Patent Application
20080318229
This invention relates to a method of diagnosing neuro-degenerative diseases, in particular Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease.
Neuro-degenerative diseases are increasing dramatically. Data suggest that neuronal health problems are among the most important contributors to the global burden of disease and disability.
Diagnostic markers for neurological disorders are especially important in diagnosis early in the course of disease, when therapeutic compounds have the greatest potential effect, but accurate diagnosis is difficult. Few diagnostic markers for early stage neuronal disorders are available; those that are available rely on the analysis of a sample material (e.g. cerebrospinal fluid), which is difficult and painful to obtain. Therefore, the characterisation of diagnostic markers which are detectable in the peripheral blood is of great importance. Such peripheral markers would allow preventive screening of a population at risk.
Alzheimers disease is the major cause of dementia in industrialised countries. In a minority of cases there is a clear family history, with autosomal mutations on the amyloid precursor protein gene. However, the majority of Alzheimer's disease patients have no obvious family history and are classified as sporadic Alzheimer's disease. The aetiology of sporadic Alzheimer's disease is largely unknown (Blennow K and VanMechelen E, J Neural Transm Suppl. 1998; 53:223-35).
Currently, Alzheimer's disease is diagnosed primarily by the exclusion of other known causes of dementia. Diagnosis at an early stage prior to irreversible changes is virtually non-existent. However, pharmaceutical therapy is probably most effective early in the course of disease, before neuro-degeneration is too severe and widespread. Therefore, there is a great need for minimally-invasive diagnostic markers for diagnosis early in the course of the disease.
Parkinson's disease is the second most common neuro-degenerative disorder after Alzheimer's disease, affecting approximately 1% of the population older than 50 years. There is a world-wide increase in disease prevalence due to the increasing age of the population.
Parkinson's disease is a devastating and complex disease that affects progressively the control of movement and also produces a wide range of other problems for patients. The symptoms reflect the gradual loss of nerve cells in specific areas of the brain. In particular, cells that produce the neurotransmitter dopamine die in the substantia nigra undergo cell death. The cause of this cell death is unknown.
At present the major diagnosis of Parkinson's disease is based on the clinical presentation of symptoms including bradykinesia and rigidity. At this stage approximately 80 percent of the affected brain pathway has already been lost, limiting the usefulness of neuroprotective drugs. Diagnosis of Parkinson's is also possible using brain scans such as Positron or Single Photon Emission Tomography (PET or SPECT), which diagnose the disease by imaging selective neuronal cell death in the substantia nigra (Brucke et al, J. Neurol. 2000; 247 Suppl 4: IV/2-7). However, these technologies are too expensive for routine medical examinations (PET imaging $2500/patient and SPECT imaging $1000/patient). Development of a simple blood test would dramatically accelerate diagnosis of Parkinson's disease.
The present invention is based on the identification of proteins, isolated from platelets, that can be used as markers for Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease.
According to a first aspect of the invention, a method for the diagnosis of Alzheimer's disease comprises measuring the level of expression of one or more of the proteins identified in Table 1 in a sample of platelets isolated from a person suspected of having Alzheimer's disease, and determining whether the levels of expression are altered compared to a control.
According to a second aspect of the invention, a method for the diagnosis of Parkinson's disease comprises measuring the level of expression of one or more of the proteins identified in Table 2 in a sample of platelets isolated from a person suspected of having Parkinson's disease, and determining whether the levels of expression are altered compared to a control.
The diagnosis involves the isolation of platelets. In a preferred embodiment, the platelets should not be activated during the purification from a blood sample.
According to a third aspect of the invention, a method for the isolation of an extract comprising precipitated proteins from non-activated platelets contained in a blood sample, comprises the steps of:
According to a fourth aspect of the invention, an assay for quantifying the amount of any protein identified in Tables 1 or 2 present in a blood sample comprises the steps of:
According to a fifth aspect of the invention a diagnostic kit comprises the means for detecting the proteins identified in Tables 1 and 2.
According to a sixth aspect of the invention, a kit for isolating proteins from non-activated platelets comprises a sedimentation agent, filtration device and precipitation agent.
According to a seventh aspect of the invention, a kit for quantifying the amount of a protein identified in Tables 1 or 2, present in a blood sample, comprises a sedimentation agent, filtration device, precipitation agent and a probe that binds to a protein identified in Table 1 or Table 2 or a nucleic acid coding for said protein.
According to an eighth aspect of the invention, a protein array comprises first and second probe molecules immobilised onto a support surface, wherein the first probe molecule binds to a protein identified in Table 1 or Table 2 and the second probe binds to a different protein identified in Table 1 or Table 2.
