disilane, possibly indicating SiH₂ as an intermediate. Also, ordinary silane compounds react violently with oxygen [F. A. Cotton, G. Wilkinson, Advanced Inorganic Chemistry, Fourth Edition, John Wiley & Sons, New York, pp. 383-384.]. It is extraordinary that the present compounds are stable to heating in air. Even more extraordinary is the presence of polymers of hydrogen, H₁₆, which add to these silanes, and the presence of H₆₀ and H₇₀ compounds which may be cage compounds.

TABLE 30
The hydrino hydride compounds with a high mass excess
assigned as polyhydrogen peaks of the mass spectra of the
crystals from the electrolytic cell and gas cell hydrino hydride reactors.
Hydrino Hydride Compound
Ion            m/e of Peak
H16H2+         8.5665125
H16H+          17.133025
H16H2+         18.14085
H24H232+       23.6838875
OH22+          38.16706
OH23+          39.174885
CH30+          42.23475
SiH3(H16)2+    63.250805
NH69+          83.542995
NH70+          84.55082
NHH70+         85.558645
H2OH70+        88.55831
SiH2H60+       90.46208
Si2H6(H16)2+   94.25121
Si2H7(H16)2+   95.259035
(SiH4)2(H16)2+ 96.26686
NOH70+         100.54573
Si2H6(H16)3+   110.37641
Si3H10(H16)2+  126.25944
Si3H11(H16)2+  127.267265
(SiH4)3(H16)2+ 128.27509
Si3H9(H16)3+   141.376815
Si3H10(H16)3+  142.38464

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #3 with a sample heater temperature of 100° C., and an insert of the (m/e=0-45) mass spectrum is shown in FIG. 67. The polyhydrogen compound assigned to H₁₆H₂⁺ (m/e=18.14085) is observed by SPQMS at (m/e=18.1) as shown in the insert. As the ionization energy was increased from 30 eV to 70 eV, a (m/e=22.0) peak was observed that was the same intensity as an observed (m/e=44.0) peak. Carbon dioxide gives rise to a (m/e=44.0) peak and a (m/e=22.0) peak corresponding to doubly ionized CO₂ (m/e=44.0). However, the (m/e=22.0) peak of carbon dioxide is about 0.52% of the (m/e=44.0) peak [Data taken on UTI-100C-02 quadrapole residual gas analyzer with V_EE=70 V, V_IE=15 V, V_FO=−20 V, I_E=2.5 mA, and resolution potentiometer=5.00 by Uthe Technology Inc., 325 N. Mathida Ave., Sunnyvale, Calif. 94086.]. Thus, the (m/e=22.0) peak is not carbon dioxide. The (m/e=44.0) peak was assigned to KH₅. The (m/e=22.0) peak was assigned to doubly ionized KH₅ produced by the following fragmentation reaction of KH₅ at the higher ionization energy

The exceptional intensity of the doubly ionized (m/e=44.0) peak is a signature and identifies hydrino hydride compound KH₅ which is a component of inorganic hydrogen compounds as given in the ESITOFMS section.

As the ionization energy was increased from 30 eV to 70 eV a m/e=4.0 peak was observed. The reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}{H}_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]+{H_2^{*}\left[2c^{\prime }=\frac{2a_o}{p}\right]}^{+}\to H_4^{+}\left(1/p\right)& \left(43\right)\end{array}$

H₄⁺ (1/p) serves as a signature for the presence of dihydrino molecules and molecular ions including those formed by fragmentation of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds in a mass spectrometer.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-140) of vapors from sample #8 with a sample heater temperature of 148° C. is shown in FIG. 68. Polyhydrogen compounds SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), SiH₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=63.3), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=128.3), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of vapors from sample #9 with a sample heater temperature of 234° C. is shown in FIG. 69. Polyhydrogen compounds H₂₄H₂₃²⁺ (m/e=23.6838875), SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), NH₇₀⁺ (m/e=84.55082), Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=95.259035), (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=96.26686), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=23.7), (m/e=63.3), (m/e=84.6), (m/e=95.3), (m/e=96.3), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=128.3), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-110) of the vapors from sample #9 with a sample heater temperature of 185° C. is shown in FIG. 70. Polyhydrogen compounds SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), NH₇₀⁺ (m/e=84.55082), H₂OH₇₀⁺ (m/e=88.55831), Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=95.259035), and (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=96.26686) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=63.3), (m/e=84.6), (m/e=88.6), (m/e=95.3), and (m/e=96.3), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-120) of the vapors from sample #10 with a sample heater temperature of 534° C. is shown in FIG. 71. The dominant peak was the proton peak which may be from the decomposition of polyhydrogen compounds such as NOH₇₀⁺ (m/e=100.54573) which was observed at (m/e=100.5). Another polyhydrogen compound H₁₆H⁺ (m/e=17.133025) is shown in FIG. 72 at (m/e=17.1). No other explanation was found. Several of the other peaks present may be hydrino hydride compounds such as NaH₃⁺ (m/e=26.01-3275) and monomers of inorganic hydrogen polymers given in the TOFSIMS and ESITOFMS sections. TOFSIMS was performed to provide dispositive assignments. The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #10 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 31.

TABLE 31
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the positive Time Of
Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #10 taken
in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
Hydrino Hydride	Nominal			Observed
Compound	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
or Fragment	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Ha	1	1.01	1.007825	0.002
Mg	24	23.98	23.98504	0.005
NaH	24	23.99	23.997625	0.008
MgH	25	24.99	24.992865	0.003
Al	27	26.98	26.98153	0.001
AlH	28	27.98	27.989355	0.009
KH2b	41	40.97	40.97936	0.009
Ti	48	47.95	47.95	0.000
TiH	49	48.955	48.957825	0.003
Cr	52	51.94	51.9405	0.000
CrH	53	52.94	52.948325	0.008
CrH2	54	53.96	53.95615	0.004
Mn	55	54.94	54.9381	0.002
Fe	56	55.93	55.9349	0.005
MnH	56	55.95	55.945925	0.004
FeH	57	56.94	56.942725	0.003
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
Cu	63	62.93	62.9293	0.001
Zn	64	63.93	63.9291	0.001
ZnH	65	64.94	64.936925	0.003
FeO	72	71.93	71.92981	0.000
FeOH	73	72.94	72.937635	0.002
NiO	74	73.93	73.93021	0.000
NiOH	75	74.94	74.938035	0.002
NiOH2	76	75.95	75.94586	0.004
NaNiH2	83	82.94	82.94075	0.001
NaNiH3	84	83.95	83.948575	0.001
NaNiH4	85	84.95	84.9564	0.006
NaNiH5	86	85.96	85.964225	0.004
KHKOH	96	95.93	95.93798	0.008
KHKOH2	97	96.945	96.945805	0.0008
KH2 KOH2	98	97.95	97.95363	0.004
KH3 KOH2	99	98.96	98.961455	0.001
KH5 KOH2	101	100.98	100.977105	0.003
KHNO3	102	101.96	101.959335	0.001
Ni2	116	115.865	115.8706	0.006
Ni2H	117	116.875	116.878425	0.003
Cr2OH	121	120.88	120.883735	0.004
CrH CrOH	122	121.89	121.89156	0.002
FeH2 FeOH	131	130.89	130.888185	0.002
Ni2O	132	131.86	131.86551	0.006
Ni2OH	133	132.87	132.873335	0.003
Cu2OH	143	142.86	142.862335	0.002
CuH CuOH	144	143.86	143.87016	0.010
Ni3	174	173.80	173.8059	0.006
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.97	27.97693	0.007
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005
SiH3	31	30.99	31.000405	0.010
SiOH	45	44.98	44.979665	0.000
NaSi3H6O	129	128.97	128.96245	0.008
Si4H16	128	128.04	128.03292	0.007
Si4H17	129	129.04	129.040745	0.001
Si5H11	151	150.97	150.970725	0.001
Si5H12	152	151.98	151.97855	0.001
aIntensity = 220,000 with a
$H{\text{/}}^{39}K=\frac{2.2\times {10}^5}{6.0\times {10}^5}=37\%$
which was significant relative to the control (KHCO3) with a
$H{\text{/}}^{39}K=\frac{7.8\times {10}^3}{3.3\times {10}^6}=0.24\%.$
bInterference of 39KH2+ from 41K was eliminated by comparing the 41K/
39K ratio with the natural abundance ratio
$\left(\mathrm{obs}.=\frac{2.3\times {10}^5}{6.0\times {10}^5}=38.3\%,\mathrm{nat}.\mathrm{ab}.\mathrm{ratio}=\frac{6.88}{93.1}=7.4\%\right).$

