The technical field of the invention is the observation of a sample comprising particles by lensless imaging.
The observation of samples, and in particular biological samples, by lensless imaging has undergone a significant development over the last ten years. This technique allows a sample to be observed by placing it between a light source, producing an incident light wave, and a photodetector array, without having any optical magnification system between the sample and the photodetector. Thus, the photodetector acquires an image of a light wave transmitted by the sample.
This image is composed of interference patterns between the incident light wave emitted by the source and transmitted by the sample, and diffraction waves, resulting from the diffraction, by particles present in the sample, of the incident light wave. These interference patterns are sometimes referred to as “diffraction patterns”.
The document WO2008090330 describes a device allowing the observation of biological particles, in the present case cells, by lensless imaging. The device allows a diffraction pattern to be associated with each cell whose morphology allows the type of cell to be identified. Lensless imaging is accordingly seen as a simple, and low-cost, alternative to a conventional microscope. In addition, it allows a field of observation to be obtained that is much more extensive than that of a microscope can be. It will accordingly be understood that the application possibilities associated with this technology are significant.
The document US2012/0218379, subsequent to the preceding document, covers the essential part of the teachings of WO2008090330, while at the same time describing holographic reconstruction algorithms which, when applied to the image formed on the detector, allow the image of the sample to be reconstructed in various reconstruction planes.
The document WO2011045360 describes the use of a similar technology for the observation of particles contained in a liquid film covering a transparent medium. Each particle forms a diffraction pattern on the surface of a detector, whose contrast is amplified when the thickness of the film is reduced.
Thus, lensless imaging allows a sample comprising particles to be observed on the basis of elementary patterns formed by each particle under the effect of an illumination by an incident wave.
In view of the interest aroused by this technology, notably for applications in healthcare, food-processing or the environment, the inventors have sought to improve its performance characteristics and, in particular, the sensitivity and the contrast of the patterns formed by each particle.
The invention is proposing a device or a method such as described in the appended claims. The invention relates to a device for forming an image of a sample comprising:
According to an embodiment, the first diffraction grating is a two dimensional diffraction grating. Using a two dimensional diffraction grating makes it possible to illuminate the substrate using a non-polarized light.
According to a preferred implementation, the first diffraction grating is configured for generating a resonant reflection of the incident wave at said wavelength so as to reflect a part of said incident light wave toward the light source. The image sensor is preferably placed in dark field.
According to an embodiment, the substrate is bounded by a lower face and an upper face. The first thin film is configured to confine a part of the incident light within a waveguide adjacent to one of said faces. The first thin film can be adjacent to one of said faces, the first diffraction grating being a resonant grating, configured to confine a part of the incident wave within said thin film plane, said first thin film then forming said waveguide. The substrate may also comprise a Bragg mirror, disposed between the light source and said first thin film, and formed by at least two adjacent layers, extending parallel to said thin film, formed from a third material with a third index and a fourth material with a fourth index, said third index being different from said fourth index. The third material and the fourth material may possibly correspond respectively to the first material and to the second material. The Bragg mirror can be placed at a distance from the first thin film substantially equal to an odd multiple of a quarter of the wavelength.
According to an embodiment, the substrate comprises a second thin film, extending parallel to said first thin film. The second thin film comprises a sixth material, transparent at said wavelength, with a sixth refractive index, as well as a plurality of inclusions, formed from a seventh material transparent at said wavelength, with a seventh refractive index. Two adjacent inclusions of said second thin film are separated from each other by a distance less than said wavelength, in such a manner that these inclusions define a diffraction grating in said second thin film, designed to confine a part of the incident wave in said second thin film. The distance between the first thin film and the second thin film is preferably less than said wavelength.
According to an embodiment, the substrate comprises a planar waveguide, extending parallel to the first thin film. The first thin film is disposed between the planar waveguide and the light source, the first diffraction grating is configured for generating an optical coupling with the planar waveguide, in such a manner that a part of the incident wave is coupled to said planar waveguide. The distance between the first thin film and the planar waveguide is preferably greater than zero and less than said wavelength. The substrate can be bounded by a lower face, disposed facing the image sensor, the planar waveguide being adjacent to said lower face.
The invention also relates to a method of observation of a sample, comprising a particle, the method comprising the following steps:
The substrate preferably reflects a part of the incident wave and blocks a transmission of the incident wave toward the image sensor. The image sensor is operated in a so called dark field mode.
