Patent Application
20130233718
The invention relates to surface treatment of materials, and in particular to preparation of the surface of a material in a liquid medium in order to facilitate certain desirable exothermic reactions using 1-5 such material.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,442,287 describes a surface treatment method of preparing materials, such as palladium, at or near their surfaces in order to facilitate their use, e.g., for generating exothermic reactions. In that treatment method, a solution in water of an electrolyte, a surfactant, and a pH-adjusting agent (to maintain the pH of the solution between 6.5 and 8.9) is heated to and maintained at or just below the boiling point in an open glass beaker. A pair of electrodes, at least one of which has the surface to be treated, is immersed in the solution with a gap between them. The electrodes are then electrically (and vibrationally) stimulated as a series of pulses, while simultaneously being photonically stimulated by a light source. Scanning electron microscope (SEM) images of the treated electrodes show that the concurrent stimulations of the electrode material while immersed in the hot solution leave a silica coating with a stratified and sponge-like texture and in some instances form crater sites on the electrode surface.
The metallic surface treated by the method provides enhanced sites for facilitating desired reactions, e.g., hydrogen absorption and release, hydrogenation, catalytic reactions, and exothermic reactions. Palladium, e.g., is known to have a large capacity for hydrogen storage and release, useful for fuel cells and the like, the level of performance of which depends on the presence of certain surface sites for efficient hydrogen exchange.
The present invention is an improvement of our previous method set forth in the aforementioned '287 patent. Similar to before, the protocol consists of a specific series of steps applying electrical and photonic stimuli between conductive electrodes immersed in a solution maintained at an elevated temperature at or near the boiling point. In the present protocol, the solution includes a lithium silicate and is heated to within 5° C. of the solution's boiling point (as defined for standard atmospheric pressure).
As the work on the protocol described in our previous patent has progressed, we have moved it from an open glass beaker into a sealed reactor to prevent the escape of steam, along with other constituents in the solution or reaction products. As higher temperature boiling points were obtained under pressure, the treatment protocol proved to be more robust when taking place in such a sealed container with specific refinements.
Having the treatment reactions occur in the presence of silicaceous material proved to be very beneficial. In particular, we obtained better results (1) when we lined the inner surface of the reaction reactor with a glass beaker, (2) when we put a quartz cap over the beaker, (3) when we replaced our stainless-steel thermocouple wells with glass ones, (4) when we threaded glass beads onto the electrodes, and (5) the solution contained either a soluble form of silica or a silica compound in suspension. When conducted in such a glass reactor, the use of a DC stimulus and a vibrational stimulus in the protocol proved to be optional.
The electrode material immersed in the hot solution is subject to electrical and photonic stimulation. It has been found that the treatment works better when some RF frequencies are used as electrical stimuli than others, indicating a possible resonance phenomenon that has proved to be beneficial. Stimulating the system at one or more resonant frequencies can cause the underlying oscillation to amplify. In particular, an effective RF electrical stimulus was shown to be an amplified replication of a signal emitted during the reaction, which was a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz sine wave.
Temperature spikes were observed with electrodes made of four different metals: palladium, silver, platinum, and gold, and using different silica compounds: Mega H-™, Super Hydrate™, lithium metasilicate, sodium metasilicate, and octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane.
The treatment protocol is performed in an electrolytic cell consisting of two or more electrodes, composed of similar or dissimilar metals, for example of palladium, silver, platinum, or gold, or even conductive material other than metal. One or more of the electrodes have material surfaces to be treated. At least one of the electrodes is in intimate contact with a source of silicaceous material, and thus, for example, may be coated with silica or a silicate, threaded with silica or glass beads, or the electrode may consist of sintered metal and silica. The electrodes are immersed in a solution or suspension of an electrolyte in a liquid, such as predominately heavy water (D2O), lithium sulfate (Li2SO4), and a silica compound either in solution or in suspension. We say “predominately heavy water” when Flanagan's “Super Hydrate™” is used in the protocol since it is made with light water. The drawing legends should be understood in that sense, since they say “heavy water” in the interest of brevity. Alternatively, less active results have also been observed using predominately light water (H2O). We say “predominately light, water” since our citric acid solution was made with heavy water. Again, the drawing legends should be understood in that sense, since they say “light water” in the interest of brevity. Thus, combinations of both light and heavy water have been used. A pH-buffering agent, as used in our aforementioned '287 patent, was found to be optional. The buffering agent might comprise either EDTA, citric acid, sodium bicarbonate, or lithium hydroxide in quantities sufficient when needed to maintain a pH in a range from 6.5 to 8.9.