The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of sample #10 taken in the static mode appear in TABLE 32.

TABLE 32
The hydrino hydride compounds (m/e) assigned as parent
peaks or the corresponding fragments (m/e) of the negative Time Of
Flight Secondary Ion Mass Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) of
sample #10 taken in the static mode.
				Difference
				Between
	Nominal			Observed
	Mass	Observed	Calculated	and Calculated
	m/e	m/e	m/e	m/e
Hydrino Hydride
Compound
or Fragment
NaH3	26	26.01	26.013275	0.003
MgH3	27	27.00	27.008515	0.008
KH4	43	43.00	42.99501	0.005
Fe	56	55.93	55.9349	0.005
FeH	57	56.94	56.942725	0.003
Ni	58	57.93	57.9353	0.005
NiH	59	58.94	58.943125	0.003
NiH2	60	59.95	59.95095	0.001
NiH3	61	60.96	60.958775	0.001
NiH4	62	61.97	61.9666	0.003
NaH3NaO	65	65.00	64.997985	0.002
NiO	74	73.93	73.93021	0.000
NaNiH3	84	83.95	83.948575	0.001
NaNiH4	85	84.95	84.9564	0.006
NiO2H	91	90.93	90.932945	0.003
Ni(OH)2	92	91.94	91.94077	0.001
KHKO	95	94.93	94.930155	0
KHKOH	96	95.94	95.93798	0.002
KH2KOH	97	96.95	96.945805	0.004
KH3KOH	98	97.95	97.95363	0.004
KH2NO3	103	102.96	102.966716	0.007
KHHSO2	105	104.94	104.94125	0.001
FeCrH	109	108.88	108.883225	0.003
K2HNO	109	108.93	108.933225	0.003
NiCrH	111	110.88	110.883625	0.004
NiCrH2	112	111.89	111.89145	0.001
CuCrH	116	115.89	115.878125	0.012
CuCrH2	117	116.90	116.88595	0.014
ZnCrH2	118	117.89	117.88525	0.005
K2OKH	134	133.89	133.893865	0.004
KO(KH)2	135	134.90	134.90169	0.002
K2OKH3	136	135.90	135.909515	0.009
K2OKH4	137	136.91	136.91734	0.007
FeHFeO2	145	144.86	144.867445	0.007
KO2(KH)2	151	150.89	150.8966	0.007
KO2H(KH)2	152	151.905	151.904425	0.001
K4	156	155.86	155.85484	0.005
Cr3H	157	156.83	156.829325	0.001
K4H	157	156.86	156.862665	0.002
Fe2O3H	161	160.86	160.862355	0.002
Ni2O3	164	163.85	163.85533	0.005
Ni2O3H	165	164.86	164.863155	0.003
Ni2O3H2	166	165.86	165.87098	0.011
Fe3H	169	168.81	168.812525	0.003
Fe3H3	171	170.84	170.828175	0.012
Ni3	174	173.81	173.8059	0.004
Ni3H	175	174.81	174.813725	0.004
Ni3H2	176	175.83	175.82155	0.008
Ni3H5	179	178.86	178.845025	0.015
Ni2CuH	180	179.81	179.808225	0.002
Ni2CuH4	183	182.83	182.8317	0.002
Cu2Ni	184	183.79	183.7949	0.005
Cu2NiH	185	184.80	184.802725	0.003
Cu2NiH2	186	185.80	185.81055	0.010
Cu2NiH3	187	186.81	186.818375	0.008
Cu3	189	188.79	188.7894	0.001
Cu3H	190	189.80	189.797225	0.003
Cu3H2	191	190.81	190.80505	0.005
Cu3H3	192	191.81	191.812875	0.003
Cu3H4	193	192.84	192.8207	0.000
Zn3H2	194	193.80	193.80295	0.003
Zn3H4	196	195.82	195.8186	0.001
Zn3H5	197	196.84	196.826425	0.014
Silanes/Siloxanes
Si	28	27.97	27.97693	0.007
SiH	29	28.98	28.984755	0.005
SiO	44	43.97	43.97184	0.002
SiO2	60	59.97	59.96675	0.003

Hydrino hydride ions such as H⁻( 1/9) (42.8 eV), H⁻( 1/10) (49.4 eV), and H⁻( 1/11) (55.5 eV) were observed in the XPS spectrum of sample #10.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-220) of vapors from sample #11 with a sample heater temperature of 480° C. is shown in FIG. 73. Polyhydrogen compounds H₁₆H⁺ (m/e=17.133025), SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), SiH₂H₆₀⁺ (m/e=90.46208), Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=126.25944), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509), Si₃H₉(H₁₆)₃⁺ (m/e=141.376815), and Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃⁺ (m/e=142.38464) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=17.1), (m/e=63.3), (m/e=90.5), (m/e=126.3), (m/e=127.3), (m/e=128.3), (m/e=141.4), and (m/e=142.4), respectively. Hydrino hydride ions such as H⁻( 1/9) (42.8 eV), H⁻( 1/10) (49.4 eV), and H⁻( 1/11) (55.5 eV) were observed in the XPS spectrum of sample #11.