The substrate is preferably illuminated at a resonance wavelength of the first diffraction grating.
According to an embodiment, the confined beam propagates within the first diffraction grating.
According to an embodiment,
According to an embodiment, the substrate may also comprise a second thin film, extending parallel to said first thin film, and forming a second diffraction grating designed to confine a part of the incident wave within said second thin film, the first and the second thin film being separated from each other by a distance less than said wavelength, said distance being preferably greater than zero. According to this embodiment, the confined beam propagates within the second thin film.
According to an embodiment, the waveguide is a planar waveguide, adjacent to the lower face of the substrate, the first thin film acting so as to couple a part of the incident wave to said planar waveguide. The distance between the first thin film and the planar waveguide may be greater than zero.
The particle might be disposed at a distance from the waveguide, or from the substrate, of less than said wavelength. The particle can be a biological particle, for example a micro-organism or a virus or a cell.
The image enables the detection of a particle, together with its localization, in a plane extending parallel to the substrate. When the sample includes particles, it also allows to detect and localize some particles. The detected particles may be sorted by size, based on the image acquired by an image sensor
In these figures, the same references are used to denote the same elements.
The sample 10 to be analyzed is placed against a substrate 20. The substrate is bounded by an upper face 20s, disposed facing the light source 11, and a lower face 20i, disposed facing the image sensor 30.
In this example, the sample is a liquid sample taking the form of a thin film, comprising particles 25 and extending against the lower face 20i of the substrate. Generally speaking, a particle has a size advantageously less than 1 mm, or less than 500 μm, and preferably a size in the range between 5 nm and 100 μm. This may be a biological particle, of the bacteria type, or other micro-organism, or a virus, or a cell, for example a blood cell, or a microbead.
The light source 11 is preferably a point source. It may comprise an aperture 18, or spatial filter. The opening of the aperture is typically in the range between 5 μm and 1 mm, preferably between 50 μm and 500 μm, for example 150 μm. The aperture may be replaced by an optical fiber, a first end of which is placed facing the light source 11 and a second end of which is placed facing the upper face 20s of the substrate. The aperture 18 is optional. The light source is for example a laser source, like a laser-diode or a light-emitting diode. The emission spectral band of the light source is preferably adjusted to a resonance wavelength of a diffraction grating formed in the substrate, described in the following. The emission spectral band width may preferably be less than 50 nm, and more preferably less than 10 nm, and preferably less than 5 nm. The emission spectral band may be situated in the visible, near-UV (>200 nm), near-infrared (<3 μm) or mid-infrared (between 3 and 10 to 12 μm). A bandpass filter 19 may be disposed between the light source 11 and the substrate, in such a manner as to adjust the emission spectral band of the light source, in particular with respect to the resonance wavelength previously mentioned. The incident light wave 12 produced by the light source propagates along an axis of propagation Z. The light source 11 may also be a tunable light source, like a tunable laser By tunable, it is meant that the emission spectral band is tunable. The light source 11 can be a QCL (Quantum Cascade Laser), such as an external cavity laser.
The distance A between the light source 11 and the sample 10 is preferably greater than 1 cm and preferably in the range between 2 and 30 cm. Advantageously, the light source 11, seen by the sample 10, is considered as a point source. This means that its diameter (or its diagonal) is preferably less than a tenth, or better less than a hundredth, of the distance between the sample and the light source. Thus, the incident light wave 12 arrives at the substrate in the form of a plane wave, or wave that may be considered as such, the incidence being, in this example, normal.
The image sensor 30 is designed to form an image in a detection plane P. In the example shown, the emission spectral band of the light source is situated in the visible range. The image sensor 30 may accordingly be a photodetector array comprising a matrix of pixels, of the CCD or CMOS type. The detection plane P in this example extends perpendicularly to the axis of propagation Z of the incident light wave 12. The image sensor may comprise a system of the mirror type for reflecting an image toward a matrix of pixels, in which case the detection plane corresponds to the plane in which the image reflection system extends. Generally speaking, the detection plane P corresponds to the plane in which an image is formed.
The distance d between the sample 10 and the matrix of pixels of the image sensor 30 is, in this example, equal to 300 μm. Generally speaking, and irrespective of the embodiment, the distance d between the sample and the pixels of the image sensor is preferably in the range between 50 μm and 2 cm, more preferably in the range between 100 μm and 2 mm.