As before, the electrolytic cell may be of any size needed to accommodate a work piece whose surface is to be treated by this protocol. However, the reactor now used in the present invention was a stainless steel cylinder with a central well 5.08 cm deep and 5.08 cm in diameter, having a closed bottom and a removable top. Ultimately, it was dimensioned to accommodate a glass beaker capped with a quartz top. Alternatively, the reactor may be a glass- or silica-lined metallic reactor. The reactor could also be lined with a piezoelectric material, in the form, e.g., of a porcelain glaze. A sealed reactor prevented the escape of steam or very slight escape of steam, along with other constituents in the solution or reaction products, and allowed higher temperatures to be obtained under pressure for a given aqueous solution. The sealed reactor also made it much more practical to instrument the experiments and to data log their results. Ports in the top allowed electrodes and thermocouples to pass through it, while sealed glass ports in the reactor wall allowed for the concurrent photonic stimulation by exterior illumination. The reactor weighed more than five kilograms, thereby providing considerable thermal mass to ensure that measured temperature transients were generated within the reactor and not the result of external impulses. As a safety practice appropriate when working with exothermic reactions in a sealed reactor at or near the boiling point of water, our reactor was equipped with a pair of pressure relief valves set to lift sequentially at different pressures.
An embodiment of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention uses either of two commercial products called “Mega H-™” and “Super Hydrate™”, which are believed to be one source of silica with which the electrodes to be treated are in intimate contact. These compositions are respectively the powdered and dissolved form of an anionic silica hydride, with additives. The following points can be made about these two products: They are described in their marketing literature as 1) an anionic hydride organosiloxane; 2) a silsequioxane having hydroxyl-terminated constituents; 3) sources of ionized hydrogen contained within soluble microclusters of silica hydride; and 4) consisting of tetrahedral frameworks that encapsulate hydrogen anions. Pure samples of the products without additives were not available. According to its package label, Mega H-™ has potassium citrate, potassium carbonate, and oleic acid added. Super Hydrate™ has potassium carbonate, magnesium sulfate, and oleic acid added.
Alternative embodiments of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention have as sources of silica either sodium metasilicate Na2SiO3 in solution, lithium metasilicate Li2SiO3 in suspension. A chelating agent, such as EDTA, may be used to facilitate the suspension of the silica compound.
An additional alternative embodiment of the surface treatment method in accord with the present invention has as a source of silica either octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane or decamethylcyclopentasiloxane.
The liquid within the reactor was blanketed during the experiments with one or a combination of hydrogen and helium gases, for example in approximately equal percentages, which were introduced through two inlet valves. The atmosphere was vented through an outlet valve. The saturation of the liquid with these gases is optional.
A heating coil was located in a cavity in the bottom of the reactor, and its input voltage and current measured to monitor input power. The temperature of the reactor was first raised to 102° C.±1°, then maintained until the temperature of the liquid had remained stable near the boiling point over an hour or more to establish a thermal equilibrium. A pair of thermocouples monitored the temperature of the liquid via thermocouple wells projecting into the liquid. The wells were first made of stainless steel and later of glass, which is preferred. The thermocouples also passed through the ports in the reactor's cap via Teflon® seals compressed with Swagelok® fittings.
Through experimentation, it was determined over time that the exothermic reaction had a characteristic and readily identifiable temperature response. In later experiments, there was less concern about establishing steady temperature and the reactor was driven more quickly to the operating range of the reaction and the stimuli were applied sooner. No attempt was made to make calorimetric measurements due to the difficulty of making such measurements near the phase change of a boiling liquid; the temperature transients were judged to be sufficient evidence of heat generation.
Two or more electrodes were immersed in the liquid. The work piece or pieces to be treated are used as one or more of these electrodes, which can be of any shape and size, such as that of a nozzle. The material being surface treated by this method may be a conductive material such as a solid metal or alloy, containing for example palladium, or may be metallically plated with the desired surface material. Any of the electrodes may also be surface coated with other materials, such as silicates, with either the underlying metal or the coating or both to be treated by the protocol.