The quadrapole mass spectrometer may also be used to distinguish hydrino hydride products with higher binding energies versus ordinary compounds via the ion current as a function of ionization potential. The mass spectra (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #28 with a sample heater temperature of 325° C. and an ionization potential of 150 eV and 70 eV are shown in FIG. 74 and FIG. 75, respectively. No unusual peaks were observed at an ionization potential of 30 eV. On increasing the ionization potential from 30 eV to 70 eV, polyhydrogen compounds SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=63.3), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=128.3), respectively. On increasing the ionization potential from 70 eV to 150 eV, polyhydrogen compound CH₃₀⁺ (m/e=42.23475) was observed by SPQMS at (m/e=42.2). Only a polyhydrogen compound or a hydrino hydride compound such as KH₃ are possible based on the nominal mass of 42 and the response to ionization potential. The assignment was based on the observation of a polyhydrogen compound of the appropriate mass by ESITOFMS as given in the ESITOFMS section.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-110) of vapors from sample #29 whereby the sample was dynamically heated from 90° C. to 120° C. while the scan was being obtained in the mass range m/e=75-100 is shown in FIG. 76. Polyhydrogen compounds NH₆₉⁺ (m/e=83.542995), NHH₇₀⁺ (m/e=85.558645), Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=95.259035), and (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=96.26686) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=83.5), (m/e=85.6), (m/e=95.3), and (m/e=96.3), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #30 with a sample heater temperature of 285° C. is shown in FIG. 77. Polyhydrogen compounds H₁₆H²⁺ (m/e=8.5665125), H₁₆H⁺ (m/e=17.133025), SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509), and Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃⁺ (m/e=142.38464) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=8.6), (m/e=17.1), (m/e=63.3), (m/e=127.3), (m/e=128.3), and (m/e=142.4), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #31 with a sample heater temperature of 271° C. is shown in FIG. 78. Polyhydrogen compounds SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=94.25121), Si₂H₇(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=95.259035), (SiH₄)₂(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=96.26686), Si₂H₆(H₁₆)₃⁺ (m/e=110.37641), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and Si₃H₁₀(H₁₆)₃⁺ (m/e=142.38464) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=63.3), (m/e=94.3), (m/e=95.3), (m/e=96.3), (m/e=110.4), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=142.4), respectively. The mass spectrum (m/e=0-65) of the vapors from sample #31 with a sample heater temperature of 271° C. is shown in FIG. 79. Polyhydrogen compound H₁₆H⁺ (m/e=17.133025), was observed by SPQMS at (m/e=17.1).

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-135) of the vapors from sample #32 with a sample heater temperature of 102° C. is shown in FIG. 80. Polyhydrogen compounds OH₂₂⁺ (m/e=38.16706), OH₂₃⁺ (m/e=39.174885), SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=38.2), (m/e=39.2), (m/e=63.3), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=128.3), respectively.

The mass spectrum (m/e=0-150) of the vapors from sample #33 with a sample heater temperature of 320° C. is shown in FIG. 81. Polyhydrogen compounds H₁₆H⁺ (m/e=17.133025), SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805), Si₃H₁₁(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=127.267265), and (SiH₄)₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=128.27509) were observed by SPQMS at (m/e=17.1), (m/e=63.3), (m/e=127.3), and (m/e=128.3), respectively. With continued heating under vacuum the polyhydrogen compound SiH₃(H₁₆)₂⁺ (m/e=63.250805) was pumped away as shown in FIG. 82.

3.8 Identification of Inorganic Hydrogen Polymers by XPS (X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy)

3.8.1 XPS (X-Ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy)

XPS is capable of measuring the binding energy, E_b, of each electron of an atom. A photon source with energy E_hv is used to ionize electrons from the sample. The ionized electrons are emitted with energy E_kinetic:

E _kinetic =E _hv −E _b −R _r  (44)

where E_r is a negligible recoil energy. The kinetic energies of the emitted electrons are measured by measuring the magnetic field strengths necessary to have them hit a detector. E_kinetic and E_hv are experimentally known and are used to calculate E_b, the binding energy of each atom. Thus, XPS incontrovertibly identifies an atom.

A series of XPS analyses were made on crystalline and polymeric samples by the Zettlemoyer Center for Surface Studies, Sinclair Laboratory, Lehigh University. The binding energy of various hydrino hydride ions may be obtained according to Eq. (10). The hydrino hydride ion binding energies according to Eq. (10) are given in TABLE 1. XPS was used to confirm the TOFSIMS, ESITOFMS, SPMSMS and SPQMS data showing production of the increased binding energy hydrogen compounds such as inorganic hydrogen and hydrogen polymers. This was achieved by identifying component hydrino hydride ions such as n=½ to n= 1/16, E_b=3 eV to 73 eV. The identity of the other elements of the polymers were confirmed via the shifts of the primary element peaks of the component atoms due to binding with increased binding energy hydrogen species such as hydrino hydride ions. Hydrino hydride ion, n= 1/16 is the most stable hydrino hydride ion. Thus, XPS of the energy range E_b=3 eV to 73 eV detects these states. Isolation of pure hydrino hydride compounds from the electrolyte of the electrolytic cell hydrino hydride reactor or from the cell contents of the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor is a means of eliminating impurities from the XPS sample which concomitantly dispositively eliminates impurities as an alternative assignment to the hydrino hydride ion peaks. The absence of impurities was determined from the survey spectrum over the region E_b=0 eV to 1200 eV. The survey spectrum also detected shifts in the binding energies of elements bound to hydrino hydride ions.

3.8.2 Results and Discussion

Samples #2 and #3 were purified from the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the Thermacore and BLP Electrolytic Cells, respectively. No impurities were present in the survey scans which can be assigned to peaks in the low binding energy region with the exception of sodium (weak in the case of sample #2) at 64 and 31 eV, potassium at 18 and 34 eV, and oxygen at 23 eV. Accordingly, any other peaks in this region must be due to novel compositions. The hydrino hydride ion peaks H⁻(n=1/p) for p=2 to p=16, the oxygen peak, O, and the potassium peaks, K, are identified for each of the samples #2 and #3 in FIGS. 83, and 85, respectively. In addition, the sodium peaks, Na, of sample #3 are identified in FIG. 85. These hydrino hydride ion peaks were not present in the case of the XPS of matching samples except that NaCO₃ replaced K₂CO₃ as the electrolyte.

XPS further confirmed the TOFSIMS data by showing shifts of the primary elements. The splitting of the principle or Auger peaks of the survey XPS spectrum of samples #2 and #3 indicative of two forms of bonding involving the atom of each split peak are shown in TABLE 33. The selected survey spectra with the corresponding FIGURES of the high resolution spectra of the low binding energy region are given as (#/#). The latter contain hydrino hydride ion peaks. And, several of the shifts of the peaks of elements which comprise hydrino hydride compounds given in TABLE 33 and shown in the survey spectra are greater than those of known compounds. For example, the XPS survey spectrum of XPS sample #3 which appears in FIG. 84 shows extraordinary potassium and oxygen peak shifts. The results shown in FIG. 84 are not due to uniform or differential charging. The oxygen KLL Auger peaks superimpose those of the XPS survey spectrum of XPS sample #2, and the number of lines, their relative intensities and the peak shifts varies. The spectrum is not a superposition of repeated survey spectra that are identical except that they are shifted and scaled by a constant factor; thus, uniform charging is ruled out. Differential charging is eliminated because the carbon and oxygen peaks have a normal peak shape. The range of binding energies from the literature [C. D. Wagner, W. M. Riggs, L. E. Davis, J. F. Moulder, G. E. Mulilenberg (Editor), Handbook of X-ray Photoelectron Spectroscopy, Perkin-Elmer Corp., Eden Prairie, Minn., (1997).] (minimum to maximum, min-max) for the peaks of interest are given in the final row of TABLE 33. The peaks shifted to an extent that they are without identifying assignment correspond to and identify compounds containing hydrino hydride ion, according to the present invention. For example, the positive and negative TOFSIMS spectra of sample #3 was similar to that of sample #1 (TABLES 2 and 3). The positive TOFSIMS spectra of sample #3 showed large peaks which were identified as KHKOH and KHKOH₂ as shown in FIG. 86. The extraordinary shifts of the K3p, K3s, K2p₃, K2p₁, and K2s XPS peaks and the O1s XPS peak shown in FIG. 84 are assigned to these compounds.

