A backward wave oscillator (BWO) is a tunable source of coherent radiation. In a conventional backward oscillator an electron gun sends a beam of electrons into a slow-wave structure. The output power of the electron beam is extracted near the electron gun. Because of their wide tuning range, the backward wave oscillators have been used in a variety of applications including as local oscillators in heterodyne receivers for the detection of sub mm radiation.
Nominally, the sub mm wave regime ranges from 300 to 3000 GHz where electromagnetic radiation has a wavelength between 1.0 and 0.1 mm. Above the sub mm band is the infrared region where wavelengths are typically reported in microns and the electromagnetic waves behave similar to light waves. Below the sub mm band is the mm wave band (ranging from 30 to 300 GHz) and the microwave band (ranging from 1 to 30 GHz). In the mm and microwave bands, the electromagnetic waves behave similar to the ordinary low frequency electric currents and voltages with the very important distinction that the circuit dimensions are comparable to a wavelength. In the sub mm band, electromagnetic radiation has the properties of both microwaves and light. Structures that are suitable for microwaves become unreasonably small for sub mm devices while standard optical configurations become far too large.
Added to the dimensional complexity are several physical constraints in the sub mm band imposed by significant atmospheric attenuation and by greatly increased electrical conduction losses. Atmospheric attenuation is greatly enhanced by the presence of vibrational and rotational resonances of naturally occurring molecular gasses, while the roughness of metal surfaces significantly increases conduction losses. Because many of the issues regarding size and losses become exceedingly important at frequencies well below 300 GHz, the sub mm regime is frequently extended to 100 GHz.
Conventionally, vacuum electron devices have dominated the microwave and mm wave regimes for applications where power and efficiency are important system parameters. However, within the sub mm regime, conventional microwave structures are usually not applicable. Solid state devices are used as low power signal sources in the microwave and low mm wave regimes, but are not applicable in the sub mm band. Gas lasers can be operated in the sub mm band, but they can only be tuned to discrete frequencies and they are generally very large devices. Presently, there is no commercially available electronically tunable signal source in the sub mm band.
Therefore, an object of the instant disclosure is to provide a BWO having an interdigital slow-wave circuit.
Another object is to provide a BWO comprising diamond.
Still another object of the disclosure is to provide a novel spatial relationship between the electron beam of a BWO and the slow-wave circuit.
Another object of the disclosure is to provide a BWO having an interaction impedance of greater than 1, preferably greater than 10 and most preferably greater than 100.
A further object of the disclosure is to provide a miniature BWO weighing less than 10 kg and preferably less than 1 kg.
A still further object of the disclosure is to provide an interdigital circuit for use in a BWO.
Still another object of the disclosure is to provide a BWO structure integrated with an electron source.
A further object of the disclosure is to provide a coupling interface between an electron source and the BWO.
Another object of the disclosure is to provide an integrated BWO having field emission cathode as an electron source.
A still further object of the disclosure is to provide a BWO having an electron beam positioned between a first plane and a second plane; each of the first and the second plane defining at least one of a focus electrode, a first anode, a second anode (or a slow-wave circuit) and one or more collector.
Another object of the disclosure is to provide an apparatus comprising an electron source directing an electron beam to a focus electrode, a first anode and a second anode, whereby the electrons are collected by one or more collectors.
Still another object is to disclose a method for fabricating a BWO having an interdigital circuit.
Still another object of the disclosures is to provide a BWO where the electron source and the interdigital circuit are fabricated of the same diamond.
In still another embodiment, the disclosure relates to an electron gun integrated with a slow-wave circuit.
A still further object of the disclosure is to provide a BWO requiring a substantially lower operation voltage as compared with the conventional BWO.
A further object of the disclosure is to provide a BWO having substantially higher interaction efficiency between the slow-wave guide and the electron beam.
These and other objects will be discussed in relation with the following drawings.