RF electrical and photonic stimuli were applied in manner similar to that previously described in our earlier patent. For example, in some of our experiments, the electrical stimuli were provided via three palladium electrodes of 0.063 mm diameter: an anode for the RF stimulus, a second anode for the DC stimulus, and a common cathode. The electrodes were parallel and formed a triangle with sides 2.3, 3.7, and 3.7 cm long. The shortest side lay between the RF anode and the common cathode. The electrical stimulation may, therefore, consist of either or both direct current and alternating current, where the alternating current can be modulated with frequencies in the RF range, preferably including frequencies that coincide with absorptive spectra of components of the solution. The electrical stimulation may be a combination of direct current voltage and alternating current voltage applied, either concurrently or sequentially, between either separate anodes or a common anode and a common cathode. The electrodes and the thermocouples were equally spaced on a bolt circle, so thermocouples would be 2.3 and 3.7 cm away from the cathode. All electrodes were isolated from the reactor and sheathed in glass tubing to the surface of the liquid in order to keep them straight and to concentrate the RF stimulus in the liquid. The electrodes passed through the reactor's top via Teflon® seals compressed with Swagelok® fittings.
Four “Ultrabright” white light-emitting diodes (LEDs) capable of generating 15,000 mcd were spaced equally around the reactor below the surface of the liquid as photonic stimuli. These stimuli were provided through sealed glass ports in the reactor wall. The LEDs are pulse-modulated between their on and off states during the same period when the electrical stimulation is applied. Electrical and photonic stimulation may be applied either concurrently or sequentially.
Having the treatment reactions occur in the presence of silica or glass proved to be very beneficial. Attempts to run the protocol within reactors of stainless steel and Teflon® were not successful, even with silicates added. We obtained better results (1) when we lined the inner surface of the reaction reactor with a glass beaker, (2) when we put a quartz cap over the beaker, (3) when we replaced our stainless-steel thermocouple wells with glass ones, and (4) when we threaded glass beads onto the palladium electrodes. When conducted in such a glass reactor, the use of a DC stimulus in the protocol proved to be optional. When only the AC stimulus was used, the word “cathode” is used to describe the grounded side of the AC signal. The AC stimulus was applied across the two closest electrodes, i.e., those that were 2.3 cm apart.
Additionally, our solution contained a form of silica. We had noted that the first step in the protocol described in our earlier patent consisted of heating the solution until the bubbles had cleared from its surface. Those bubbles, of course, were characteristic of surfactants, and the Mega H-™ and Super Hydrate™ had originally been chosen for their reported surfactant properties.
The protocol typically requires at least two hours of treatment before bursts of heat are observed. It is suspected that something must be happening to either the solution or to the electrodes in that period to facilitate the observed reaction. Lithium salts, such as lithium sulfate (Li2SO4), are used as an electrolyte in the solution. Since the reaction does not occur immediately, it is possible that the silica and the lithium in our protocol are bonding in some way before the bursts of heat are observed. In particular, the lithium may be combining with the silica compound in the solution over the time frame of the treatment protocol to form a lithium silicate, possibly Li2SiO3 (lithium metasilicate). Alternatively, since silsesquioxanes were used in the anionic silica hydride in the solution for the experiments, perhaps the lithium is either bonding to resulting siliceous cage structures or entering the center of the silica cage when that compound is used as the source of the silica.
Octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane has a silica ring structure of four silicon atoms alternating with four oxygen atoms. It is known that lithium ions bonds with the octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane, entering and leaving the center of the ring in a dynamic process that reaches a stochastic equilibrium over time. (For example, see: Ritch, J. S., Chivers T.; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2007, 46, 4610-4613; and Decken, A., Passmore, J., Wang, X.; Angew. Chem. Int. Ed. 2006, 45, 2773-2777.) Decamethyl-cyclopentasiloxane might also be used.
There is also a class of commercial products marketed as “lithium silicates”. These are generally water-based silicaceous solutions. One of their commercial uses is to harden and seal concrete surfaces. They are highly basic. An example would be LithiSil™, marketed by the PQ Corporation of Valley Forge, Pa. The term “lithium silicate” in this application is not used in that commercial sense. We experimented with those commercial products and they did not generate the desired reaction.
We also performed experiments with lithium orthosilicate, which were not successful.
