Patent Application
20110249783
The present invention relates to a process for producing energy by nuclear reactions between a metal and hydrogen that is adsorbed on the crystalline structure of the metal. Furthermore, the invention relates to an energy generator that carries out such reactions.
A method for producing heat by nuclear reactions caused by hydrogen that is adsorbed on a Nickel active core has been described in WO95/20316, in the name of Piantelli et. al. Improvements of the process are described in Focardi, Gabbani, Montalbano, Piantelli, Veronesi, “Large excess heat production in Ni—H systems”, in II Nuovo Cimento, vol. IIIA, N.11, November 1998, and bibliography therein.
A problem that was observed during the experiments was the preparation of the cores on which hydrogen had to be adsorbed and the reactions had to be carried out; such cores were made of Nickel and had the shape of small bars.
One of the various critical aspects of the process was the choice of a suitable method for adsorbing hydrogen and the quality of the hydrogen matter, as well as the repeatability of the triggering conditions of the process.
Other critical aspects were how to clean the small bar before the adsorption of the hydrogen, as well as how to optimize the optimal bar surface conditions and the method for triggering and shutting down the reactions.
Due to such problems, the set up of the process and its industrial exploitation turned out to be somewhat difficult.
A further critical aspect is the core sizing and design to attain a desired power.
In DE4024515 a process is described for obtaining energy from the nuclear fusion of hydrogen isotopes, in which the atoms are brought into contact with clusters that contains from three to one hundred thousand atoms of a transition metal, and in which the clusters are obtained by cooling finely subdivided metal particles.
It is therefore a feature of the present invention to provide a method for producing energy by nuclear reactions of hydrogen that is adsorbed in a crystalline structure of a metal, which ensures repeatability of the triggering conditions of the reactions.
It is, furthermore, a feature of the present invention to provide such a method for industrially making the precursors of the active cores, and for industrially adsorbing hydrogen in them.
It is another feature of the present invention to provide an energy generator that effects the above described nuclear reactions, whose production rate and size are also such that an industrial production is allowed.
It is similarly a feature of the present invention to provide such a generator, is which allows easily adjusting the output power.
It is a further feature of the present invention to provide such a generator, which can be easily shut down.
These and other features are accomplished by a method for producing energy by nuclear reactions between hydrogen and a metal, said method providing the steps of:
prearranging a determined quantity of crystals of a transition metal, said crystals arranged as micro/nanometric clusters that have a predetermined crystalline structure, each of said clusters having a number of atoms of said transition metal which is less than a predetermined number of atoms;
bringing hydrogen into contact with said clusters;
heating said determined quantity of clusters up to an adsorption temperature larger than a predetermined critical temperature, that is adapted to cause an adsorption into said clusters of said hydrogen as H− ions, said hydrogen as H− ions remaining available for said nuclear reactions within said active core after said heating step;
triggering said nuclear reactions between said hydrogen as H− ions and said metal within said clusters by an impulsive action exerted on said active core that causes said H− ions to be captured into respective atoms of said clusters, said succession of reactions causing a production of heat;
removing said heat from said active core maintaining the temperature of said active core above said critical temperature, said step of removing said heat carried out according to a predetermined power.
Advantageously, said step of prearranging is carried out in such a way that said determined quantity of crystals of said transition metal in the form of micro/nanometric clusters is proportional to said power.
The number of atoms that form each cluster is the variable through which the predetermined power can be obtained from an active core that comprises a predetermined amount of metal. In fact, each cluster is a site where a reaction takes place, therefore the power that can be obtained is substantially independent from the clusters size, i.e. from the number of atoms that form the cluster.
In particular, the number of atoms of the clusters is selected from a group of numbers that are known for giving rise to structures that are more stable than other aggregates that comprise a different number of atoms. Such stability is a condition to attain a high reactivity of the clusters with respect to hydrogen to give H− ions. For instance, a stability function has been identified for Nickel, which depends upon the number of atoms that form the clusters, obtaining specific stability peaks that correspond to that particular numbers.