FIGS. 1A-C are schematic representations of one embodiment of the disclosure;
FIGS. 3A-B are schematic representations of the backward wave oscillator according to the same embodiment of the disclosure;
FIGS. 24A-B show the magnetic fields generated by a pair of NdFeB 50 bar magnets;
FIGS. 28A-E show field plots of the interdigital circuit shown in
Referring to
In one embodiment, the biplanar digital circuit can be designed to operate at about 300 GHz. In designing the apparatus 100, the first step is to define the dimensions of the circuit for optimal performance.
To perform the parameter study, each dimensional parameter was varied by multiplying it by a factor from 0.5 to 1.5 or in some cases 2.1. For example, the plots showing the variations to diht are labeled diht=1, 0.5, 0.6, etc. This implies that the standard value of diht (46 microns) was multiplied by 1, 0.5, 0.6, etc. The dispersion, on axis interaction impedance and attenuation were computed for each of the parameters through this range of variations with the other parameters held at their nominal values. The results of the preliminary study show that diamond height (Diht) is compatible with transverse dimension of electron gun, thereby eliminating the need for additional masking and etching steps.
One of the more significant parameters for frequency control: is “vanel.” (See
A critical aspect for determining the strength of the coupling between the electron beam and the slow wave circuit is interaction impedance. The impedance can be expressed as:
Where |E0| is the magnitude of the fundamental n=0 harmonic, P is the total power, and S is the cross sectional area of the beam. For this circuit, |E0| was calculated by performing a spatial Fourier analysis along x (the direction of beam propagation) at discrete locations for z and y over the beam cross-sectional area. The average of these values over the beam cross section must be taken for the impedance.
The average involves a discrete spatial summation over z and y, or:
Referring to the exemplary miniature sub-mm BWO 600 of
Conventional means can be used for coupling the electron source (e.g., electron gun) to the slow wave circuit. For example, the electron gun can be coupled to the slow wave circuit using mechanical means. In one embodiment, the entire electron gun and the slow wave circuit can be fabricated as one structure, eliminating problems of alignment.
The focusing lens 640 is placed at the output of the BWO to serve as the entry element for a quasi optical transmission system. The BWO can also be coupled to standard WR-3 waveguide by adapting conventional microwave techniques. The waveguide is not visible in
The interdigital wave circuit 660 is shown as an integrated unit with fingers 625 protruding toward the center of the circuit. In one embodiment, the interdigital wave circuit (or slow wave circuit) is fabricated as complementary halves prior to its assembly. The body of the interdigital circuit can be fabricated from a material of exceptional thermal conductivity. Exemplary materials include synthetic diamond. Synthetic diamond is particularly suitable as it provides high thermal conductivity enabling efficient heat transmission. Diamond also has a high dielectric strength to withstand the electron gun voltages and very a low loss tangent to minimize RF losses.
To improve performance, certain surfaces of the interdigital circuit can be coated with electroconductive material such as gold, silver or copper. An optional coating layer can be interposed between the diamond structure and the conductive coating (e.g., Ag, Cr or Mo). The coating layer may be provided to enhance the bonding between gold and the diamond structure.
The secondary electron emission suppression cavity 630 is comprised of corrugated diamond, so constructed to interrupt cascading secondary electron emission from causing electrical breakdown. It can be fabricated at the same time as the electron gun and the slow wave circuit.