It was found that the treatment works better when some RF frequencies are used as electrical stimuli than others and that the protocol yielded heat bursts in the sealed reactor in more or less time when different frequencies were used as stimuli. Given how important the presence of silica is to the effectiveness of the treatment protocol, it is speculated that certain natural frequencies of vibration of the silica bonds in the solution are being driven to vibrational resonance by the RF electrical stimuli, the photonic stimuli, or both. As a general statement, resonance is the tendency of a system or phenomena to oscillate at larger amplitude at some frequencies than others. Such systems and phenomena absorb energy at these resonant frequencies, such that stimulating a system or a phenomena at a resonant frequency or set of resonant frequencies can cause the underlying oscillation to amplify, often dramatically so. For example, the electrical stimulation may comprise one sinusoidal signal having a frequency between 1 MHz and 20 MHz added to another sinusoidal signal having a frequency between 25 MHz and 100 MHz. When viewed with an Agilent 4195A spectrum analyzer, one of the effective RF electrical stimuli described in the '287 patent was shown to be a rich comb of spectra in the range of 1 MHz to 200 MHz, spaced at 6.2 MHz and having peaks in the profile of the spectral comb at 3.1 MHz and 50 MHz, which were the frequencies of the underlying pulses and the sinusoidal modulation of those pulses. That stimulus provided literally dozens of spectra that could have been at resonant frequencies.
Some experiments were conducted in a glass reactor of similar dimensions to the steel one described above that permitted the reaction to be observed as it was taking place. During the reaction, the RF stimulus was turned off and an attempt made to capture any signals emitted by the reaction with an Agilent model DSO5054A high-speed digitizing oscilloscope. Although the emitted signals proved to be very transient and elusive, one of them was captured. It resembled a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one, distorted by considerable noise. Subsequently, a cleaner version of that signal generated by an Agilent 81150A waveform generator was used as a stimulus to the reaction. That stimulus proved to be effective.
Through experimentation, it was determined that white LEDs were necessary to stimulate the reaction. Red and blue LEDs were used and proved not to be effective. It may be significant that white LEDs generate light at three frequencies.
Step 1. Prepare a solution by first adding 30 ml of heavy water (D2O) in an open beaker. Light water (H2O) can be used, but will have a lower boiling point and generate a less robust reaction. Add an electrolyte of 110 mg of Lithium Sulfate Monohydrate (Li2SO4.H2O). Another lithium salt could be used. Add 40 mg of lithium metasilicate (Li2SiO3). Alternatively, one can use an unadulterated form of anionic silica hydride in equivalent amounts, if available. Other forms of silicates might be used instead or in addition, such as lithium or sodium silicate. The solution with lithium metasilicate will be basic. Buffer the solution with EDTA, which is a chelating agent, until it has a pH within the range of 6.5 to 8.9. The lithium metasilicate is only very slightly soluble, and the EDTA serves to increase the solubility. It is normal for some lithium metasilicate to remain suspended (i.e., incomplete dissolution).
Step 2. Immerse two or more electrodes, e.g., of palladium wire, into the solution with sufficient spacing to avoid contact. In the case of palladium wire, the electrodes are preferably immersed to at least 1.0 cm depth, are separated by a gap at a distance of 2.3 cm. At least one of the electrodes will have a surface to be treated by the protocol. The electrode(s) to be treated are also preferably threaded with glass beads or coated with silica to provide intimate contact with another source of silica.
Step 3. Condition the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with electrical and photonic stimuli while the solution is at a temperature between 90° and 100° C. Stir (e.g., with a magnetic stirrer) and/or swirl gently to keep the lithium metasilicate in suspension. The electrical stimulation may preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 81150A arbitrary waveform generator. When this stimulus is applied to the electrodes, the impedance across them will vary depending upon the characteristics of the solution. Simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., two banks of five white “Ultrabrite” LEDs with a maximum luminous intensity of 15,000 mcd each. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature for fifteen minutes. After fifteen minutes, substitute a 4 Volt DC stimulus for the time-varying one and apply it for five minutes. After that, re-apply the time-varying one for fifteen more minutes, followed by reversing the polarities of the DC one and applying it for five minutes. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout this conditioning process to keep the solution within the preferred range of 90° to 100° C.
Step 4. Transfer the solution from the open beaker to a sealed reactor. The pH may have shifted during the conditioning process. If it has, buffer it with EDTA or an appropriate base (e.g., sodium bicarbonate) to bring it back into the preferred range of 6.5 to 8.9. Install the electrodes in the reactor. Seal the reactor and introduce a blanket of helium and hydrogen gases above the solution to create saturation with those gases and to maintain such saturation for the duration of the protocol. Then heat the solution to bring it to a temperature between 100° C. and 103° C. and to maintain that elevated temperature for the duration of the protocol.