The hydrogen that is used in the method can be natural hydrogen, i.e., in particular, hydrogen that contains deuterium with an isotopic abundance substantially equal to 0.015%. Alternatively, such hydrogen can be hydrogen with a deuterium content which is distinct from that above indicated, and/or hydrogen with a significant tritium content.
Preferably, the hydrogen in use is molecular hydrogen H2; alternatively, the hydrogen is preliminarily ionized as H−, or it can be a mixture that contains H− and H2.
The transition metal can be selected from the group comprised of: Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Pd, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, lanthanoids, actinoids. Such metals belong to one of the four transition groups, i.e.:
metals that have a partially filled 3d-shell, e.g. Nickel;
metals that have a partially filled 4d-shell, e.g. Rhodium;
metals that have a partially filled 5d-shell, i.e. the “rare earths” or lanthanoids, e.g. Cerium;
metals that have a partially filled 5d-shell, i.e. the actinonoids, e.g. Thorium.
The metal in use can also be an alloy of two or more than two of the above listed metals.
Among the listed transition metals, or their alloys, the ones are preferred those that crystallize with a crystalline structure selected from the group comprised of:
face-centred cubic crystalline structure;
body-centred cubic crystalline structure;
compact hexagonal structure.
Advantageously, metals are used that have a crystalline open face is structure, in order to assist the H− ions adsorption into the clusters.
Preferably, said transition metal is Nickel. In particular, said Nickel is selected from the group comprised of:
natural Nickel, i.e. a mixture of isotopes like Nickel 58, Nickel 60, Nickel 61, Nickel 62, Nickel 64;
a Nickel that contains only one isotope, said isotope selected from the group comprised of:
Nickel 58;
Nickel 60
Nickel 61;
Nickel 62;
Nickel 64;
a formulation comprising at least two of such isotopes at a desired proportion.
The H− ions can be obtained by treating, under particular operative conditions, hydrogen H2 molecules that have been previously adsorbed on said transition metal surface, where the semi-free valence electrons form a plasma. In particular, a heating is needed to cause lattice vibrations, i.e. phonons, whose energy is higher than a first activation energy threshold, through non-linear and anharmonic phenomena. In such conditions, the following events can occur:
a dissociation of the hydrogen molecules that is adsorbed on the surface;
an interaction with valence electrons of the metal, and formation of H− ions;
an adsorption of the H− ions into the clusters, in particular the clusters that form the two or three crystal layers that are most close to the surface. The H− ions can just physically interact with the metal, or can chemically bond with it, in which case hydrides can be formed.
The H− ions can also be adsorbed into the lattice interstices, but
adsorption at the grain edges, by trapping the ions into the lattice defects;
replacement of an atom of the metal of a clusters may also occur.
After such adsorption step, the H− ions interact with the atoms of the clusters, provided that a second activation threshold is exceeded, which is higher than the first threshold. By exceeding this second threshold, in accordance with the Pauli exclusion principle and with the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, the conditions are created for replacing electrons of metal atoms with H− ions, and, accordingly, for forming metal-hydrogen complex atoms. This event can take place due to the fermion nature of H− ion; however, since H− ions have a mass 1838 times larger than an electron mass, they tend towards deeper layers, and cause an emission of Auger electrons and of X rays. Subsequently, since the H− ion Bohr radius is comparable with the metal core radius, the H− ions can be captured by the metal core, causing a structural reorganization and freeing energy by mass defect; the H− ions can now be expelled as protons, and can generate nuclear reactions with the neighbouring cores.
More in detail, the complex atom that has formed by the metal atom capturing the H− ion, in the full respect of the energy conservation principle, of the Pauli exclusion principle, and of the Heisenberg uncertainty principle, is forced towards an excited status, therefore it reorganizes itself by the migration of the H− ion towards deeper orbitals or levels, i.e. towards a minimum energy state, thus emitting Auger electrons and X rays during the level changes. The H− ion falls into a potential hole and concentrates the energy which was previously distributed upon a volume whose radius is about 10−12 m into a smaller volume whose radius is about 5×10−15 m. At the end of the process, the H− ion is at a distance from the core that is comparable with the nuclear radius; in fact in the fundamental status of the complex atom that is formed by adding the H− ion, due to its mass that is far greater the mass of the electron, the H− ion is forced to stay at such deep level at a distance from the core that is comparable with the nuclear radius, in accordance with Bohr radius calculation. As above stated, owing to the short distance from the core, a process is triggered in which the H− ion is captured by the core, with a structural reorganization and energy release by mass defect, similarly to what happens in the case of electron capture with structural reorganization and energy release by mass defect or in case of loss of two electrons, due to their intrinsic instability, during the fall process towards the lowest layers, and eventually an expulsion of the the H− ion takes place as a proton, as experimentally detected in the cloud chamber, and nuclear reactions can occur with other neighbouring cores, said reactions detected as transmutations on the active core after the production of energy.