The TOFSIMS and XPS results support the assignment of bridged or linear potassium hydrino hydride and potassium hydrino hydroxide compounds. TOFSIMS and XPS taken together provide redoubtable support of hydrino hydride compounds as assigned herein.

NaH₃ (m/e=26.013275) and KH₄ (m/e=42.99501) were observed in the negative TOPSIMS of several samples having large shifts of the primary XPS peaks as shown in TABLE 33. NaH₃ (m/e=26.013275) and KH₄ (m/e=42.99501) were observed at (m/e=26.01) and (m/e=43.00), respectively, as given in the Identification of Hydrino Hydride Compounds by Time-Of-Flight-Secondary-Ion-Mass-Spectroscopy (TOFSIMS) Section. The binding energy of Na³⁺ is 71.64 eV, and the binding energy of K⁴⁺ is 60.91 eV. Whereas, the binding energy of H⁻( 1/16) is 72.4 eV. Thus, the sodium and potassium of NaH₃ and KH₄, respectively, may be in a very high oxidation state which is stabilized by one or more hydrino hydride ions having a high binding energy such as H⁻( 1/16).

TABLE 33
The binding energies of XPS peaks of inorganic hydrogen
polymer, hydrogen polymer, and hydrino hydride compounds.
					Na
		C 1s	N 1s	O 1s	KL23L23	Na 1s	K 3p	K 3s	K 2p3	K 2p1	K 2s
XPS #	FIG #	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)	(eV)
2	—	284.2	~390	530.7	496.5	1070.0	16.0	32.0	291.8	294.6	376.6
	83	288.8	very		503.8	1076.5			300.5	303.2
			broad
3	84	284.4	393.1	530.4	495.9	1070.4	16.2	32.1	291.8	294.7	376.6
	85	288.5		537.5	503.2	1076.3	21.7	37.9	299.5	309.4	383.6
				547.8	512.2
5	—	284.6	403.3	530.3	496.2	1070.8	16.8	32.7	295.3	292.6	377.5
	87	288.2	407.4	532.2
				540.6
				545.2
6		284.3	—	530.3	485.0	1072.9	16.9	32.8	292.5	295.3	377.2
					493.5	broad
8		284.2	398.9	531.8	496.9	1070.9	16.7	32.5	292.3	295.1	376.9
		288.1	402.8		501.7						385.4
			406.7								broad
9	88	284.2	403.2	532.1	496.2	1070.9	—	—	—	—	—
	89	285.7	407.0	535.7	501.4	1077.5
		287.4		563.8	523.1
		288.7
29		284.2	399.5	530.7	474.8	1072.5	16.6	32.5	292.3	295.2	377.1
		285.9	406.5		498.0	broad
34	—	284.6	403.3	532.6	496.5	1070.7	16.9	32.9	292.6	295.6	377.4
	90		407.4	assym					299.3	302.3
				539.2
				541.6
Min		280.5	398	529		1070.4			292
Max		293	407.5	535		1072.8			293.2

The 0-60 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of crystals isolated from the INEL Electrolytic Cell (sample #5) with the primary element peaks identified appears in FIG. 87. No impurities were present in the survey scan which can be assigned to peaks in the low binding energy region with the exception of sodium at 64 and 31 eV, potassium at 17.5 and 33.5 eV, and oxygen at 23 eV. Accordingly, any other peaks in this region must be due to novel compositions. The intense hydrino hydride ion peaks H⁻(¼) 11.2 eV, H⁻(⅙) 22.8 eV, H⁻(⅛) 36.1 eV, H⁻( 1/9) 42.8 eV-H⁻( 1/12) 61 eV, the weak oxygen peak, O 23 eV, sodium peaks, Na 31 eV and Na 64 eV, and the potassium peaks, K 17.5 eV and K 33.5 eV, are identified for sample #5 in FIG. 87. The hydrino hydride peak H⁻(⅕) 16.7 eV is under the K 17.5 eV peak. The hydrino hydride peak H⁻( 1/7) 29.3 eV is under the Na 31 eV peak. These hydrino hydride ion peaks were not present in the case of the XPS of matching samples except that Na₂CO₃ replaced K₂CO₃ as the electrolyte. The XPS data confirms the TOFSIMS data of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.

Sample #9 was purified from the K₂CO₃ electrolyte of the BLP Electrolytic Cell by filtration. The SPQMS spectra are shown in FIGS. 69 and 70. The survey scan is shown in FIG. 88 with the primary elements identified. No impurities are present in the survey scan which can be assigned to peaks in the low binding energy region with the exception of sodium at 64 and 31 eV and oxygen at 23 eV. Accordingly, any other peaks in this region must be due to novel compositions. The hydrino hydride ion peaks H⁻(n=1/p) for p=2 to p=16 and the oxygen peak, O, and sodium peaks, Na, are identified for sample #9 in FIG. 89. These peaks were not present in the case of the XPS of matching samples except that Na₂CO₃ replaced K₂CO₃ as the electrolyte.

The data provide the identification of hydrino hydride ions whose XPS peaks can not be assigned to impurities. Several of the peaks are split such as the H⁻(n=¼), H⁻(n=⅕), H⁻(n=⅛), H⁻(n= 1/10), and H⁻(n= 1/11) peaks shown in FIG. 89. The splitting indicates that several compounds comprising the same hydrino hydride ion are present and further indicates bridged structures and polymers such as the compounds given in the TOFSIMS, ESITOFMS, SPMSMS and SPQMS sections. A general structural formula for a representative bridged increased binding energy hydrogen compound is

As further examples, K₂H₂ and Na₂H₂ may also occur as dimers having this structure, or they may occur as components of polymers.

The 0 to 75 eV binding energy region of a high resolution X-ray Photoelectron Spectrum (XPS) of recrystallized crystals prepared from the entire gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a KI catalyst, stainless steel filament leads, and a W filament (sample #34) is shown in FIG. 90. The survey scan showed that the recrystallized crystals were that of a pure potassium compound. No impurities are present in the survey scan which can be assigned to peaks in the low binding energy region. With the exception of potassium at 18 and 34 eV, and oxygen at 23 eV, no other peaks in the low binding energy region can be assigned to known elements. Accordingly, any other peaks in this region must be due to novel compositions. The hydrino hydride ion peaks H⁻(n=1/p) for p=3 to p=16, the potassium peaks, K, and the oxygen peak, O, are identified in FIG. 90. The agreement with the results for the crystals isolated from the electrolytic cell (sample #9) shown in FIG. 89 is excellent.

The XPS data confirms the TOFSIMS, ESITOFMS, SPMSMS and SPQMS data of the identification of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds.