The Invention is described with reference to the following drawings, wherein:
For the avoidance of doubt, all publications referred to below are incoproated herein by reference.
This invention provides methods of diagnosing the presence of or an increased risk of Alzheimer's disease or Parkinson's disease based on the detection of the expression level of specific proteins, that are expressed in the platelets of a person suspected of having either disease. The expression level of the proteins in the platelets is determined outside of the body (ex-vivo) of the person suspected of having the disease, in an in vitro assay. Proteins that can be detected to diagnose Alzheimer's disease are listed in Table 1; proteins that can be detected to diagnose Parkinson's disease are listed in Table 2. The “Change %” column represents the disease-related increase or decrease (negative number) in expression compared to a non-diseased control.
Tables 1 and 2 indicate the Swiss Prot accession number for each protein. This identifies the mRNA product that codes for each protein. All proteins deriving from this mRNA are within the scope of the invention, i.e. all variants and post-translational modifications. Preferably, where a specific variant is indicated in column 3 of Table 1 or 2, this specific variant is used according to the invention. More preferably, the protein has the pl (where indicated) and molecular weight (MW) indicated in columns 4 and 5 of Table 1 or 2. Determining the MW of a protein is a routine experiment for one skilled in the art, for example this can be performed by SDS-PAGE. Determining the pl is also routine to one skilled in the art, using the technique of Isoelectric Focussing. The pl of the proteins in Tables 1 and 2 was determined by the Decyder™ 2D analysis software (GE Healthcare, Chalfont St. Giles, UK).
The method requires the detection of the expression level of one or more of the specified proteins, from platelets of a person, usually a person suspected of having Alzheimer's or Parkinson's disease or a person thought to have a predisposition to the disease. As used herein the term “expression level” refers to the amount of the specified protein (or mRNA coding for the protein) in the sampled platelets. The expression level is then compared to the expression level of the one or more proteins from platelets of a control. The control may be a platelet sample of a person that is known to have the disease, or a sample from a person that is known not to have the disease. It will be apparent to the skilled person that comparing expression levels of a control and the test sample will allow a decision to be made as to whether the expression level in the test sample and control are similar or different and therefore whether the patient has or is at risk of the disease. In a preferred embodiment, the expression of the protein from the test sample will be compared to a healthy, i.e. non-diseased, control. The protein may have the same or similar increase or decrease (compared to the control) in expression as compared to the test sample. Whether an increase or decrease of expression is indicative of the presence of disease is indicated in column six of Tables 1 and 2, where a negative value indicates a decrease in expression.
For the avoidance of doubt, an increased expression level (when compared to a healthy non-diseased control) of apolipoprotein E4, haptoglobin, glutathione S transerase omega 1 wild type, tropomyosin beta chain, monoamine oxidase type B, vinculin, coagulation factor XIII A chain precursor (pl 5.75 variant), fibrinogen alpha, beta or gamma chains, WD-repeat protein 1, integrin-linked protein kinase 1, unnamed protein BAB14554 or calreticulin, indicates the presence of or risk of Alzheimer's Disease. An increased level (when compared to a healthy non-diseased control) of tropomyosin beta chain, haptoglobin, pleckstrin (pl 6.83, 7.69 and 9.12 variants), PDZ and LIM domain protein 1, EH-domain containing protein 1, glutathione s transferase omega 1 wild type, fibrinogen alpha, beta or gamma chains, thioredoxin domain-containing protein 4 (precursor) or unnamed protein BAB14554 is indicative of Parkinson's Disease. A reduced level (when compared to a healthy non-diseased control) of gelsolin, nucleosome assembly protein 1-like 1, integrin alpha IIb, thioredoxin peroxidase 1, phosphoglycerol dehydrogenase, EH-domain containing protein 1, glutathione S transferase omega 1 (pl 5.64 and 5.87 variants), apolipoprotein A1, hemoglobin alpha chain or beta chain, apolipoprotein E2 or E3, ADAM 10 (35 kDa variant), 6-phosphofructokinase, thioredoxin domain-containing protein 4 (precursor) or serum albumin (precursor) indicates the presence of a risk of Alzheimer's Disease. A reduced level (when compared to a healthy non-diseased control) of apolipoprotein E2, E3 or E4, pleckstrin (pl 7.37, 8.03, 9.20 variants), glutathione S tranferase omega 1 (pl 5.64, 5.87 variants) or peroxisomal multifunctional enzyme type 2 is indicative of Parkinson's Disease.
The control may be a sample taken from a person known to be healthy or known to be diseased (as required) and may be analysed at the same time as the test sample. However, it is preferable that the control is a known value, or level of expression, that is known to be indicative of a healthy (or diseased) person. Once this control level is known, control tests need not be carried out each time a test sample is analysed; the sample can simply be compared to the known control values.