According to the above, the actual process cannot be considered as a fusion process of hydrogen atoms, in particular of particular hydrogen isotopes atoms; instead, the process has to be understood as an interaction of a transition metal and hydrogen in general, in its particular form of H− ion.
Advantageously, said predetermined number of said transition metal atoms of said clusters is such that a portion of material of said transition metal in the form of clusters or without clusters shows a transition of a physical property of said metal, said property selected from the group comprised of:
thermal conductivity;
electric conductivity;
refraction index.
The micro/nanometric clusters structure is a requirement for producing H− ions and for the above cited orbital and nuclear capture processes. For each transition metal, a critical number of atoms can be identified below which a level discrete structure (electronic density, functional of the electronic density and Kohn-Sham effective potential) and Pauli antisymmetry, tend to prevail over a band structure according to Thomas-Fermi approach. The discrete levels structure is at the origin of the main properties of the clusters, some of which have been cited above. Such features can be advantageously used for aqnalysing the nature of the surface, i.e. for establishing whether clusters are present or not.
In particular said step of preparing a determined quantity of micro/nanometric clusters comprises a step of depositing a predetermined amount of said transition metal in the form of micro/nanometric clusters on a surface of a substrate, i.e. a solid body that has a predetermined volume and a predetermined shape, wherein said substrate surface contains at least 109 clusters per square centimetre.
The step of prearranging a determined quantity of clusters can also provide a step of sintering said determined quantity of micro/nanometric clusters, said sintering preserving the crystalline structure and preserving substantially the size of said clusters.
The step of preparing the determined quantity of clusters can provide collecting a powder of clusters into a container, i.e. collecting a determined quantity of clusters or aggregation of loose clusters.
Preferably, said substrate contains in its surface at least 1010 clusters per square centimetre, in particular at least 1011 clusters per square centimetre, more in particular at least 1012 clusters per square centimetre.
Preferably, said clusters form on said substrate a thin layer of said metal, whose thickness is lower than 1 micron; in particular such thickness is of the same magnitude of the lattice of the crystalline structure of the transition metal. In fact, the core activation by adsorption of the H− ions into the clusters concerns only a few surface crystal layers.
In particular said step of depositing said transition metal is effected by a process of physical deposition of vapours of said metal.
Said process of depositing can be a process of sputtering, in which the substrate receives under vacuum a determined amount of the metal in the form of atoms that are emitted by a body that is bombarded by a beam of particles.
Alternatively, the process of depositing can comprise an evaporation step or a thermal sublimation step and a subsequent condensation step in which the metal condensates onto said substrate.
Alternatively, the process of depositing can be performed by means of an epitaxial deposition, in which the deposit attains a crystalline structure that is similar to the structure of the substrate, thus allowing the control of such parameters.
The transition metal can be deposited also by a process of spraying.
Alternatively, the step of depositing the transition metal can provide a step of heating the metal up to a temperature that is close to the melting point of the metal, followed by a step of slow cooling. Preferably, the slow cooling proceeds up to an average core temperature of about 600° C.
The step of depositing the metal is followed by a step of quickly cooling the substrate and the transition metal as deposited, in order to cause a “freezing” of the metal in the form of clusters that have a predetermined crystalline structure.
In particular said quickly cooling occurs by causing a current of hydrogen to flow in a vicinity of said transition metal as deposited on said substrate, said current having a predetermined temperature that is lower than the temperature of said substrate.