Step 5. Then treat the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with a time-varying electrical signal. The electrical stimulation may again preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 81150A arbitrary waveform generator. Again, simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., the four LEDs capable of 15,000 mcd each through the ports in the reactor wall described above. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. The four LEDs were powered in parallel with 14.5 Volts and drew 0.02 amps each, averaged over the pulse modulation. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point for at least 40 minutes and preferably for two or more hours. After two hours, raise the input power to the reactor through the heating coil to increase the temperature of the solution to within 1° C. the boiling point. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process. The surface treatment protocol should last at least for a duration that provides some specified minimum number of heat bursts of at least 1° C., e.g., at least four such bursts.
Step 1: Prepare a solution by first adding 30 ml of heavy water and 110 mg of Lithium Sulfate Monohydrate (Li2SO4.H2O) in an open beaker. Add two drops of octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane. Heat for approximately twenty minutes and test the pH; the solution will be acidic and below the desired range for the pH. Buffer the solution with lithium hydroxide to bring into the range of 6.5 to 8.9, preferably slightly above the middle of that range.
Step 2: Place the solution in the reactor described above and place two palladium electrodes into the solution as previously described, one of them being threaded with glass beads. Seal the reactor and introduce a blanket of helium and hydrogen gases above the solution to create saturation with those gases and to maintain such saturation for the duration of the protocol. Then heat the solution to bring it to a temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point and to maintain that elevated temperature. Monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process.
Step 3. Then treat the surface of the electrodes with the following process: Stimulate electrodes immersed in the liquid with a time-varying electrical signal. The electrical stimulation may again preferably consist of a 43.4 MHz sine wave added to a 3.1 MHz one with an amplitude of 8 Volts when driven from two 50-ohm differential outputs. This signal was generated with an Agilent 33250A arbitrary waveform generator. Again, simultaneously photonically stimulate the electrodes and the gap between them using, e.g., the four LEDs capable of 15,000 mcd each through the ports in the vessel wall described above. The LEDs are preferably pulse-modulated by frequency-hopping through the following six frequencies, dwelling at each for five minutes: 464, 1234, 1289, 2008, 3176, and 5000 Hz with 50% duty cycles. The four LEDs were powered with 12.5 Volts and drew 0.02 amps each, averaged over the pulse modulation. Continue stimulating concurrently with both electrical and photonic stimuli at an elevated temperature within 2° C. of the boiling point octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane. After eight hours, raise the input power to the vessel to increase the temperature of the solution to within 1° C. the boiling point. Additionally, monitor the solution temperature with the thermocouples throughout the process. This protocol using octamethylcyclotetra-siloxane required the surface treatment protocol to last for multiple days before some specified minimum number of heat bursts of at least 1° C. were observed.
It should be noted that this protocol with octamethylcyclotetrasiloxane was employed in four experiments. Only two of those yielded the desired heat transients. In contrast, the protocol with anionic silica hydride yielded those desired heat transients in more than 90% of the experiments.
It should also be noted that octamethyl-cyclotetrasiloxane is only marginally soluble. Its Material Safety Data Sheet says that its water solubility is 0.07 g/l at 25° C., presumably in pure water. Under the conditions of the protocol above, the solubility is apparently higher than that and sufficient to facilitate the reaction.
Three things appear to inhibit the reaction in all of the protocols reported above: rubber, Teflon®, and ultra-pure palladium, i.e., palladium with a purity of 99.999%. While we used Teflon® to seal the lights and electrodes, care was taken to trim it so as to minimize the surface area exposed inside the reactor.
Here are some representative results from experiments conducted on the dates shown. The protocol evolved over time, as indicated below, culminating in the preferred protocol described above:
Specifically, we made a solution consisting of 30 ml of D2O, 350 mg of Li2SiO3, 850 mg of Li2SO4, and 700 mg of EDTA. That formed a cloudy solution, suggesting that the Li2SiO3 was either in solution or suspension. EDTA is acidic, so we buffered the solution with sodium bicarbonate, NaHCO3, to bring it back into the pH range called for in the protocol. After heating and stirring, we added another 350 mg of EDTA and buffered again with NaHCO3. The electrodes were palladium.
Taken together, we believe the experiments conducted with anionic silica hydride, lithium metasilicate, sodium silicate, and siloxane support the reasoning that silica is critical to the reaction and that a lithium silicate promotes a stronger reaction.