3.9 Identification of Potassium Hydrino Hydride by Gas Chromatography of the Hydrogen Released by Thermal Decomposition

3.9.1 Gas Chromatography Methods

Potassium hydrino hydride (KH(½)) wherein the hydride ion is H⁻(½) has a relatively low binding energy relative to H⁻(1/p); 2<p<24 30 as given in TABLE 1 and by Eq. (10). KH(½) may be less reactive and more thermally stable than ordinary potassium hydride, but may react according to Eq. (12) and Eq. (13). Under appropriate conditions KH(½) may thermally decompose to release hydrogen. The ortho and para forms of molecular hydrogen can readily be separated by chromatography at low temperatures which with its characteristic retention time is a definitive means of identifying the presence of hydrogen in a sample. The possibility of releasing dihydrino or hydrogen by thermally potassium hydrino hydride with identification by gas chromatography was explored.

Sample #15 comprised deep blue crystals that changed to white crystals upon exposure to air over about a two week period. To avoid exposing the sample to air, approximately 0.5 grams of sample #15 was placed in a thermal decomposition reactor under an argon atmosphere. The sample was not weighed exactly to avoid exposure to air. The reactor comprised a ¼″ OD by 3″ long quartz tube that was sealed at one end and connected at the open end with Swagelock™ fittings to a T. One end of the T was connected to a needle valve and a Welch Duo Seal model 1402 mechanical vacuum pump. The other end was attached to a septum port. The apparatus was evacuated to between 25 and 50 millitorr. The needle valve was closed to form a gas tight reactor. Dihydrino or hydrogen was generated by thermally decomposing hydrino hydride compounds. The heating was performed in the evacuated quartz chamber containing the sample with an external Nichrome wire heater using a Variac transformer. The sample was heated to above 600° C. by varying the transformer voltage supplied to the Nichrome heater until the sample melted and the blue color disappeared. Gas released from the sample was collected with a 500 μl gas tight syringe through the septum port and immediately injected into the gas chromatograph. The reactor was cooled to room temperature, and a mixture of white and orange crystalline solid remained.

Gas samples were analyzed with a Hewlett Packard 5890 Series II gas chromatograph equipped with a thermal conductivity detector and a 60 meter, 0.32 mm ID fused silica Rt-Alumina PLOT column (Restek, Bellefonte, Pa.). The column was conditioned at 200° C. for 18-72 hours before each series of runs. Samples were run at −196° C. using Ne as the carrier gas. The 60 meter column was run with the carrier gas at 3.4 PSI with the following flow rates: carrier—2.0 ml/min., auxiliary—3.4 ml/min., and reference—3.5 ml/min., for a total flow rate of 8.9 ml/min. The split rate was 10.0 ml/min.

The control hydrogen gas was ultrahigh purity (MG Industries).

3.9.2 Results and Discussion

The gas chromatographic analysis (60 meter column) of high purity hydrogen is shown in FIG. 91. The gas chromatograph of the normal hydrogen gave the retention time for para hydrogen and ortho hydrogen as 12.5 minutes and 13.5 minutes, respectively. Control KI (ACS grade, 99+%, Aldrich Chemical Company) and KI exposed to 500 mtorr of hydrogen at 600° C. in the stainless steel reactor for 48 hours showed no hydrogen release upon heating to above 600° C. with complete melting of the crystals. Dihydrino or hydrogen was released when sample #15 was heated to above 600° C. with melting which coincided with the loss of the dark blue color of these crystals. The gas chromatograph of the dihydrino or hydrogen released from the sample #15 when the sample was heated to above 600° C. with melting is shown in FIG. 92. In previous studies [Mills, R, “NOVEL HYDRIDE COMPOUNDS”, PCT US98/14029 filed on Jul. 7, 1998], it was found that hydrogen must be present with dihydrino

$H_2^{*}\left[n=\frac{1}{2};2c^{\prime }=\frac{\sqrt{2}a_o}{p}\right]$

to identify the latter since the migration times are close. But, these results confirm that sample #15 is a hydride. The distinction between The TOFSIMS and XPS data with support of the present gas chromatographic data identifies these blue crystals as potassium hydrino hydride. The blue color may be due to the 407 nm continuum of H⁻(½) as given in TABLE 1.

3.10 Identification of Hydrogen Catalysis by Ultraviolet/Visible Spectroscopy (UV/VIS Spectroscopy)

The catalysis of hydrogen by rubidium ions (Eqs. 6-8)) to form hydrino atoms and hydrino hydride ions may result in the emission of extreme ultraviolet (EUV) photons such as 912 Å.

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{1}\right]\stackrel{{\mathrm{Rb}}^{+}}{}H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]+912Å& \left(45\right)\end{array}$

Hydrinos can act as a catalyst because the excitation and/or ionization energies are m×27.2 eV (Eq. (2)). For example, the equation for the absorption of 27.21 eV, m=1 in Eq. (2), during the catalysis of

$H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]$

the hydrino

$H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]$

that is ionized is

$\begin{array}{cc}27.21\mathrm{eV}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]+H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]->H^{+}+e^{-}+H\left[\frac{a_H}{3}\right]+\left[3^2-2^2\right]\times 13.6\mathrm{eV}-27.21\mathrm{eV}& \left(46\right)\\ H^{+}+e^{-}->H\left[\frac{a_H}{1}\right]+13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(47\right)\end{array}$

And, the overall reaction is

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]+H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]->H\left[\frac{a_H}{1}\right]+H\left[\frac{a_H}{3}\right]+\left[3^2-2^2-4\right]\times 13.6\mathrm{eV}+13.6\mathrm{eV}& \left(48\right)\end{array}$

The corresponding extreme UV photon is:

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]\stackrel{H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]}{}H\left[\frac{a_H}{3}\right]+912\AA & \left(49\right)\end{array}$

The same transition can also be catalyzed by rubidium ions

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]\stackrel{K^{+}/K^{+}}{}H\left[\frac{a_H}{3}\right]+912\AA & \left(50\right)\end{array}$

Disproportionation of hydrinos may occur with emission of higher energy EUV such as 304 Å. An exemplary reaction and the corresponding extreme UV photon are:

$\begin{array}{cc}H\left[\frac{a_H}{3}\right]\stackrel{H\left[\frac{a_H}{2}\right]}{}H\left[\frac{a_H}{4}\right]+304\AA & \left(51\right)\end{array}$

Extreme UV photons may ionize or excite molecular hydrogen resulting in molecular hydrogen emission which includes well characterized ultraviolet and visible lines such as the Balmer series. UV and visible emission of hydrogen may also be caused by internal conversion of the energy of the catalysis of hydrogen. The UV and visible emission from hydrogen catalysis may be observable via ultraviolet/visible spectroscopy (UV/VIS spectroscopy).

3.10.1 Experimental Methods

Potassium metal cryopumped and collected in the cap of the hydrino hydride gas cell reactor shown in FIG. 2 whenever KI catalyst was present in the cell. The potassium metal was also observed in the case that the dissociator such as titanium was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂. The explanation may be due to the formation of potassium metal during the catalysis of hydrogen as given by Eqs. (3-5). An exemplary reaction is given by Eq. (23).

As further evidence of catalysis, the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor was observed to emit bright blue/violet light equivalent to that of a hydrogen plasma only when a catalyst such as KI and RbCl was present with atomic hydrogen. Visually, the emission disappeared when the hydrogen pressure went above 2.5 torr and reappeared when the system pressure went below 1.5 torr. An optical fiber was used to guide the emission from an operating gas cell hydrino hydride reactor to a ultraviolet spectrometer. The ultraviolet spectrum was recorded over the 300-560 nm range. The Balmer series was sought to confirm the catalysis of hydrogen.