The absence of magnification optics between the image sensor 30 and the sample 10 is noted. This does not preclude the potential presence of focusing microlenses on each pixel of the image sensor 30, the latter not having the function of magnification of the image.
The substrate 20 comprises a uniform part 22, transparent to the incident radiation, with a thickness of a few hundred μm to a few mm. In this example, the thickness of this uniform part is of 725 μm. The substrate also comprises a nano-structured thin film 21. The term ‘thin film’ denotes a layer whose thickness E is less than 5 μm, or even than 1 μm. The thickness ε may notably be defined with respect to a wavelength λ of the emission spectral band, for example the central wavelength of the emission spectral band. Preferably, ε≦λ, or potentially ε≦λ/2. The thin film 21 is formed from a first dielectric material 21a, transparent to all or part of the emission spectral band, this material having a first refractive index n1. The thin film comprises inclusions, formed from a second dielectric material 21b, transparent to all or part of the emission spectral band, with a second refractive index n2. The difference between the first index and the second index is preferably greater than 0.1, or even 0.25.
When the emission spectral band is situated in the near-UV, the visible or the near-infrared, the first and second materials 21a and 21b are preferably dielectric materials, transparent in all or part of said emission spectral band. When the emission spectral band is situated in the near-infrared or the mid-infrared, the first and second materials 21a and 21b may be semiconductor materials (for example amorphous silicon or the germanium) or dielectrics (for example zinc sulfide) transparent in at least a part of the emission spectral band. Generally speaking, the first and second materials 21a and 21b forming the diffraction grating are transparent in all or part of the emission spectral band of the light source, and more particularly at the resonance wavelength described hereinafter.
In the present case, where the emission spectral band is situated in the visible spectrum, the first material 21a is silicon oxide, or silica, (n1≈1.5) and the second material 21b is silicon nitride (n2≈2).
The first thin film extends in a plane P21, referred to as thin film plane, which is, in this example, perpendicular to the axis of propagation of the incident wave 12. Each inclusion 21b takes the form of a cylinder, whose base, in the plane of the thin film, is circular or polygonal, the cylinder extending parallel to the axis of propagation of the incident wave 12. Each inclusion 21b may also take the form of a cone or a truncated cone, with a circular or polygonal base, or have a hemispherical shape. Whichever shape is chosen, the dimension of each inclusion is micrometric, in other words, in the plane of the thin film, the largest dimension of each inclusion is less than the wavelength, in other words a “sub-wavelength” dimension. The inclusions are distributed according to a matrix arrangement. They define a two-dimensional grating, known as a diffraction grating, extending within the thin film 21. By two-dimensional grating, it is meant a grating including inclusions which are periodically distributed along two dimensions, i-e according to a matrix arrangement, there by defining a two dimensional periodic pattern.IN a two-dimensional grating, each inclusion is spaced apart from another inclusion according to both X and Y axes.
In the description relating to the first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth embodiments, the substrate comprises a single thin film 21, defining a diffraction grating. This thin film may also be denoted by the term “first thin film”, defining a first diffraction grating. The seventh embodiment comprises a substrate comprising two separate thin films, parallel to each other, respectively denoted by the term “first thin film” and the term “second thin film”.
Generally speaking, the substrate 20 comprises a dielectric thin film 21, comprising inclusions preferably with sub-wavelength dimensions, defining a periodic diffraction grating. The periodic grating is generated based on a mesh, referred to as basic mesh, comprising one or more inclusions. Each mesh link is repeated periodically according to one or two translation vectors, in the plane of the thin film. The same mesh may contain inclusions with different shapes; this is then referred to as a ‘pseudo-periodic grating’.
The thin film 21 constitutes a resonant diffraction grating, sometimes referred to as a photonic crystal, exhibiting a resonance wavelength, at which the transmission and reflection properties of light may be determined by means of simulations performed by processing codes. Indeed, the propagation properties of light in the diffraction gratings derive from their specific periodic arrangement and are readily modeled, by those skilled in the art, on the basis of the spatio-temporal equations of Maxwell. In the following part of this description, the modeling is carried out with the aid of the Comsol software application, implementing a method of the FEM (Finite Element Method) type.
The term ‘diffraction grating’ is understood to mean a structure, and, in this example, a dielectric structure, whose index varies periodically at the scale of the wavelength, in one or more directions. The invention takes advantage of the development of techniques for micro-structuring of dielectric materials allowing the interaction of the electromagnetic waves within three-dimensional structures to be controlled based on the arrangement of materials with various indices. By virtue of the nanometric precision of the micro-fabrication methods, diffraction gratings corresponding to a material structuring scale in the neighborhood of a quarter or a half wavelength can now be formed, which makes it compatible with applications in optics.