The level of expression of a single protein may be identified, or a combination of proteins. Preferably, 2 or more proteins, for example 3 or more, 4 or more or 5 or more proteins are detected and analysed. For the avoidance of doubt, when diagnosing Alzheimer's disease, one or more proteins identified in Table 1 may be analysed. When diagnosing Parkinson's disease, one or more proteins identified in Table 2 may be analysed. It will be apparent to the skilled person that the full length protein, for example as described in the Swiss Prot database, may be detected. Alternatively, the identification of a fragment (or number of fragments) is possible, provided this allows accurate identification of the full length protein; for example protease digestion of a (full length) protein followed by mass spectrometry of a small number of the resulting peptides is routinely used to identify a protein. This method is often used to identify a spot on a protein gel. If the protein is an oligomer, identification of a single chain may be sufficient.
Methods of measuring the level of expression of a protein from a biological sample are well known in the art and any suitable method may be used. Protein or nucleic acid from the sample may be analysed to determine the expression level. An example of a suitable method is a quantitative PCR reaction on mRNA (or cDNA) obtained from the sample platelets. The use of quantitative PCR to detect gene expression levels is well-known in the art. Kits for quantitative PCR-based gene expression analysis are commercially available, for example the Quantitect system manufactured by Qiagen. Simultaneous analysis of expression levels in multiple samples using a hybridisation-based nucleic acid array system is well known in the art and is also within the scope of the invention.
The level of specific protein (or proteins) in a sample may be detected directly using a number of techniques that will be apparent to one skilled in the art. In summary, suitable techniques typically involve contacting the sample potentially containing a protein from Table 1 or Table 2 with a probe molecule that bids specifically to said protein. A wash step removes unbound molecules. The amount of bound probe molecules is then detected, thereby determining the amount of target molecules in the sample. Preferably, to aid detection, the probe is labelled.
The skilled person will realise that it may be necessary to detect a variant with a specific MW and/or pl. For example, three glutathione S transferase variants are disclosed in Table 1 and it will be necessary to know which variant is being detected. Methods for detecting specific proteins with defined physical parameters are well known in the art.
For analysis of a relatively small number of proteins, a quantitative immunoassay such as a Western blot or ELISA can be used to detect the amount of protein (and therefore level of expression) in a sample.
To analyse a larger number of samples simultaneously, a protein array may be used. Protein arrays are well-known in the art and function in a similar way to nucleic acid arrays, primarily using known immobilised proteins (probes) to “capture” a protein of interest, for example a protein identified in Table 1 or 2. When the protein is an enzyme, an enzyme assay can be used to analyse the amount of enzyme present in a sample. A protein array contains a plurality of immobilised probe proteins. Preferably, the array contains probe proteins with affinity for different target proteins, allowing a number of different proteins to be analysed on the same support surface, preferably simultaneously: In a preferred embodiment, 2 or more probe molecules with affinity for a protein identified in Table 1 or 2 are immobilised onto a suitable protein array support material. More preferably, 3, 4, 5 or more different probe molecules are immobilised, for example 10 or more. The advantages of this multiplexing are faster analysis of multiple samples and the ability to detect multiple markers simultaneously, which allows for combinations of markers to be assayed thereby increasing diagnostic accuracy. A support material suitable for use in a protein array is disclosed in EP-A-0874242. In a preferred embodiment, a protein array according to the invention is analysed using the Randox Evidence™ System, which is commercially available from Randox Laboratories Limited, Ardmore, Northern Ireland, United Kingdom.
Alternatively, 2D Gel Electrophoresis can be used to analyse simultaneously the expression level of a number of proteins, for example those listed in Tables 1 and 2. This method is well known in the art; a sample containing a large number of proteins are typically separated in a first dimension by isoelectric focusing and in a second dimension by size. Each protein resides at a unique location (a “spot”) on the resulting gel. The amount of protein in each spot, and therefore the level of expression, can be determined using a number of techniques. An example of a suitable technique is silver-staining the gel followed by scanning with a Bio-rad FX scanner and computer aided analysis using MELANIE 3.0 software (GeneBio). Alternatively, Difference Gel Electrophoresis (DIGE) may be used to quantify the expression level (see Von Eggeling et al; Int. J. Mol. Med. 2001 October; 8(4):373-7). This technique is summarised in
Blood platelets are non-nucleated cell fragments involved in blood clotting. The platelets may be analysed directly from a whole blood preparation. However, it is preferred that at least some purification is carried out to separate the platelets from other blood components. In one embodiment, a plasma preparation is prepared from a whole blood preparation and expression levels in the platelets detected directly from the plasma. Methods of separating plasma from other blood components are well known in the art, for example, plasma can be prepared from anti-coagulated blood by centrifugation. The platelets may be further purified from the plasma so that a platelet preparation that is substantially free from other blood components is obtained. This usually requires an initial mild centrifugation at approximately 200 g, to separate plasma from the red and white cellular blood components, followed by a strong centrifugation at approximately 2000 g, to separate the platelets from the plasma. Preferably, the platelets (that have been separated from the plasma) are then lysed and a platelet extract obtained. Methods of lysing cells and obtaining cell-free extracts are well known in the art.