The preceding Figures illustrate that group velocity becomes negative as the phase shift per cavity exceeds 60 to 80 degrees. Therefore, when the phase shift per cavity exceeds this value, the group velocity of the wave is traveling in the opposite direction to the electrons; hence, the term backward wave. The peak of the dispersion diagram generally represents a point of unstable operation. This is illustrated in
In an exemplary embodiment, the results of the parameter sweep were used to design a biplanar interdigital circuit to operate at 300 GHz with both 10 and 20% bandwidths optimized for impedance. The following dimensions were fixed during the design and optimization process:
In addition, the maximum voltage was set at about 6000 V and the minimum phase shift per period at about 85 degrees. Two embodiments were completed, both with a center frequency of 300 GHz. The first had a 10% bandwidth operating from 285-315 GHz. The second embodiment had a 20% bandwidth operating from 270-330 GHz. The circuit dimensions for each exemplary design are listed below in Table 2 as follows:
For the purposes of defining the electron beam requirements for the device and estimating efficiency and start oscillation current, the interaction impedance averaged over the electron beam (as described in Equations 1 and 2) can be computed. The average impedance was calculated as a function of beam width (in z-direction), while keeping the beam height (in y-direction) constant at about 12.5 microns. All simulations assumed a rectangular beam. The average impedance is plotted in
The magnitude of the n=−1 space harmonic of the Ez field is plotted in
The approximate start oscillation conditions were also calculated. The start oscillation current is plotted in
Electron Gun and Collector Design—The design of an electron gun capable of providing the current specified in the 300 GHz design above was performed using the EGUN Code (See “SLAC-166,” W.B. Harmannsfeldt, Standford Linear Accelerator Center, 1973). The results are represented at
The cathode selected for the gun design was a Spindt-type thin film field emitter. This cathode type has demonstrated current densities as high as 2000 A/cm2 for small arrays delivering low total currents. Emission of 100 μA from individual emitting tips has been observed; however, this is considerably diminished for large arrays of several thousand tips. The preceding analysis show that (i) reasonably uniform output power is available over the 10% and 20% bandwidths (FIGS. 18-19); (ii) field configuration is favorable for application of sheet electron beam (
The field emitter produces an electron beam with significant transverse velocity. It has been established that the transverse energy as an approximately Gaussian distribution with a FWHM value determined by the product of the gate voltage and a geometric factor normalized to a specific operating point. The emission model utilized is characterized by the emission curve shown in
In an embodiment according to the principles disclosed herein, the electron gun provides a beam of constant current over a voltage range of about 1.8 to 6.6 kV. The gun may also be formed as an integral part of the CVD diamond slow wave circuit body. An electron gun was designed with two anodes. The first anode is kept at a constant potential with respect to the cathode of the lowest voltage (1.8 kV in this case) so that electron emission is unaffected by variations in the beam voltage. The slow wave circuit serves as the second anode and its voltage varies from 1.8 kV to 6.6 kV with respect to the cathode.
The slow wave circuit analysis presented above called for an electron beam of 1.5 mA to achieve a minimum of two times the start oscillation current at all cases. After a large number of trials with EGUN, a cathode consisting of an array of 100 tips in a 2×50 configuration with 1.5 micron spacing was adopted. The spacing and the current per tip of 15 μA are both well within the parameters that are typically achieved by SRI. The oblong cathode makes use of the field distribution within the slow wave circuit to provide the required current while limiting the current density, which facilitates beam transmission. The slow wave circuit geometry would allow a cathode at least twice as wide as this if necessary. The field emitter must be diced to fit into the lithographically controlled dimensions formed by the end of the BWO body in order to accurately center the emitter in the gun for transmission through the slow wave structure. In one embodiment, the lithographically determined transverse dimensions of the BWO body serves to align the cathode. In another embodiment, the focus electrode can make contact with the gate and the base contact can be made at he rear of the cathode. The gun design is illustrated in EGUN generated drawings in
The vertical scale in
Referring to
The envelope of the electron beam contains 99% of the beam current. The gun and slow wave circuit are immersed in a uniform field of 5000 Gauss. The focus electrode, the first anode and the circuit all share the same distance from the centerline, which is ½ ygap (see also
The cathode can be mounted at the left of
In one embodiment, the focus electrode of the gun can make contact with the gate of the field emitter and the back of the field emitter can define the base connection. The collector is not formed lithographically, and therefore, can be designed as a reentrant structure to enhance the capture of the spent beam. The collector is attached to the diamond insulating surface at the extreme right of the figure. The collector has been biased to 90% of the cathode to circuit potential. The controlling magnetic field can carry the electron beam through the slow wave circuit and into the collector. The collector can be fabricated from isotropic (POCO) graphite, which is commonly used in the fabrication of space traveling-wave tubes (TWT), because of its very low secondary electron yield. The collector may be simply a piece of graphite with a large aspect ratio hole or it might be two pieces of flat graphite with, for example, 50 V bias for suppressing secondary electrons.