Advantageously, said step of bringing hydrogen into contact with said clusters is preceded by a step of cleaning said substrate. In particular, said step of cleaning is made by applying a vacuum of at least 10−9 bar at a temperature set between 350° C. and 500° C. for a predetermined time.
Advantageously, said vacuum is applied according to a predetermined number, preferably not less than 10, of vacuum cycles and subsequent restoration of a substantially atmospheric pressure of hydrogen. This way, it is possible to quantitatively remove the gas adsorbed within the metal, in particular the gas which is adsorbed in the metal of the active core. In fact, such gas drastically reduces the interaction between the plasma of valence electrons and the hydrogen ions, and can limit or avoid the adsorption of the hydrogen in the clusters, even if an initial adsorption has occurred on the metal surface. If the substrate and the deposited metal are exposed to a temperature that is significantly above 500° C., the cluster structure can be irremediably damaged.
Advantageously, during said step of bringing hydrogen into contact with said clusters, said hydrogen has a partial pressure set between 0.001 millibar and 10 bar, in particular set between 1 millibar and 2 bar, in order to ensure an optimal number of hits between the surface of said clusters and the hydrogen molecules: in fact, an excessive pressure increases the frequency of the hits, such that it can cause surface desorption, as well as other parasitic phenomena.
Advantageously, during said step of bringing hydrogen into contact with said clusters, the hydrogen flows with a speed less than 3 m/s. Said hydrogen flows preferably according to a direction that is substantially parallel to the surface of said clusters. In such condition, the hits between the hydrogen molecules and the metal substrate occur according to small impact angles, which assist the adsorption on the surface of the clusters and prevents re-emission phenomena in the subsequent steps of H− ions formation.
Advantageously, said step of creating an active core by hydrogen adsorption into said clusters is carried out at a temperature that is close to a temperature at which a sliding of the reticular planes of the transition metal, said temperature at which a sliding occurs is set between the respective temperatures that correspond to the absorption peaks α and β.
Advantageously, the concentration of H− ions with respect to the transition metal atoms of said clusters is larger than 0.01, to improve the efficiency of the energy production process. In particular, this concentration is larger than 0.08.
Advantageously, after said step of creating an active core by adsorbing hydrogen into said clusters a step is provided of cooling said active core down to the room temperature, and said step of triggering a succession of nuclear reactions provides a quick rise of the temperature of said active core from said room temperature to said temperature which is higher than said predetermined critical temperature. In particular, said quick temperature rise takes place in a time that is shorter than five minutes.
The critical temperature is normally set between 100 and 450° C., more often between 200 and 450° C. More in detail, the critical temperature is larger than the Debye temperature of said metal.
In particular, said step of triggering said nuclear reactions provides an impulsive triggering action selected from the group comprised of:
a thermal shock, in particular caused by a flow of a gas, in particular of hydrogen, which has a predetermined temperature that is lower than the active core temperature;
a mechanical impulse, in particular a mechanical impulse whose duration is less than 1/10 of second;
an ultrasonic impulse, in particular an ultrasonic impulse whose frequency is set between 20 and 40 kHz;
a laser ray that is impulsively cast onto said active core;
an impulsive application of a package of electromagnetic fields, in particular said fields selected from the group comprised of: a radiofrequency pulse whose frequency is larger than 1 kHz; X rays; y rays;
an electrostriction impulse that is generated by an impulsive electric current that flows through an electrostrictive portion of said active core;
an impulsive application of a beam of elementary particles; in particular, such elementary particles selected from the group comprised of electrons, protons and neutrons;
an impulsive application of a beam of ions of elements, in particular of ions of one or more transition metals, said elements selected from a group that excludes O; Ar; Ne; Kr; Rn; N; Xe.
an electric voltage impulse that is applied between two points of a piezoelectric portion of said active core;
an impulsive magnetostriction that is generated by a magnetic field pulse along said active core which has a magnetostrictive portion.
Such impulsive triggering action generates lattice vibrations, i.e. phonons, whose amplitude is such that the H− ions can exceed the second activation threshold thus creating the conditions that are required for replacing electrons of atoms of the metal, to form temporary metal-hydrogen complex ions.