In the present case, at the resonance wavelength, the diffraction grating formed by the layer 21, transparent to the other wavelengths, does not transmit light. At the resonance wavelength, the grating formed in the thin film allows a confinement of a part of the incident wave 12 in the plane of the thin film P21, accordingly forming a confined beam.
The coupling ratio Γ of the photons of the incident wave 12 within the grating may reach for example 10%. The term ‘coupling ratio’ is understood to mean a ratio between a number of coupled photons and a number of incident photons. In this case, 10% of the incident flux is coupled to the resonant grating. The decoupling ratio of the grating, or leakage ratio, has the same value as the coupling ratio Γ, in this case 10%. When the substrate is illuminated by the source, at the resonance wavelength of the diffraction grating 21, the intensity of the confined electromagnetic beam in the diffraction grating increase virtually instantaneously, and may exceed 10 times the intensity of the incident radiation. The photons coupled to the diffraction grating compensate the losses coming from the decoupling. These losses take the form of a wave 13 propagating toward the light source, and of a wave 15 propagating toward the sensor, the waves 13 and 15 propagating parallel to the axis of propagation of light Z. The intensity of the wave 13 reflected by the grating in a direction opposite to the direction of propagation Z is equivalent to the intensity of the incident wave 12. Furthermore, the wave 15 formed by the losses of the grating in the direction of propagation Z is in phase opposition with a wave 14 transmitted by the substrate, the latter being formed by the part of the incident light wave 12 not coupled to the grating. Destructive interferences are then formed, blocking the exposure of the image sensor 30. These destructive interferences are symbolized, in
The thin film 21 is adjacent to the lower face 20i of the substrate 20. In this description, the term ‘adjacent’ should be understood as bounded by or distant by a distance of less than 10 μm, and notably less than the wavelength. When a particle 25 of the sample 10 is in contact with the lower face 20i or at a small enough distance from the latter, it interferes with the diffraction grating, the latter then transmitting the light. This results in the formation of a diffraction wave 26 propagating toward the image sensor 30. The latter being placed in dark field, the contrast formed by the diffraction wave 26, in the detection plane, is high. A diffraction pattern 31 is then acquired allowing the particle 25 to be detected, and potentially identified or localized in the detection plane P. A small enough distance is understood to mean a distance preferably smaller than the wavelength, or even preferably less than half or a quarter of the wavelength. The closer the particle is to the thin film 21, the higher the amplitude of the diffraction wave. Typically, the distance between the particle 25 and the thin film 21 is preferably less than 200 nm, preferably less than 100 nm, and even more preferably less than 50 nm.
Moreover, the high intensity of the electromagnetic field confined within the resonant grating of the thin film 21 increases by even more the intensity of the wave 26 diffracted by the particle 25. The intensity of the diffracted wave 26 is also reinforced by an evanescent field 16 being formed on the lower face 20i or on the thin film 21.
Thus, each particle being in contact with the lower face 20i becomes a diffracting particle, able to generate the formation of a diffraction pattern on the image sensor. The diffraction grating formed in the thin film 21 allows a diffraction pattern to be obtained in the detection plane whose contrast is high, by the combined effects of the reflection of the incident wave 12 and of the amplified intensity of the electromagnetic field in the resonant grating. This results in a high sensitivity for the device. This diffraction effect is obtained when the particle 25 is placed in a configuration called ‘in near field’, in other words at a sub-wavelength distance from the lower face 20i.
This figure allows the quality factor Q of such a structure to be introduced, which is the ratio of the width of the resonance peak (Δλ) over the central wavelength of the resonance peak. The higher the quality factor, the more marked the resonance, but the finer the spectral selectivity of the grating.
The reinforcement of the intensity of the diffracted wave 26 is all the greater the smaller the dimensions of the particle 25. This effect is illustrated in
According to this embodiment, when the particle 25 is placed at a distance from the upper face 120s, since the distance is greater than the wavelength, it is still able to produce a diffraction wave owing to its illumination by the incident wave 12. However, according to this configuration, the intensity of the diffraction wave 26 is not enhanced by the electromagnetic field confined within the diffraction grating formed in the thin film 21, owing to the fact that the particle is not situated in near field.