The purification of platelets and platelet extracts from whole blood using conventional methods (involving strong centrifugation) often leads to activation of the platelets. In particular, the strong centrifugation step required to separate plasma from the platelets leads to considerable activation of the platelets. Activation of platelets is a well known phenomenon which results in exocytosis of secretion vesicles and granules (“degranulation”) together with a number of other biochemical changes and a change in shape. Activation often leads to exocytosis of proteins of diagnostic interest and, without wishing to be bound by theory, decreases the diagnostic value of the platelets obtained. Assays to detect the level of platelet activation in a sample are known in the art. A prothrombinase or platelet aggregometry assay may be used or expression of activation markers such as CD62-P (P selectin) and platelet factor 4 can be detected to measure platelet activation, as will be apparent to one skilled in the art. The detection of CD62-P by flow cytometry is described in Example 1.
According to the current invention, it is preferred that the platelets from which the level of expression of one or more proteins is measured are non-activated. As used herein, the term “non-activated” refers to platelets that have not been activated by the purification process. Preferably, the platelets are entirely non-activated, although the skilled person will appreciate that platelets that have been slightly activated by the purification process may still be useful. Preferably, the platelet activation level is 50% or less. More preferably, the platelets show 40% or less for example 30% or 20% activation. For the avoidance of doubt, Example 1 and
The current invention provides a method of isolating non-activated platelet extracts from a whole blood sample. It has been found that avoiding strong centrifugation during the purification of the platelets allows non-activated platelets to be obtained. Separating platelets from red and white blood cells using sedimentation or mild centrifugation followed by a separation from plasma by size exclusion filtration (instead of the conventional method requiring strong centrifugation) allows non-activated platelet extracts to be isolated. As used herein, the term “strong centrifugation” refers to the centrifugation forces used typically to pellet platelets for separation from plasma. Strong centrifugation typically requires centrifugation at 1000 g or greater, for example 1500 g or 2000 g. “Mild centrifugation” refers to centrifugation forces that do not cause activation of platelets. In a preferred embodiment, weak centrifugation involves forces of 500 g or less, more preferably 250 g or less, for example 100 g or 50 g. In the embodiment where sedimentation is used to separate the red and white blood cells, it is preferred that, prior to sedimentation, the whole blood sample is diluted with an isotonic buffer, which may contain additives to achieve an appropriate density of plasma. For example, (anti-coagulated) blood can be mixed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) prior to sedimentation. Alternatively, (anti-coagulated) blood can be mixed directly with Dextran 500 (in PBS, e.g. 1.25% Dextran) to a final concentration of between 0.1% and 5%, preferably 0.25%.
Using sedimentation to separate biological samples is well known in the art and any sedimentation method may be used. Preferably, the technique of dextran sedimentation is used, wherein the whole blood sample is applied to a solution containing dextran at a density suitable for separating platelets and plasma from other blood components (see, for example, Bertoluzzo et al, 1999 Blood Cell, Mol. Dis. 25(22):339-349). When left untouched, the plasma and platelets will separate from the other blood components, forming a yellowish supernatant. An advantage of using sedimentation, rather than mild centrifugation, to separate the platelets from red and white blood cells is that it avoids the need for expensive centrifuge equipment.
Sedimentation or mild centrifugation of a whole blood sample results in a supernatant containing platelets and plasma. Although this supernatant may be analysed directly, it is preferred that further purification occurs, to separate the platelets from the plasma. This separation is traditionally carried out by subjecting the platelet suspension (supernatant) to a strong centrifugation step, which leads to a substantial activation of the platelets. It has now been found that avoiding this strong centrifugation step allows the preparation of non-activated platelets. Preferably, the platelets are separated from the supernatant of the sedimentation step by size exclusion filtration, such as size exclusion gel chromatography. The size exclusion gel has a molecular weight exclusion that is capable of fractionating or excluding the platelets to separate them from plasma components. Size exclusion gels with suitable molecular weight cutoffs will be apparent to the skilled person. It is preferred that the molecular weight cutoff is 40 MDa or greater. Typically, the size exclusion gel is packed into a column and the platelet suspension resulting from the sedimentation or mild centrifugation of the whole blood sample (e.g. the supernatant of the sedimentation step) is passed through the column, providing an early column eluate containing very high molecular weight components which have been excluded by the size exclusion gel and a later column eluate containing lower molecular weight components which have been included by the chromatography gel. The platelets will be present in the excluded fraction.