Preferably, said step of triggering said nuclear reactions is associated with a step of creating a gradient, i.e. a temperature difference, between two points of said active core. This gradient is preferably set between 100° C. and 300° C. This enhances the conditions for anharmonic lattice motions, which is at the basis of the mechanism by which H− ions are produced.
Advantageously, a step is provided of modulating said energy that is delivered by said nuclear reactions.
In particular, said step of modulating comprises removing and/or adding active cores or active core portions from/to a generation chamber which contains one or more active cores during said step of removing said heat.
Said step of modulating comprises a step of approaching/spacing apart sheets of said transition metal which form said active core in the presence of an hydrogen flow.
The step of modulating can furthermore be actuated by absorption protons and alpha particles in lamina-shaped absorbers that are arranged between sheets of said transition metal which form said active core. The density of such emissions is an essential feature for adjusting said power.
Advantageously, a step is provided of shutting down said nuclear reactions in the active core, that comprises an action selected from the group comprised of:
a further mechanical impulse;
cooling said active core below a predetermined temperature, in particular below said predetermined critical temperature;
a gas flow, in particular an Argon flow, on said active core.
In particular, said step of shutting down said nuclear reactions can comprise lowering the heat exchange fluid inlet temperature below said critical temperature.
Advantageously, said succession of reactions with production of heat is carried out in the presence of a predetermined sector selected from the group comprised of:
a magnetic induction field whose intensity is set between 1 Gauss and 70000 Gauss;
an electric field whose intensity is set between 1 V/m and 300000 V/m.
The objects of the invention are also achieved by an energy generator that is obtained from a succession of nuclear reactions between hydrogen and a metal, wherein said metal is a transition metal, said generator comprising:
an active core that comprises a predetermined amount of said transition metal;
a generation chamber that in use contains said active core;
a means for heating said active core within said generation chamber up to a temperature that is higher than a predetermined critical temperature;
a means for triggering said nuclear reaction between said transition metal and said hydrogen;
a means for removing from said generation chamber the heat that is developed during said reaction in said active core according to a determined power;
the main feature of said generator is that:
said active core comprises a determined quantity of crystals of said transition metal, said crystals being micro/nanometric clusters that have a predetermined crystalline structure according to said transition metal, each of said clusters having a number of atoms of said transition metal that is less than a predetermined number of atoms.
Advantageously, said determined quantity of crystals of said transition metal in the form of micro/nanometric clusters is proportional to said power.
Advantageously, said clusters contain hydrogen that is adsorbed as H− ions.
Preferably, said means for heating said active core comprises an electric resistance in which, in use an electric current flows.
In particular, said active core comprises a substrate, i.e. a solid body that has a predetermined volume and a predetermined shape, on whose surface said determined quantity of micro/nanometric clusters of said transition metal is deposited, for at least 109 clusters per square centimetre, preferably at least 1010 clusters per square centimetre, in particular at least 1011 clusters per square centimetre, more in particular at least 1012 clusters per square centimetre.
Advantageously, said active core has an extended surface, i.e. a surface whose area is larger than the area of a convex envelope of said active core, in particular an area A and a volume V occupied by said active core with respect to a condition selected from the group comprised of:
A/V>12/L, in particular A/V>100/L;
A/V>500 m2/m3,
where L is a size of encumbrance of said active core, said extended surface in particular obtained using as substrate a body that is permeable to said hydrogen, said body preferably selected from the group comprised of:
a package of sheets of said transition metal, each sheet having at least one face available for adsorbing said hydrogen, in particular a face that comprises an extended surface;
an aggregate obtained by sintering particles of whichever shape, in particular balls, cylinders, prisms, bars, laminas, normally said particles having nano- or micrometric granulometry, said particles defining porosities of said active core;
an aggregate obtained by sintering micro/nanometric clusters of said transition metal;
a powder of clusters collected within a container, said convex envelope limited by a container of said powder, for example a container made of ceramic.