Thus, in this embodiment, the particle 25 may be placed at a distance or in contact with the substrate. In the latter case, the diffraction wave 26 is amplified by electromagnetic field confined within the thin film 21.
A first advantage of this embodiment is that a Bragg mirror 22ab allows the incident wave 12 to be reflected over a wide spectral band, in other words at wavelengths below and beyond the resonance spectral band of the diffraction grating of the thin film 21. Thus, this embodiment allows the use of a light source whose emission spectral band is wider, in comparison with the embodiments previously described.
Another advantage of this embodiment is the formation of destructive interferences with the vertically-radiating mode propagating toward the source. This increases the confinement time of the photons within the grating. This also increases the intensity of the electromagnetic field confined within the grating, leading to an increase in the intensity of the diffraction wave 26 formed by a particle 25 placed in near field, in other words at a sub-wavelength distance from the diffraction grating. The sensitivity of the device is therefore improved.
It is preferable for the distance 8 between the thin film 21 and the Bragg mirror 22ab to be an odd multiple of λ/4. In other words, an optimum condition is δ≈k λ/4, k being an odd positive integer. Indeed, between the Bragg mirror and the resonant grating 21, the light wave is a stationary wave, whose intensity varies between a threshold value, close to 0, and a maximum value that may reach 4 times the intensity of the incident wave 12, the successive minima being separated by one wavelength λ, as are the maxima. The lower the incident intensity, on the resonant grating, the lower is also the coupling ratio Γ, and as a consequence, the greater the difficulty for the photons propagating within the resonant grating to be decoupled. Accordingly, the inventors estimate that it is preferable to dispose the thin film 21 at an intensity minimum, sometimes called node, of the incident wave 12 at the diffraction grating 21. Consequently, the intensity of the electromagnetic field confined within the grating is high, and notably higher than in the embodiments previously described. This results in an increase in the intensity of the diffraction wave 26 generated by a particle 25, which is confirmed by the results of simulations shown in
k may be an even integer, in which case the coupling ratio Γ is higher. However, the decoupling is also higher, which does not allow an intensity of the confined beam to be obtained that is as high as when k is odd.
When k is an even integer, the quality factor of the resonant grating decreases, which is accompanied by a greater spectral tolerance for the grating.
Furthermore, although the reflectance of the grating is optimum at the resonance wavelength, the use of a Bragg mirror 22ab widens the spectral band within which the incident light wave 12 is reflected, in particular when the number of layers increases. It then becomes possible to use a light source 11 whose wavelength may be shifted with respect to the resonance wavelength.
Furthermore, although the preceding examples are described in relation to a normal incidence, the incident wave 12 may propagate along an axis of propagation Z forming an angle different from π/2 with the plane P21 of the thin film 21, requiring only an adaptation of the resonance wavelength. The angle of incidence may in particular be varied over a range of angles, for example up to π/6 on either side of normal incidence, and this is true for all of the embodiments.
In a similar manner to the preceding embodiments, the substrate 320 comprises a thin film 321, extending across a thin film plane P321, the latter being composed of a first dielectric material 21a and comprises inclusions of a second dielectric material 21b, defining a diffraction grating. In contrast to the preceding embodiments, the function of the diffraction grating 321 is not to confine the light within said thin film. It is structured for coupling the incident light wave 12 to a guided mode of the planar waveguide 23, according to a coupling ratio Γ. In other words, the diffraction grating 321 is a coupler grating, allowing the confinement of a part of the incident wave 12 within the planar waveguide 23 extending parallel to the thin film 321. The wave generated by the diffraction grating 321 for exciting a guided mode of the waveguide 23 is an evanescent wave. The distance δ′ between the thin film 321 and the waveguide 23 is an important parameter, having a bearing on the coupling ratio Γ. Since the intensity of an evanescent wave decreases exponentially, it will be understood that, as the distance δ′ increases, the more the coupling ratio decreases. The lower the coupling ratio, the lower is also the decoupling ratio, which in turn increases the confinement time of the photons in the waveguide 23. The intensity of the electromagnetic field confined within the waveguide is then high owing to the low decoupling ratio.
In the same way as in the preceding embodiments, the radiation decoupled toward the image sensor constitutes a wave 15 forming destructive interferences with the residual wave 14, so called transmitted wave, not coupled to the waveguide 23, and propagating toward the image sensor along the axis of propagation Z. The illumination of the image sensor is therefore blocked. The radiation decoupled toward the light source forms a reflected wave 13.