To obtain an extract, the platelets (i.e. the excluded fraction) are contacted with a precipitation agent to lyse the platelets and precipitate the released protein. A separate lysing agent may also be used. Lysing agents are well known in the art and are usually detergents. Any precipitation agent may be used, as are well known in the art. A preferred precipitation agent is ethanol. Trichloroacetic acid (TCA) may alternatively be used as a precipitation agent. Preferably, the early column eluate from the size exclusion step (which contains the platelets) is transferred directly from the column into a container which contains the precipitation solution. Once precipitated, the macromolecules in the platelet extract remain stable for a prolonged period of time, even at room temperature.
After precipitation, the precipitate may be centrifuged to obtain a pellet of precipitated proteins.
The preferred method of providing non-activated platelet extract therefore comprises two major steps, a first sedimentation or mild centrifugation step and a second size exclusion step. The lack of strong centrifugation in these two steps prevents activation of the platelets. Example 1 demonstrates this technique and
Once the non-activated platelets have been lysed, providing a non-activated extract, further steps involving centrifugation can be used, for example to obtain a pellet of the precipitated proteins.
The precipitated protein produced by this method is preferably resolubilised in aqueous solution prior to an analysis procedure.
The method of providing non-activated platelets is preferably used to produce platelet extracts containing a protein, or combination of proteins listed in Tables 1 and 2. An assay for quantifying the amount of any protein identified in Table 1 or 2 present in a blood sample therefore comprises obtaining a non-activated platelet extract as described above and determining the amount of the precipitated protein produced, as described above.
A kit comprising the means to perform any aspect of the invention is within the scope of the invention. In one embodiment, a kit comprises the necessary reagents to allow the expression level of one or more of the proteins in Table 1 or 2 to be detected, and to allow a diagnosis to be made. Preferably, the kit comprises a probe that allows identification of one or more of the proteins in Table 1 or 2. Preferably, the probe is specific to a single protein identified in Table 1 or 2. Any probe that specifically identifies the presence of a protein can be used. The skilled person will realise that detecting the amount of a bound probe allows the amount of the target molecule to be determined. Preferably, the probe is labelled with a detectable label. Suitable detectable labels will be apparent to the skilled person and include radioactive labels, chemiluminescent labels and bioluminescent labels. As indicated above, the probes may be immobilised in an array, to allow multiplexing.
In a preferred embodiment, the probe is an antibody molecule. As used herein, the term antibody is to be given its standard meaning in the art, i.e. an immunoglobulin molecule. The skilled person will realise that any type of immunoglobulin molecule or fragment thereof can be used, provided that it retains the ability to bind to a specified target molecule. Preferred antibody fragments include Fab and scFv molecules. Recombinant antibodies and monoclonal antibodies are within the scope of the invention. When the probe is an antibody, a quantitative immunoassay is preferably used to detect the presence of the antibody bound to the target protein from Table 1 or 2, and therefore the expression level of that target protein. Immunoassays such as Western Blots or ELISAs, and the reagents required to perform such immunoassays, are well-known in the art. The kit can contain all of the reagents required to perform the immunoassay. In an alternative preferred embodiment, the probe is a nucleic acid that can hybridise to a nucleic acid, preferable mRNA, coding for a protein identified in Table 1 or Table 2. In this embodiment, the kit preferably contains reagents, such as primers and a polymerase enzyme, that are required to perform a polymerase reaction, preferably a quantitative polymerase reaction, which (as described above) can be used to detect the expression level of a protein.
The probe can be an aptamer. As used herein, the term “aptamer” is to be given its standard meaning in the art, i.e. an oligonucleotide that can bind to a target molecule. According to the current invention, the aptamer binds to a protein identified in Table 1 or 2.
In a further alternative preferred embodiment, the kit for detection of the expression level of a protein identified in Table 1 or 2 does not contain a probe. The expression level of the protein can be determined by 2D gel electrophoresis, or DIGE, as indicated above. In this embodiment, the kit comprises reagents necessary to identify a protein identified in Table 1 or Table 2, using these techniques.
A kit comprising the reagents to perform the method of preparing non-activated platelets is within the scope of the invention. Preferably, this kit comprises a sedimentation agent, filtration device and precipitation agent. As used herein, the term “sedimentation agent” refers to a reagent that can be used to separate blood plasma from anti-coagulated blood, by sedimentation through the sedimentation agent. A preferred sedimentation agent is dextran (as described above). A “filtration device” refers to a device that separates platelets from plasma. A preferred filtration device is a size exclusion column, most preferably with a Mr cutoff of 40 MDa or greater. A “precipitation agent” is defined above.