Preferably, said transition metal is selected from the group comprised of: Sc, Ti, V, Cr, Mn, Fe, Co, Ni, Zn, Y, Zr, Nb, Pd, Mo, Tc, Ru, Rh, Ag, Cd, Lu, Hf, Ta, W, Re, Os, Ir, Pt, Au, lanthanoids, actinoids, an alloy of two or more than two of the above listed metals; in particular said Nickel is selected from the group comprised of:
natural Nickel, i.e. a mixture of isotopes like Nickel 58, Nickel 60, Nickel 61, Nickel 62, Nickel 64;
a Nickel that contains only one isotope, said isotope selected from the group comprised of:
Nickel 58;
Nickel 60
Nickel 61;
Nickel 62;
Nickel 64;
a formulation comprising at least two of such isotopes at a desired proportion.
Said means for triggering can be:
a means for creating a thermal shock in said active core, in particular by means of a flow of hydrogen that is kept at a predetermined temperature lower than the temperature of the active core;
a means for creating a mechanical impulse, in particular an impulse that lasts less than 1/10 of second;
a means for creating an ultrasonic impulse;
a means for casting a laser ray impulse onto said active core;
a means for impulsively applying a package of electromagnetic fields, in particular said fields selected from the group comprised of: a radiofrequency pulse whose frequency is larger than 1 kHz; X rays; y rays;
a means for creating an impulsive electric current through an electrostrictive portion of said active core,
a means for applying an electric voltage impulse between two points of a piezoelectric portion of said active core;
a means for impulsively applying a beam of elementary particles in particular said particles selected among: electrons; protons; neutrons;
a means for impulsively applying a beam of ions of elements, in particular of ions of one or more transition metals, said elements selected from a group that excludes O; Ar; Ne; Kr; Rn; N; Xe.
a means for applying a magnetic field impulse along said active core that has a magnetostrictive portion.
Preferably, a means is associated with said means for triggering that is adapted to create a gradient, i.e. a temperature difference between two points of said active core, in particular said temperature difference set between 100° C. and 300° C.
Preferably, said active core is arranged in use at a distance less than 2 mm from an inner wall of said generation chamber. This way, the production of H− ions is enhanced, since this distance is comparable with the mean free path of the hydrogen molecules at the working temperature and the working pressure.
Advantageously, said generator comprises a means for modulating said energy that is released by said nuclear reactions.
Said means for modulating can comprise a means for removing/adding active cores or active core portions from/into said generation chamber.
In particular, said active core comprises a set of thin sheets, preferably said thin sheets having a thickness that is less than one micron, that are arranged facing one another and said means for modulating comprises a structure that is adapted to approach and/or to space apart said sheets while a hydrogen flow is modulated that flows in a vicinity of said core.
Still in the case of an active core which comprises sheets that are arranged adjacent to one another, said means for modulating can comprise lamina-shaped absorbers that are arranged between the sheets of said transition metal which form said active core, said absorbers adapted to absorb protons and alpha particles that are emitted by the active core during the reactions.
Advantageously, said generator comprises furthermore a means for shutting down said reaction in the active core.
In particular, said means for shutting down are selected from the group comprised of:
a means for creating a further mechanical impulse;
a means for cooling said core below a predetermined temperature value, in particular below said predetermined critical temperature;
a means for conveying a gas, in particular Argon, on said active core.
In particular, said active core comprises a set of thin sheets, preferably said sheets having a thickness that is less than one micron, said sheets arranged facing one another and said means for modulating provided by said structure and by said absorbers.
Advantageously, said generator comprises a means for creating a predetermined field at said active core, said field selected from the group comprised of:
a magnetic induction field whose intensity is set between 1 Gauss and 70000 Gauss;
an electric field whose intensity is set between 1 V/m and 300000 V/m. Advantageously, said generator comprises a section for producing a determined quantity of clusters on a solid substrate, said section comprising:
a clusters preparation chamber;
a means for loading said substrate in said clusters preparation chamber;
a means for creating and maintaining vacuum conditions about said substrate within said clusters preparation chamber, in particular a means for creating and maintaining a residual pressure equal or less than 10−9 bar;
a means for heating and keeping said substrate at a high temperature in said clusters preparation chamber, in particular a means for bringing and keeping said substrate at a temperature set between 350° C. and 500° C. when the residual pressure is equal or less than 10−9 bar;
a means for depositing said transition metal on said substrate, preferably by a technique selected from the group comprised of:
a means for quickly cooling said substrate and said transition metal, such that said transition metal is frozen as clusters that have said crystalline structure.