One of the things that caught our attention in the experiments above was the frequent indication of fluorine in the EDS analyses. The Feb. 28, 2009, experiment showed F at four sites. Several samples showed traces of aluminum and one showed gallium at multiple sites. Flanagan's anionic silica hydride includes several additives. H is “Mega H-™” powder contains potassium citrate (K3C6H5O7), potassium carbonate (K2CO3), and oleic acid (C18H34O2). H is “Super Hydrate™” solution also contains potassium carbonate and oleic acid, plus magnesium sulfate (MgSO4). We tested Flanagan's products with EDS analysis to clarify their elemental composition. Sodium and copper were found to also be present, although they were not disclosed as ingredients on the product labels. Lithium sulfate (Li2SO4) is used in our protocol as an electrolyte. However, the identified original ingredients for the protocol do not account for the presence of fluorine, aluminum and gallium in the post-experiment EDS analyses.
Now return to
Further, the 9F found above in the EDS analyses is the transmutation product of 8O.
If hydrogen or lithium had transmuted to helium and beryllium, EDS would not have detected them, because it does not detect elements with atomic numbers below five.
The gallium in the various samples is an escape peak of palladium in EDS, so it can be dismissed as a false positive for that element.
We now have found strong evidence of transmutation products of six different elements using two different techniques for elemental analysis, with aluminum having been found with both of them. Taken together, the data supports a claim that our protocol has induced nuclear reactions on numerous occasions. While that claim will doubtless be controversial, we assert that the evidence for it is strong.
Further, we calculated the energy density of one of the reactions logged on Dec. 31, 2009, assuming the active region of the reaction detected was within 7 μm of the surface of the electrode. That is consistent with the visual evidence in the SEM image shown in
Energy density is the energy per unit volume or mass. The temperature increase during the first 20 seconds of the temperature pulse shown in
Given that the electrodes have a diameter D of 0.063 mm and that they are immersed to a depth 1 of 15 mm in the solution, the volume of the active region of the two electrodes can be calculated with the formula below, which approximates the formula for the volume of a hollow cylinder:
The energy density of the reaction shown in the data log is thus 234 Joules/41.5×10−12 m3 or 5.64×103 MJ/L.
Making the worst-case assumption that the active region of the reaction has the 12.0 g/cm3 density of fully dense palladium, that converts to 470 MJ/kg.
That energy density is several times greater than molecular energy densities, thus providing further evidence that the reaction is not a molecular chemical reaction.
At the present state of the research in LENRs, it is not known whether the lithium silicate is a reactant, in which case it would be consumed in the reaction, or a catalyst, in which case it would not be consumed.
The nature and shape of the bursts of heat recorded in our data logs, together with the condition of the electrode surfaces seen from SEM analyses, indicate that the surface temperature of the electrodes may locally approach or even attain the 1555° C. melting point of palladium, such that the solution at the surface of that electrode can locally flash to steam. A continuous reaction requires the on-going replenishment of solution in the liquid phase, which naturally occurs in the test reaction reactor. An alternative protocol may be to provide fresh solution at that inlet of a nozzle where the steam is exhausted.
There is no evidence in any of our experiments that the exothermic reaction being induced is anything other than a surface effect. Given the apparent energy densities of that reaction, that could be very important because it indicates that, for whatever reason, the reaction is self-limiting to the surface area of the electrodes.
Finally, we note that the concept of “boiling point” is ambiguous inside a sealed reactor. If the reactor is perfectly sealed, the pressure inside the reactor will increase with temperature to a point that is equal to the vapor pressure of the water. We found over time, that our reactor was not perfectly sealed by conducting leak tests. It is difficult to seal such a reactor if one is denied the use of rubber and Teflon™ for gaskets, and we had wanted to avoid rubber and minimize Teflon since they appear to inhibit the reaction, as noted above.
This suggests a possible model for the reaction detected in our experiments where a slight leak might have momentarily lowered the pressure within the reactor and allowed steam bubbles to form on an electrode. Those bubbles might be the site of the reaction, and the heat from an initial spark of such a reaction could cause a cascading reaction, which would quench when the reactor regained its seal.
Over a period of several months, we improved the seal of the reactor. Over that period, we also noted that the temperature spikes became smaller. Where increases of almost 2 degrees C. had been common, we rarely saw increases much greater than 1 degree C. That suggests that a superior seal might be undesirable if the reaction is occurring in the solution at the locus of phase change.
Others attempting to reproduce our results should be alert to the possibility the reaction occurs at the phase change interface of water and steam. Accordingly, they may want to try experiments with and without a very slight leakage.
We have use the term “boiling point” in the protocols above to mean the boiling point of the solution at standard atmospheric pressure.
This is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/688,630, filed Jan. 15, 2010.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 12688630 | Jan 2010 | US |
| Child | 13874117 | US |