A kit for assaying the quantity of a protein of Table 1 or 2 present in a blood sample, comprises reagents necessary to produce a non-activated platelet protein extract, and reagents necessary to detect the amount of protein in the extract, as detailed above.
The invention is further described with reference to the following non-limiting Examples.
(a) Blood samples from normal individuals were obtained and treated with dilution buffer in order to demonstrate the efficacy of removing red and white blood cells in accordance with the present invention.
Anticoagulated blood (4 ml), to be used as a control, was diluted 1:1.25 with an isotonic phosphate buffered saline solution (10 mM Na2HPO4.NaH2PO4, pH=7.4, 135 mM NaCl, 2.7 mM KCl, 5 mM EDTA) and left untouched for 50 minutes. The upper 100 μl of the yellowish supernatant was analysed in a hemocytometer (Coulter MicroDiff 18, Beckmann-Coulter, FL). The supernatant contained 395×103/μl platelets, 0.03×106/μl red blood cells, and 3.4×103/μl white blood cells. Before sedimentation the blood contained 187×103/μl platelets, 5.7×106/μl red blood cells, and 4.3×103/μl white blood cells. Thus, about 98% of red blood cells and 21% of white blood cells were removed by the sedimentation step. The supernatant contains platelets with a purity of more than 92%. The remaining other cells are red blood cells (7%) and white blood cells (1%), which consist mainly of lymphocytes.
Removal of only the upper ¾ of the supernatant improves the reduction of white blood cells in the sedimentation step. A typical supernatant prepared using the upper ¾ only contains 97.4% platelets, 1.8% red blood cells and 0.8% white blood cells. The cell concentrations in the whole blood sample/supernatant were: red blood cell 5.0×106/μl/2.0×103/μl; white blood cell 4.7×103/μi/0.9×103/μl; platelets 322×103/μl/108×103/μl. 99.6% of red blood cells and 80.8% of white blood cells are removed by sedimentation and removal of the upper ¾ of the supernatant.
(b) The platelet-containing supernatant was then treated with a size exclusion gel in order to show the efficacy of removing plasma proteins in accordance with the present invention, as detailed below.
Sepharose 2B, an agarose-based gel having a molecular weight fractionation of about 80 MD was purchased from Amersham-Pharmacia. About 15 ml of the gel was washed with phosphate buffered saline (PBS), degassed, packed in a small column having a diameter of 12 cm×1.4 cm, and washed with PBS. Excess buffer was drained from the top of the column and 200 μl of the platelet-containing supernatant was applied to the top of the gel without disturbing the surface of the gel. After the 200 μl had completely entered the gel bed, 15 ml of PBS was added stepwise (1 ml per step) to the gel packed column. Every millilitre of the eluent was collected and divided into 3 parts: one part was used to determine the platelet count using a hemocytometer, the second was used to determine the protein concentration according to the standard Bradford protocol and the third part was used to investigate the proteins by sodium dodecyl sulfate polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (SDS-PAGE).
The platelets contained in the supernatant eluted early at about 3 ml. The plasma proteins, however, elute much later at about 8 ml. The analysis of the proteins by SDS-PAGE revealed that the major plasma protein, albumin, eluted between 8 ml and 19 ml and was absent in the platelet fractions. These data show that applying platelet-containing supernatant of sedimented blood to size exclusion gel chromatography leads to removal of plasma proteins. It was also noted that the remaining white blood cells in the supernatant were separated from the platelets during the size exclusion chromatography; there appeared to be unspecific binding of white blood cells to sepharose, which retards their elution.
(c) Next, the prepared platelet proteins were analysed by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis and compared to platelet proteins prepared by centrifugation, as described below.
The eluate prepared above, which contained the non-activated platelets, was precipitated in ethanol.
For isolation by centrifugation, peripheral blood was centrifuged at 50 g for 15 minutes. The supernatant contained the platelet rich plasma (PRP). In the presence of 150 nM PGE1 (prostaglandin E1), PRP was subjected to a second (strong) centrifugation at 1500 g for 15 minutes. The platelet pellet was then washed two times in isotonic buffer and precipitated in ethanol.
The precipitate of each preparation was pelleted by high-speed centrifugation and resolubilised in an aqueous buffer containing 8M urea. The protein pattern of both treatment groups was analysed by 2-dimensional gel electrophoresis according to Gerner at al. J Biol Chem 2000; 275:39018-26.