Advantageously, said section for producing a determined quantity of clusters comprises a means for detecting a transition of a physical property during said step of depositing, in particular of a physical property selected from the group comprised of:
thermal conductivity;
electric conductivity;
refraction index. said transition occurring when said predetermined number of atoms of said Is transition metal in a growing cluster is exceeded.
Advantageously, said section for producing a determined quantity of clusters comprises a means for detecting a clusters surface density, i.e. a mean number of clusters in one square centimetre of said surface during said step of depositing.
Preferably, said section for producing a determined quantity of clusters comprises a concentration control means for controlling the H− ions concentration with respect to the transition metal atoms of said clusters.
Preferably, said section for producing a determined quantity of clusters comprises a thickness control means for controlling the thickness of a layer of said clusters, in order to ensure that said thickness is set between 1 nanometre and 1 micron.
Advantageously, said generator comprises a section for producing an active core, said section for producing an active core comprising:
a hydrogen treatment chamber that is distinct from said generation chamber;
a means for loading said determined quantity of clusters in said treatment chamber;
a means for heating said determined quantity of clusters in said hydrogen treatment chamber up to a temperature that is higher than a predetermined critical temperature;
a means for causing said hydrogen to flow within said hydrogen treatment chamber, said hydrogen having a predetermined partial pressure, in particular a partial pressure set between 0.001 millibar and 10 bar, more in particular between 1 millibar and 2 bar;
means for transferring said active core from said hydrogen treatment chamber into said generation chamber.
Preferably, said means for causing said hydrogen to flow are such that said hydrogen flows according to a direction that is substantially parallel to an exposed surface of said substrate, In particular, said hydrogen having a speed that is less than 3 m/s.
Advantageously, said section for producing an active core comprises a means for cooling down to room temperature said prepared active core, and said means for heating said active core within said generation chamber are adapted to heat said active core up to said predetermined temperature which is set between 100 and 450° C. in a time less than five minutes.
In particular, said quickly cooling in said clusters preparation chamber and/or said cooling down to room temperature in said hydrogen treatment chamber is/are obtained by means of said hydrogen flow on said active core, said flow having a predetermined temperature that is lower than the temperature of said active core.
The objects of the invention are also achieved by an apparatus for producing energy that comprises:
a means for generating a substance in the vapour or gas state at a first predetermined pressure, said means for generating associated with a heat source;
a means for expanding said substance from said first pressure to a second predetermined pressure producing useful work;
a means for cooling said substance down to a predetermined temperature, in particular said predetermined temperature is less than the evaporation temperature of said substance in the vapour state;
a means for compressing said cooled substance back to said first pressure;
wherein said means are crossed in turn by a substantially fixed amount of said substance, said means for compressing feeding said means for generating; the main feature of this apparatus is that said heat source comprises an energy generator according to the invention as defined means above.
In particular, the above apparatus uses a closed Rankine cycle; advantageously, the thermodynamic fluid is an organic fluid that has a critical temperature and a critical pressure that are at least high as in the case of toluene, or of an ORC fluid, in particular of a fluid that is based on 1,1,1,3,3 pentafluoropropane, also known as HFC 245fa or simply as 245fa.