In an embodiment of the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor, the catalysis of hydrogen was performed in a vapor phase gas cell with a tungsten filament and RbCl as the catalyst according to Eqs. (6-8). The high temperature experimental gas cell shown in FIG. 2 was used to produce UV/VIS emission. Hydrino atoms and hydrino hydride ions were formed by hydrogen catalysis using rubidium ions and hydrogen atoms in the gas phase.

The experimental gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2 comprised a quartz cell in the form of a quartz tube 2 five hundred (500) millimeters in length and fifty (50) millimeters in diameter. The quartz cell formed a reaction vessel. One end of the cell was necked down and attached to a fifty (50) cubic centimeter catalyst reservoir 3. The other end of the cell was fitted with a Conflat style high vacuum flange that was mated to a Pyrex cap 5 with an identical Conflat style flange. A high vacuum seal was maintained with a Viton O-ring and stainless steel clamp. The Pyrex cap 5 included five glass-to-metal tubes for the attachment of a gas inlet line 25 and gas outlet line 21, two inlets 22 and 24 for electrical leads 6, and a port 23 for a lifting rod 26. One end of the pair of electrical leads was connected to a tungsten filament 1. The other end was connected to a Sorensen DCS 80-13 power supply 9 controlled by a custom built constant power controller. Lifting rod 26 was adapted to lift a quartz plug 4 separating the catalyst reservoir 3 from the reaction vessel of cell 2.

H₂ gas was supplied to the cell through the inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultra high purity hydrogen 11 controlled by hydrogen control valve 13. Helium gas was supplied to the cell through the same inlet 25 from a compressed gas cylinder of ultrahigh purity helium 12 controlled by helium control valve 15. The flow of helium and hydrogen to the cell is further controlled by mass flow controller 10, mass flow controller valve 30, inlet valve 29, and mass flow controller bypass valve 31. Valve 31 was closed during filling of the cell. Excess gas was removed through the gas outlet 21 by a molecular drag pump 8 capable of reaching pressures of 10⁻⁴ torr controlled by vacuum pump valve 27 and outlet valve 28. Pressures were measured by a 0-1000 torr Baratron pressure gauge and a 0-10 torr Baratron pressure gauge 7. The filament 1 was 0.508 millimeters in diameter and eight hundred (800) centimeters in length. The filament was coiled on a ceramic heater support to maintain its shape when heated. The experimental gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2 further comprised a 30 cm wide and 30 cm long titanium screen dissociator was wrapped inside the inner wall of the cell. The titanium screen dissociator was treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor. The screen was heated by the tungsten filament 1. The filament was resistively heated using power supply 9. The power supply was capable of delivering a constant power to the filament. The catalyst reservoir 3 was heated independently using a band heater 20, also powered by a constant power supply. The entire quartz cell was enclosed inside an insulation package comprised of Zicar AL-30 insulation 14. Several K type thermocouples were placed in the insulation to measure key temperatures of the cell and insulation. The thermocouples were read with a multichannel computer data acquisition system.

The cell was operated under flow conditions via mass flow controller 10. The H₂ pressure was maintained at 0.5 torr at a flow rate of

$\frac{0.5{\mathrm{cm}}^3}{\min }.$

The filament was heated to a temperature in the range from 1000-1400° C. as calculated by its resistance. A preferred temperature was about 1200° C. This created a “hot zone” within the quartz tube of about 700-800° C. as well as causing atomization of the hydrogen gas. The catalyst was RbCl which was volatilized at the operating temperature of the cell. The catalysis reaction are given by Eqs. (6-8). The catalyst reservoir was heated to a temperature of 700° C. to establish the vapor pressure of the catalyst. The quartz plug 4 separating the catalyst reservoir 3 from the reaction vessel 2 was removed using the lifting rod 26 which was slid about 2 cm through the port 23. This introduced the vaporized catalyst into the “hot zone” containing the atomic hydrogen, and allowed the catalytic reaction to occur.

The UV/VIS spectrometer was a McPherson extreme UV region spectrometer, Model 234/302VM (0.2 meter vacuum ultraviolet spectrometer) with photomultiplier tube (PMT). The PMT (Model R1527P, Hamamatsu) used has a spectral response in the range of 185-680 nm with a peak efficiency at about 400 nm. The monochrometer used could scan mechanically to 560 nm. The scan interval was 0.5 nm. The inlet and outlet slit were 500-500 μm.

The UV/VIS emission from the gas cell was channeled into the UV/VIS spectrometer using a 4 meter long, five stand fiber optic cable (Edmund Scientific Model #E2549) having a core diameter of 1958 μm and a maximum attenuation of 0.19 dB/m. The fiber optic cable was placed on the outside surface of the top of the Pyrex cap 5 of the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor shown in FIG. 2. The fiber was oriented to maximize the collection of light emitted from inside the cell. The room was made dark. The other end of the fiber optic cable was fixed in a aperture manifold that attached to the entrance aperture of the UV/VIS spectrometer.

3.10.2 Results and Discussion

The UV/VIS spectrum (300-560 nm) of light emitted from the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a tungsten filament and 0.5 torr hydrogen at a cell temperature of 700° C. is shown in FIG. 93. The UV/VIS spectrum (300-560 nm) of light emitted from the gas cell hydrino hydride reactor comprising a tungsten filament, a titanium dissociator treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ before being used in the cell, gaseous RbCl catalyst, and 0.5 torr hydrogen at a cell temperature of 700° C. is shown in FIG. 94. Incandescent continuum radiation was observed for hydrogen heated by the tungsten filament as shown in FIG. 93. With the addition of a titanium dissociator treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂ and gaseous RbCl catalyst, line emission was observed as shown in FIG. 94. FIG. 95 shows the emission due to a discharge of hydrogen superimposed on the gas cell emission. The assignment of two lines of the cell emission to Balmer lines at 486.13 nm and 434.05 nm was made. The remaining lines such as the peaks at 438.76 nm and 534.83 nm remain unassigned to known lines. Of the possible reactions of a tungsten filament, a titanium dissociator treated with 0.6 M K₂CO₃/10% H₂O₂, gaseous RbCl catalyst, and 0.5 torr hydrogen at a cell temperature of 700° C., no known chemical reaction could be found which accounted for the hydrogen Balmer line emission or the unidentified lines. Thus, the emission of the Balmer lines is assigned to the catalysis of hydrogen which excites molecular hydrogen. The unidentified lines are assigned to emission of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds. The catalysis of hydrogen with the formation of increased binding energy hydrogen compounds was confirmed by the observation of hydrino hydride compounds RbH, KHKOH, RbHKOH, and RbHRbOH by TOFSIMS as given in TABLE 13.