Both platelet protein preparations contained several hundreds of proteins. However, the protein preparation from centrifuged platelets contained additional low molecular weight proteins, which were identified as plasma proteins. These results show that the present invention yields a high quality platelet protein preparation, which is suitable for proteomics studies and which is not contaminated by plasma proteins.
(d) Finally, the expression of the activation marker CD62P (p-selectin) in platelets prepared as described above was measured and compared to platelets prepared by centrifugation. Untreated blood was used as a negative control. The degree of platelet activation was determined by expression of the specific activation marker CD62P measured by flow cytometry.
Gel filtered platelets show the same low CD62P expression levels as platelets in untreated blood, whilst platelets prepared by centrifugation exhibited a strongly increased expression level. Even the single centrifugation step to yield platelet rich plasma (PRP) leads to a small increase in CD62P expression. These data are illustrated in
At least a corresponding number of age- and sex-matched controls, without any evidence of neuropsychiatric disorder or cognitive dysfunction, were selected for this study. Control subjects had a standardised clinical profile based on neurological examinations, laboratory blood and urine analysis and neuropsychological assessment.
A reliable diagnosis of AD is, to date, only possible by a post mortem analysis of the brain. However, there are some parameters which indicate the disease. Therefore it was important to evaluate conscientiously patients which should be enrolled in the study. Early stage dementia patients were investigated. These patients are supposed to suffer from AD as determined by medical, epidemiological, and neuropsychological assessments. For further corroboration isolated blood platelets were taken from these patients and the expression and fragment-pattern of the β-amyloid-precursor protein (APP) was analysed by Western blot. The ratio of the two APP-fragments is known to change in the course of Alzheimer's disease (Di Luca, et al., 1998, Arch Neurol 55: 1195-1200). APP-ratios in the early stage dementia patients were indistinguishable from that of healthy controls.
The normal APP-ratios found in the early stage dementia patients can either indicate that patients might suffer from a neuro-degenerative disorder which is different from AD or derive from their medical treatment. The patients were treated with an acetylycholinesterase inhibitor, which was recently described to abolish disease-induced changes of APP-ratios in AD. Thus, early stage dementia patients are not suitable for the study.
To find a more promising patient group, late stage dementia patients were investigated. A recently published study showed by post mortem analysis that the late stage dementia patient group consists of 70% AD, 15-20% Lewy body disease, and 2-8% vascular hypoxic dementia (Jellinger, 2001, J Neurol Neurosurg Psychiatry. 2001 November; 71:707-8). In addition these patients receive no acetylycholinesterase inhibitors or other treatments which are known to interfere with platelets. Thus, late stage dementia patients seemed to be the best patient group for the study.
In order to reduce the number of false positives (30%) in the late stage dementia patients, the amyloid precursor protein fragments (APP) ratios of these patients were analysed and compared to the APP ratios of age- and sex-matched control subjects. Visually two groups of APP ratios could be distinguished in both study groups from Western blot analysis of the platelet proteins from all collected samples. Most of the control subjects (n=13) have high APP ratios. This corresponds to the literature. Eight control subjects had reduced APP ratios.
In 14 of the 21 dementia patients, the ratio between the 130 and the 106-110-kd isoforms was markedly low, corresponding to that described for Alzheimer's disease. The APP ratios of the remaining 7 patients were as high as the ratios of the control subjects, which suggested that these patients would have other forms of dementia. This proportion is similar to the former result of the pathologic study since the excluded seven dementia patients with high APP ratios were equivalent to the 30% non-Alzheimer's dementias.
The optical density of the APP bands of the four groups was then measured and the ratios calculated. The visual selection was confirmed by these measurements. A cut-off level for low APP ratios was set at 1.2. Fourteen of the 21 dementia patient had an APP ratio below this cut off level with a mean value of 1.06±0.21 (n=14). This group has a high probability of AD and was used in the proteomics assay. 13 of the 21 healthy age-matched controls showed an APP ratio higher than 1.2 with a mean value of 1.44±0.21 (n=13). These volunteers have a high probability of no AD problems, even in the early stage, and were to be used as a control.
The mean age of dementia group classified for the Alzheimer study group was 82.8±5.8 and the mean age of the control group with high APP ratios was 81.7±6.1.
All 19 patients were well-defined idiopathic PD patients according to neuropsychological evaluations as well as computer tomography scans. Since these patients are commonly younger than the AD patients, samples of 19 age matched controls were also collected.
It has to be mentioned that patients who were suspected of suffering from PD received treatment with dopamine. Therefore it has to be taken into account that any changes in the protein expression profile of these patients might be partially mediated by dopamine. To minimise this effect, the study utilised in-patients who received a lower daily dose of dopamine.