Magnetic Circuit—In one embodiment, the magnetic field can receive the electron beam with two parallel bar magnets to allow the electrical connections to the BWO and the RF output to come through the sides of the structure. The magnetic circuit can be formed by two rectangular bar magnets with iron pole pieces at each end and supported by an aluminum or stainless steel framework. A view of an exemplary embodiment of the component parts of the BWO electron gun, magnets, slow wave circuit and collector is shown in
Referring to the embodiment of
With reference to the assembled view of
A calculation demonstrating feasibility of achieving the required magnetic field and to provide an estimate of the magnet weight was performed using the MAXWELL code (Maxwell, Ansoft Corporation, Pittsburgh, Pa. The weight of the magnetic circuit was found to be approximately 29 grams. The magnetic field achieved by this exemplary configuration is demonstrated in
Additional computations were conducted to design a miniature 300 GHz backward wave oscillator, voltage tunable over a frequency range of at least 10% with a power output of at least 10 mW. As a result of the experiments, it was discovered that a power output in excess of 20 mW can be obtained over a 20% tuning range at 300 GHz with a power input of less than 1.275 W. For these experiments, the circuit was analyzed using both SmCo28 (a material typically used in the tube industry) and NdFeB50 as permanent magnets. Ordinary vacuum devices reach relatively high temperatures in operation, requiring the use of a magnetic material such as SmCo, which has excellent temperature stability. However, the low heat dissipation for the diamond BWO will cause negligible heating of the magnetic circuit. NdFeB provides higher magnetic fields, greater mechanical strength and can be produced in larger forms than SmCo. It is useable at temperatures up to 200 C and is frequently employed in automotive applications.
Fabrication—Exemplary processes for fabricating a backward wave oscillator suitable for use with the instant disclosure have been disclosed in U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/772,444 filed Feb. 6, 2004 (entitled “Free-Standing Diamond Structure and Methods”) the disclosure of which is incorporated herein in its entirety for background information.
The diamond can be deposited on the silicon mold in Step 2. The diamond will be supported structurally by a coating of epoxy applied in Step 3, and in Step 4 the silicon substrate will be etched away chemically to reveal the diamond structure. The three-dimensional Bi-Planar Interdigital structures may be selectively metallized. The surfaces requiring metallization are shown in
Masking the base of the structures from evaporant can be achieved by applying a physical shadow mask before deposition. The focus electrode—1st anode spacing (2.4 mm) and the 1st anode—2nd anode spacing (5.4 mm) allow the use of a physical shadow mask in these areas. The shadow mask placement can be performed with the use of a microscope to ensure complete coverage of the base. The use of a physical shadow mask can result in some deposited material on the base which will be removed after deposition with a laser.
The vertical walls and horizontal base area of the slow wave circuit may also remain free of metallization. The spacing between the digits in the slow wave circuit prevents the use of a shadow mask or a spun on photo mask. To ensure the region below the top surface of the slow wave circuit remains free of metallization the deposition will be performed by either sputter deposition or resistive evaporation in a background of Ar gas, for example, with a partial pressure of about 10−3 Torr. Deposition in Ar at an elevated pressure range will accomplish the complete coating of three dimensional structures such as the focus electrode and 1st and 2nd anode while preventing the coating of the area within the slow wave circuit below the top surface. It is well known that physical vapor deposition performed in an elevated pressure environment results in conformal coating of three dimensional structures. Simultaneously, the interdigital spacing in the slow wave circuit is less than the required minimum spacing to allow evaporant to penetrate the region.
Deposition of metal in an elevated background may result in a reduced density metal layer and potentially poor adhesion. It may be necessary to apply a DC bias in the 1-3 kV range during deposition in the elevated Ar background to achieve an ion-plating effect. This will ensure good adhesion of the metal layer to the diamond interdigital structure surface. It may be necessary to deposit an interlayer of Cr to promote adhesion.