The invention will be made clearer with the following description of an exemplary embodiment thereof, exemplifying but not limitative, with reference to the attached drawings in which:
With reference to
The method provides then a treatment step 120 of the clusters with hydrogen 31, in which hydrogen 31 is brought into contact with surface 23 of the clusters 21, in order to obtain a population of molecules 33 of hydrogen that is adsorbed on surface 23, as shown in
The clusters 21 with the adsorbed hydrogen 37 in this form represent an active core that is available for nuclear reactions, which can be started place by a triggering step 140; such step consists of supplying an impulse of energy 26 that causes the capture 150 by an atom 38 of the clusters of the H− ions 37 adsorbed within the clusters, with a consequent exchange of an electron 42, as diagrammatically shown in
During the step 110 of prearranging clusters 21, the predetermined number of atoms of the transition metal of the clusters is controlled by observing a physical property of the transition metal, chosen for example between thermal conductivity, electric conductivity, refraction index. These physical quantities have a net transition, when the number of atoms of a crystal aggregate exceeds a critical number above which the aggregate looses the properties of a cluster. For each transition metal, in fact is a number of atoms detectable below which a discrete level structure according to Kohn-Sham tends to prevail over a band structure according to Thomas-Fermi, which is responsible of the main features that define the many features of the clusters, some of which properties are used for determining the nature of surface 23 during the step 110 of prearranging the clusters.
In
metals that have a partially filled 3d-shell, e.g. Nickel;
metals that have a partially filled 4d-shell, e.g. Rhodium;
metals that have a partially filled 5d-shell, i.e. the “rare earths” or lanthanoids, e.g. Cerium;
metals that have a partially filled 5d-shell, i.e. the actinonoids, e.g. Thorium. The particular electronic conformation of the transition metals allows in fact that the conditions of anharmonicity are created such that the wave vectors sum with each other of the phonons, which interfere at the surface of the metal that is also a surface of discontinuity, and a reticular fluctuation is generated that is both in spatial phase and in time phase within the clusters, and such that an energy “gap” is exceeded that is necessary to start a chain of processes whose final act is the orbital capture of the H− ion 37, as diagrammatically shown in
The clusters 21 (
face-centred cubic crystalline structure, fcc (110) (
body-centred cubic crystalline structure, bcc (111) (
compact hexagonal structure, hcp (1010) (
For example, the Nickel can crystallize according to the face-centred cubic structure shown in the perspective view of
In
The step of prearranging clusters 110, in case of an active core that is obtained by depositing a predetermined amount of said transition metal in the form of micro/nanometric clusters on a surface of a substrate, is shown with higher detail in the block diagram of
In
In any case, the step 120 of feeding hydrogen is carried out in order to provide a relative pressure between 0.001 millibar and 10 bar, preferably between 1 millibar and 2 bar, to ensure an optimal number of hits of the hydrogen molecules 31 against surface 23, avoiding in particular surface desorption and other undesired phenomena caused by excessive pressure; furthermore, the speed 32 of the hydrogen molecules 31 (
In
The critical temperature TD is normally set between 100 and 450° C., more preferably between 200 and 450° C.; hereafter the Debye temperature is indicated for some of the metals above indicated: Al 426K; Cd 186K; Cr 610K; Cu 344.5K; Au 165K; α-Fe 464K; Pb 96K; α-Mn 476K; Pt 240K; Si 640K; Ag 225K; Ta 240K; Sn 195K; Ti 420K; W 405K; Zn 300K.
Such impulsive triggering action generates lattice vibrations, or phonons, having an amplitude such that the H− ions can pass the second activation threshold and achieve the conditions necessary for replacing electrons of atoms of the metal, creating metal-hydrogen complex ions (
The orbital capture of the H− ions 37 is assisted by a gradient of temperature between two points of the active core, in particular set between 100° C. and 300° C., which has a trend like the example shown in
In
Generator 50, furthermore, comprises a means 61, 62, 67 for triggering the nuclear reaction, consisting of:
a means for producing an impulsive electric current through an electrostrictive portion of the active core;
a means for casting a laser impulse on the active core.
In
The device of
The foregoing description of a specific embodiment will so fully reveal the invention according to the conceptual point of view, so that others, by applying current knowledge, will be able to modify and/or adapt for various applications such an embodiment without further research and without parting from the invention, and it is therefore to be understood that such adaptations and modifications will have to be considered as equivalent to the specific embodiment. The means and the materials to realise the different functions described herein could have a different nature without, for this reason, departing from the field of the invention. It is to be understood that the phraseology or terminology employed herein is for the purpose of description and not of limitation.
| Number | Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| PI2008A000119 | Nov 2008 | IT | national |
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/IB2009/007549 | 11/24/2009 | WO | 00 | 5/13/2011 |