Claims

1-101. (canceled)

102. A method of forming a compound comprising: (a) at least one neutral, positive, or negative increased binding energy hydrogen species having a binding energy (i) greater than the binding energy of the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species, or(ii) greater than the binding energy of any hydrogen species for which the corresponding ordinary hydrogen species is unstable or is not observed because the ordinary hydrogen species' binding energy is less than thermal energies at ambient conditions, or is negative; and(b) at least one other element; the method comprising the steps of: providing a gaseous catalyst comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of atoms of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, and Pt; providing gaseous hydrogen atoms;reacting said gaseous catalyst with said gaseous hydrogen atoms, thereby forming hydrino from said gaseous hydrogen atoms;reacting said hydrino with at least one selected from the group consisting of a source of electrons in combination with at least one other element, H+, increased binding energy hydrogen species, and other elements to form the compound.

103. A method of claim 102 of forming novel compounds wherein a gaseous catalysts comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a source of K+, a source of Rb+, and a source of He+.

104. A method of claim 103 of forming novel compounds wherein the source of K+ is potassium metal.

105. A method of claim 103 of forming novel compounds wherein the source of Rb+ is rubidium metal.

106. A method of claim 102 of forming novel compounds further comprising the step of applying an adjustable electric or magnetic field to control the rate of formation of hydrino.

107. A method for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms comprising the steps of: providing a gaseous catalyst comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of atoms of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, and Pt;providing gaseous hydrogen atoms; andreacting said gaseous catalyst with said gaseous hydrogen atoms, thereby releasing energy from said gaseous hydrogen atoms.

108. A method of claim 107 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein a gaseous catalysts comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a source of K+, a source of Rb+, and a source of He+.

109. A method of claim 108 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of K+ is potassium metal.

110. A method of claim 108 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of Rb+ is rubidium metal.

111. A method of claim 107 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms further comprising the step of applying an adjustable electric or magnetic field to control the rate of energy release.

112. A cell for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms comprising: a reaction vessel;a source of gaseous hydrogen atoms; anda source of a gaseous catalyst comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of atoms of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, and Pt.

113. A cell of claim 112 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein a gaseous catalysts comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a source of K+, a source of Rb+, and a source of He+.

114. A cell of claim 113 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of K+ is potassium metal.

115. A cell of claim 113 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of Rb+ is rubidium metal.

116. A cell of claim 112 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms further comprising an adjustable electric or magnetic field source.

117. A cell for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms comprising: a reaction vessel;a chamber communicating with said vessel, said chamber containing gaseous hydrogen atoms or a source of said hydrogen atoms; anda catalyst reservoir communicating with said reaction vessel or a boat contained in said reaction vessel, said catalyst reservoir or boat containing a gaseous catalyst comprising at least one selected from the group consisting of atoms of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, and Pt.

118. A cell of claim 117 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein a gaseous catalysts comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of a source of K+, a source of Rb+, and a source of He+.

119. A cell of claim 118 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of K+ is potassium metal.

120. A cell of claim 118 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms wherein the source of Rb+ is rubidium metal.

121. A cell of claim 117 for extracting energy from hydrogen atoms further comprising an adjustable electric or magnetic field source.

122. A method of claim 121, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is selected from the group consisting of Hn, Hn−, and Hn+ where n is a positive integer, with the proviso that n is greater than 1 when H has a positive charge.

123. A method of claim 121, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is selected from the group consisting of (a) hydride ion having a binding energy that is greater than the binding of ordinary hydride ion (about 0.8 eV) for p=2 up to 23 in which the binding energy is represented by

124. A method of claim 123, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is a hydride ion having a binding energy of about 3.0, 6.6, 11.2, 16.7, 22.8, 29.3, 36.1, 42.8, 49.4, 55.5, 61.0, 65.6, 69.2, 71.5, 72.4, 71.5, 68.8, 64.0, 56.8, 47.1, 34.6, 19.2, or 0.65 eV.

125. A method of claim 124, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is a hydride ion having the binding energy:

126. A method of claim 121, wherein the increased binding energy hydrogen species is selected from the group consisting of a. a hydrogen atom having a binding energy of about

127. A method of claim 126, wherein p is from 2 to 200.

128. A method of claim 121, which is greater than 50 atomic percent pure.

129. A method of claim 128, which is greater than 90 atomic percent pure.

130. A method of claim 129, which is greater than 98 atomic percent pure.

131. A method of claim 121, wherein said increased binding energy hydrogen species is negative.

132. A method of claim 131, comprising at least one cation.

133. A method of claim 132, wherein the cation is a proton,

134. A method of claim 121, wherein the other element is an ordinary hydrogen atom or an ordinary hydrogen molecule.

135. A method of claim 121, having a formula [KHmKCO3]n wherein m and n are each an integer, the compound contains at least one H and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

136. A method of claim 121, having a formula [KHmKNO3]nm′+n′X− wherein m, m′ n and n′ are each an integer, X is a singly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

137. A method of claim 121, having a formula [KHKNO3]n wherein n is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

138. A method of claim 121, having a formula [KHKOH]n wherein n is an integer and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

139. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHmM′X]n wherein m and n are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

140. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHmM′X′]nm′−n′X− wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M and M′ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one said increased binding energy hydrogen species.

141. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M′+ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth cation, X and X′ are each a singly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

142. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]nm′+n′X− wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M is alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X is a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

143. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]nm′−n′M′+ wherein m, m′, n, and n′ are each an integer, M and M′ are an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content Hm of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

144. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H10)n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H16)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

145. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H10)n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H16)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

146. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(H16)n− wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and the hydrogen content (H16)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

147. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(H16)n− wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H16)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

148. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(H16)n− wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H16)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

149. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(H16)n− wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H16)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

150. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H24)n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H24)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

151. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H24)n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H24)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

152. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H60)n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H60)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

153. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H60)n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H60)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

154. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H70)n wherein n is an integer, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H70)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

155. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H70)n wherein n is an integer, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H70)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

156. A method of claim 121, having a formula, M(H10)q(H16)r(H24)s(H60)t(H70)u wherein q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (H10)q(H16)r(H24)s(H60)t(H70)u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

157. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(H10)q(H16)r(H24)s(H60)t(H70)u wherein q, r, s, and tare each an integer including zero but not all zero, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (H10)q(H16)r(H24)s(H60)t(H70)u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

158. A method of claim 121, having a formula MX wherein M is positive, neutral, or negative and is selected from the list of H16, H16H, H16H2, H24H23, OH22, OH23, OH24, MgH2H16, NaH3H16, H24H2O, CNH16, CH30, SiH4H16, (H16)3H15, SiH4(H16)2, (H16)4, H70, Si2H6H16, (SiH4)2H16, SiH4(H16)3, CH70, NH69, NH70, NHH70, OH70, H2OH70, FH70, H3OH70, SiH2H60, Si(H16)3H15, Si(H16)4, Si2H6(H16)2, Si2H7(H16)2, SiH3 (H16)4, (SiH4)2(H16)2, O2(H16)4, SiH4 (H16)4, NOH70, O2H69, HONH70, O2H70, H2ONH70, H3O2H70, Si2H6(H24)2, Si2H6(H16)3, (SiH4)3H16, (SiH4)2(H16)3, (OH23)H16H70, (OH24)H16H70, Si3H10(H16)2, Si2H70, Si3H11(H16)2, Si2H7(H16)4, (SiH4)3(H16)2, (SiH4)2(H16)4, NaOSiH2(H16)4, NaKHH70, Si2H7(H70), Si3H9(H16)3, Si3H10(H16)3, Si2H6(H16)5, (SiH4)4H16, (SiH4)3(H16)3, Na2OSiH2(H16)4, Si3H8(H16)4, Na2KHH70, Si3H9(H16)4, Na2HKHH70, SO(H16)6(H15), SH2(OH23)H16H70, SO(H16)7, Mg2H2H23H16H70, (SiH4)4(H16)2 (SiH4)3 (H16)4, KH3O(H16)2H70, KH5O(H16)2H70, K(OH23)H16H70, K2OHH70, NaKHO2H70, NaOHNaO2H70, HNO3O2H70, Rb(H16)5, Si3H11H70, KNO2(H16)5, (SiH4)4(H16)3, KKH(H16)7, (SiH4)4(H16)4, (KH2)2(H16)3H70, (NiH2)2HCl(H16)2H70, Si5OH102, (SiH3)7(H16)5, Na3O3(SiH3)10SiH(H16)5, X is other element, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