Step 6 shows the joining of the circuit halves. This process can be done with liquid crystal fabrication technology. The two circuit halves are brought into close proximity and aligned using stepping motor driven fixtures. For highly developed manufacturing processes, such as computer displays, tolerances of 3 microns can be maintained over 15 inches. In one embodiment, the two structures are then joined using high tack, low out-gassing, UV cured glues that have been developed in the industry for this particular purpose. The glue can be applied using a silk screening or offset printing process. For the small structures required for the BWO circuits, alignment tolerances of less than one micron are predicted. For high volume production, tooling for improved tolerances can be obtained. In one embodiment, the electron gun can be manufactured as an integral part of the slow wave circuit while in another embodiment, the electron gun may be attached after the slow wave circuit has been assembled.
A matching silicon structure may be processed to produce a mating CVD diamond circuit half. Two circuit halves with identical spacing between levels as shown in Step 1 will not produce the desired structure. As shown in Step 6 there can be a spacer between the circuit halves. To achieve the desired dimensions, the spacer can be equal to the height of the beam tunnel plus twice the metallization thickness. This will be accomplished by processing a two layer SOI wafer to produce a three layer silicon mold for the other circuit half. In one embodiment, the BWO is operated inside a vacuum chamber. In another embodiment both halves are fabricated from two layer SOI wafers for purposes of symmetry and to gain the advantage of fabricating them from the same wafer in the same lithographic process. In another embodiment, the BWO is configured to have a vacuum tight structure with diamond walls.
The fabrication procedures described above are a significant departure from conventional vacuum electron device technology, which are based in part on the high vacuum requirements imposed by thermionic electron sources that are easily poisoned by trace contaminants. Conventional devices also handle relatively high power and must tolerate high temperatures. The BWO embodiments disclosed here can dissipate at most approximately one Watt of power and will utilize a field emission cathode which is not as susceptible to poisoning. The power that is dissipated will be conducted from the device using diamond, the highest thermal conductor known. While typical vacuum electronic devices operate at high temperatures, the embodiments disclosed herein can be essentially at ambient temperature. The materials that will be in vacuum are all compatible with that environment. The backward wave oscillator can require high voltage for its operation, which will require maintaining sufficient vacuum to prevent gaseous breakdown.
FIGS. 28A-E show arrow plots of the electrical and magnetic fields and the surface currents for a single period of the interdigital circuit shown in
Manufacturing Tolerances and Gold Undercut—In depositing the gold film on the circuit fingers (see Step 5 of
Power Balance—The extremes of power balance for the 300 GHz backward wave oscillator are presented in Table 3 below for the 10% bandwidth embodiment. While the power output is relatively uniform over the frequencies, the DC power input and RF losses changed over the same range of frequencies.
A typical power balance of an exemplary embodiment is as follows:
Design of a 600 GHz BWO—The principles disclosed herein with respect to the 300 GHz design were repeated for 10 and 20% bandwidth BWO's centered at 600 GHz. The dimensions of the 600 GHz case as shown in Table 4 were nearly half of the 300 GHz design shown in Table 2. However, the cathode used is exactly the same as for the 300 GHz case. The twice start oscillation current for the worst case is about 1.8 mA. About 99% of the beam can be contained within the beam tunnel but the magnetic field must be increased to 9000 Gauss.
The development of a field emission cathode with on chip focusing to reduce transverse velocities can enhance this design.
Although the principles of the disclosure have been disclosed in relation to exemplary embodiments, it is noted that the principles of the disclosure are not limited thereto and the principles include any permutation or variation not specifically disclosed herein.
The instant application claims the benefit of the filing date of application Ser. No. 10/772,444 filed Feb. 6, 2004; Provisional Application Nos. 60/494,089 and 60/494,095 filed Aug. 12, 2003. Each of the above-identified Applications is incorporated herein in its entirety.
Number | Date | Country | |
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60494089 | Aug 2003 | US | |
60494095 | Aug 2003 | US |