Platelets are non-nucleated blood cells which play an essential role in blood clotting. It is expected that post-transcriptional regulatory mechanisms play an important role in disease-specific changes. Therefore a proteomic approach was adopted and disease-specific changes on the protein level were investigated.
Peripheral venous blood was taken without stasis and coagulation was inhibited by citrate. The platelets were prepared immediately after blood drawing.
To avoid any platelet activation and de-granulation the preparation of platelet proteins from human blood was carried out without centrifugation immediately after the blood sample was taken in the clinics. The separation of platelets from other blood components occurred in two steps: (1) removal of red and white blood cells by sedimentation and (2) separation of platelets from other plasma components by size exclusion chromatography.
The platelet protein precipitate was solubilised in sample buffer containing urea, thiourea, and CHAPS and applied in the 1st dimension to isoelectric focussing (24 cm Immobiline Dry strips in a pH range of 4-7 and 6 to 9). This leads to a separation of the proteins according to their pl. The IPG (immobilised pH gradient)-strip was then applied in the 2nd dimension on a 11% SDS-PA gel and the proteins were separated according to their molecular weight. The protein spots were visualised by silver stain. The gels were scanned using a FX scanner from Bio-Rad and the images were analysed with the MELANIE 3.0 imaging analysis software from GeneBio. With 2-D fluorescence difference gel electrophoresis system (DIGE) the platelet protein samples were labelled with fluorescence dye before electrophoresis and the 2D gels were scanned with a Typhoon scanner (Amersham Biosciences).
The gel images were highly reproducible. For example: in four parallel gels of the same samples 2463, 2645, 2710, and 2487 protein spots were detected respectively. This indicates a very low coefficient of variation of only 4.7%. However, some spots were very faint and therefore not suitable for further analysis. Taking into account only clear and distinct spots, 1983 spots (77%) were found to be present in all four gels. This reproducibility is at a similar level as published by other proteomic research groups (for example O'Neill, et al. 2002, Towards complete analysis of the platelet proteome, Proteomics 2 288-305).
To determine whether platelets from AD patients have specific modifications in their protein expression profile, inter-individual variations had to be overcome. Therefore a two-step strategy was chosen:
1. Analysis of 2D-gels of pooled samples of AD patients (this levels the inter-individual differences out) in order get an overview of the disease-specific differences and to get a list of candidate spots.
2. Analysis of 2D-gels of each single patient in order to evaluate the statistical significance of the candidate spots.
Using the MELANIE-3.0 software, the 2×2 AD gels were compared and a synthetic AD image was calculated which contained all common spots (1925). The corresponding synthetic control image had 1983 common spots. A comparison of these two synthetic gels revealed that 1501 spots are present in both AD and control samples. The approximately 400 not common spots were all very faint and probably due to methodical variations. All 1501 common spots were introduced into a statistic evaluation. The mean expression level of each single spot in the AD group was calculated and compared with the mean of the healthy control group. In addition the significance level of any difference was calculated by a students t-test.
Using this approach 72 protein spots were found which showed a significant (p<0.05) increase or decrease in the spot intensities of AD samples in comparison to healthy control. In order to evaluate the specificity of these 72 spots the expression level of these spots were analysed in 2D gels of each single AD patient and each single control.
From the 20 single intensity values of each spot per group the mean value was calculated together with the students t-test. Twenty-five spots were found to be still statistically significant (see Table 1).
2.3.1 Protein Identifications by Mass Spectrometry from Alzheimer-Related Protein Spots
From this study, twenty-five proteins were identified. The proteins are listed in Table 1.
Difference Gel Electrophoresis (DIGE) technology was applied to find disease-specific protein spots. The basics of this technology is shown in
Using this technique the platelet proteome of three Parkinson's disease patient pools was compared with the proteome of three pools from age- and sex-matched healthy controls.
Eight 2D DIGE gels from pH 4-7 and 6-9 were analysed with eight study pools of 36 idiopathic PD patients and 36 age-matched controls. Duplicates of these pools were made by labelling with the dyes Cy 3 and Cy 5. Additionally a fourth pool of patients and controls was added to this analysis. These new pools consisted only of three patients and controls. Even with such a small count of subjects it was possible to confirm the same disease-related changes in protein expression.
2.4.2 Protein Identifications by Mass Spectrometry from Parkinson-Related Protein Spots
Protein spots in the pH gradient 4-7 and 6-9 were identified, from the eight pools described in 2.41, by mass spectrometry as indicated in Table 2.
The experiments detailed herein indicate that the proteins identified in Tables 1 and 2 are useful markers for the presence of, or risk of Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease, respectively.
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 0512401.1 | Jun 2005 | GB | national |
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/GB2006/002229 | 6/19/2006 | WO | 00 | 8/18/2008 |