159. A method of claim 121, having a formula MX wherein M is positive, neutral, or negative and is selected from the list of H16, H16H, H16H2, H24H23, OH22, OH23, OH24, MgH2H16, NaH3H16, H24H2O, CNH16, CH30, SiH4H16, (H16)3H15, SiH4(H16)2, (H16)4, H70, SiH4(H16)3, CH70, NH69, NH70, NHH70, OH70, H2OH70, FH70, H3OH70, SiH2H60, Si(H16)3H15, Si(H16)4, Si2H6(H16)2, Si2H7(H16)2, SiH3(H16)4, (SiH4)2(H16)2, O2(H16)4, SiH4(H16)4, NOH70, O2H69, HONH70, O2H70, H2ONH70, H3O2H70, Si2H6(H24)2, Si2H6(H16)3, (SiH4)3H16, (SiH4)2(H16)3, (OH23)H16H70, (OH24)H16H70, Si3H10(H16)2, Si2H70, Si3H11(H16)2, Si2H7(H16)4, (SiH4)3(H16)2, (SiH4)2(H16)4, NaOSiH2(H16)4, NaKHH70, Si2H7(H70), Si3H9(H16)3, Si3H10(H16)3, Si2H6(H16)5, (SiH4)4H16, (SiH4)3(H16)3, Na2OSiH2(H16)4, Si3H8(H16)4, Na2KHH70, Si3H9(H16)4, Na2HKHH70, SO(H16)6(H15), SH2(OH23)H16H70, SO(H16)7, Mg2H2H23H16H70, (SiH4)4(H16)2, (SiH4)3(H16)4, KH3O(H16)2H70, KH5O(H16)2H70, K(OH23)H16H70, K2OHH70, NaKHO2H70, NaOHNaO2H70, HNO3O2H70, Rb(H16)5, Si3H11H70, KNO2(H16)5, (SiH4)4(H16)3, KKH(H16)7, (SiH4)4(H16)4, (KH2)2(H16)3H70, (NiH2)2HCl(H16)2H70, Si5OH102, (SiH3)7(H16)5, Na3O3(SiH3)10SiH(H16)5, X is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

160. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

161. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 8 to 12, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

162. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(Hx)n− wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is other element such as an alkali, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

163. A method of claim 121, having a formula M+(Hx)n− wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n− of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

164. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n, wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

165. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(I-J) wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 14 to 18, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (′-Ii) of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

166. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 22 to 26, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

167. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 22 to 26, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

168. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 58 to 62, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

169. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 58 to 62, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

170. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 68 to 72, M is an atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species

171. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)n wherein n is an integer, x is an integer from 68 to 72, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)n of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

172. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M is other element such as any atom, molecule, or compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

173. A method of claim 121, having a formula M(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, q, r, s, t, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, and the hydrogen content (Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u) of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

174. A method of claim 121, having a formula [KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3] wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, p, q, r, s, and t are each an integer including zero but not all zero, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen.

175. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3] wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, and t are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

176. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]M′″(H10)q′(H16)r′(H24)s′(H60)t′(H70)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

177. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]tM′″(H10)q′(H16)r′(H24)s′(H60)t′(H70)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

178. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]tM′″(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, ′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

179. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]tM′″(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′, and M″ are each an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

180. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]tM′″(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′1 p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each a metal such as silicon, aluminum, Group III A elements, Group IVA elements, a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is other element, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

181. A method of claim 121, having a formula [MHm]n[MM′Hm]n[KHmKCO3]n[KHmKNO3]n+nX−[KHKNO3]n[KHKOH]n[MHmM′X]n[MHmM′X′]nm′+n′X−[MHmM′X′]nm′−n′M″+[MHm]nm′+n′X−[MHm]nm′−n′M+M+H16−[KHKOH]p[KH5KOH]q[KHKHCO3]r[KHCO3]s[K2CO3]tM′″(Hx)q(Hx′)r(Hy)s(Hy′)t(Hz)u wherein the monomers may be arranged in any order, n, n′, m, m′, p, q, r, s, t, q′, r′, s′, t′, and u are each an integer including zero but not all zero, x is an integer from 8 to 12, x′ is an integer from 14 to 18, y is an integer from 22 to 26, y′ is an integer from 58 to 62, z is an integer from 68 to 72, M, M′ and M″ are each a metal such as silicon, aluminum, Group III A elements, Group IVA elements, a transition metal, inner transition metal, tin, boron, or a rare earth, lanthanide, an alkali or alkaline earth, organic, organometallic, inorganic, or ammonium cation, M″ is an increased binding energy hydrogen compound, X and X′ are a singly or doubly negative charged anion, the compound contains at least one H, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

182. A method of claim 121, having a formula SixHy(H16), wherein x is an integer, y is an integer from 2x+2 to 4x, z is an integer, and the hydrogen content H of the compound comprises at least one increased binding energy hydrogen species.

183. A method of claim 136, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

184. A method of claim 139, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

185. A method of claim 140, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

186. A method of claim 141, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

187. A method of claim 142, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

188. A method of claim 175, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

189. A method of claim 176, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

190. A method of claim 177, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

191. A method of claim 178, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

192. A method of claim 179, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

193. A method of claim 180, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ions, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

194. A method of claim 181, wherein said singly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of halogen ion, hydroxide ion, hydrogen carbonate ion, dihydrogen phosphate, and nitrate ion.

195. A method of claim 139, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

196. A method of claim 140, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

197. A method of claim 142, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

198. A method of claim 175, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

199. A method of claim 176, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

200. A method of claim 177, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

201. A method of claim 178, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

202. A method of claim 179, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

203. A method of claim 180, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

204. A method of claim 181, wherein said doubly negative charged anion is selected from the group consisting of carbonate ion, oxides, phosphates, hydrogen phosphates, and sulfate ion.

205. A method of making a compound comprising a hydrino atom and at least one other element, the method comprising the step of reacting hydrogen atoms with a gaseous catalyst comprising at least one selected from—the group consisting of atoms of Li, Be, K, Ca, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Kr, Rb, Sr, Nb, Mo, Pd, Sn, Te, Cs, Ce, Pr, Sm, Gd, Dy, Pb, and Pt to form hydrino atoms; and reacting the hydrino atoms with at least one other element to form said compound.

206. A method of making a compound according to claim 205, wherein a temperature of reaction is such that gaseous Li atoms are present.