Thus, the substrate acts as a mirror at the resonance wavelength, at which the coupling with a mode of the waveguide 23 takes place. In contrast to the preceding embodiments, the resonant reflection is obtained by the assembly formed by the diffraction grating 321, acting as a coupler grating, and the planar waveguide 23. In the preceding embodiments, the resonant reflection is obtained by the diffraction grating 21 alone, the latter confining the electromagnetic beam in the plane of the thin film 21, the latter acting as a waveguide.
In a manner common to all of the embodiments presented, the image sensor 30 is in a dark field configuration.
The distance δ′ between the diffraction grating of the thin film 321 and the planar waveguide 23 may be zero, the thin film 321 then being in contact with the waveguide 23. The coupling is high, but the intensity of the electromagnetic field in the waveguide is low, owing to a decoupling which is also high. When this distance is too large, for example greater than the wavelength, the coupling no longer takes place. Thus, the distance δ′ is preferably greater than 0, so as to be large enough to obtain a low coupling ratio, typically less than 1%. Typically, the distance δ′ is less than the wavelength. The inventors consider that a distance δ′ of λ/2n represents a good compromise, n denoting the index of the material extending between the planar waveguide 23 and the thin film 321, in the present case silica.
One important condition for an effective coupling to occur is that the period of the coupler grating, whether this be the period Px along the axis X or Py along the axis Y, is such that
neff being an effective index of the diffraction grating of the thin film.
The index neff is obtained by the following relationship:
with:
k=2π/λ;
m denotes the order of the mode, with m=1 in this example;
nc is the index of the material forming the planar waveguide;
ng1 and ng2 are the indices of the materials flanking the planar waveguide, in the present case silica and air, respectively;
The expressions (1) and (2) allow, knowing the materials forming the waveguide and adjacent to the waveguide, the resonance wavelength λ to be defined, together with the period of the coupler grating.
When a particle 25 is placed in contact with the lower face 320i of the substrate 320, or at a sub-wavelength distance from the waveguide 23, it is subjected to an intense electromagnetic field confined within the waveguide, and forms a diffraction wave 26 propagating toward the detection plane of the image sensor 30, allowing the detection of a diffraction pattern 31.
The substrate 520 comprises a second thin film 541 comprising a sixth material 41a, in the present case silica, in which inclusions 41b are formed composed of a seventh material, in the present case silicon nitride, running in parallel strips in a manner analogous to the first thin film 521. This second thin film, of thickness ε2=150 nm, forms a second diffraction grating with a period of 264 nm, the width of each inclusion being 158 nm. The distance δ′ between the first and the second thin film is equal to 100 nm. The second thin film is situated at a distance δ″ of 50 nm from the lower face 20i of the substrate 20. According to this embodiment, the sixth and seventh materials respectively correspond to the first and to the second material.
Thus, according to this embodiment, the substrate comprises a first diffraction grating and a second diffraction grating, running parallel to each other, and separated by a distance of less than the wavelength.
The resonance wavelength of each grating may be different, as can be observed in this example. It may also be identical, to within a given uncertainty, for each grating. In this case, the first and the second grating have the same structure, and when the spacing between the two gratings is equal to the half the wavelength, the two gratings then form a Fabry-Perot cavity.
These simulations show that several diffraction gratings, preferably running parallel to one another, may be formed within a substrate 520. The preceding example describes a superposition of two one-dimensional diffraction gratings, but the invention naturally covers the superposition of two-dimensional diffraction gratings, such as described in the previous embodiments.
Although, in the examples described, the diffraction grating is obtained using inclusions of silicon nitride within a thin film of silica, this pair of materials is in no way limiting and the invention could implement other materials, with the proviso of a sufficient difference in index, in particular greater than 0.25. Air holes within a matrix of silica may for example be envisioned. This observation goes for all of the embodiments, including for the materials constituting the Bragg mirror described in the fourth embodiment. The precise dimensional design of each grating may be obtained by those skilled in the art by implementing processing codes simulating the propagation of electromagnetic waves, allowing the structuring, the period of the grating, the resonance wavelength and also the quality factor to be defined.
The gratings described in this description may be fabricated using known microfabrication techniques, for example electron-beam lithography, known as e-beam lithography, photolithography (for example at a wavelength of 193 nm) or by an imprint technique.
Number | Date | Country | Kind |
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15 58980 | Sep 2015 | FR | national |