Patent Application
20050209136
This invention relates to growth factors for cells expressing receptors to a novel growth factor that include endothelial cells, connective tissue cells (such as fibroblasts) myofibroblasts and glial cells, and in particular to a novel platelet-derived growth factorvascular endothelial growth factor-like growth factor, polynucleotide sequences encoding the factor, and to pharmaceutical and diagnostic compositions and methods utilizing the factor for stimulating connective tissue growth or promoting wound healing.
In the developing embryo, the primary vascular network is established by in situ differentiation of mesodermal cells in a process called vasculogenesis. It is believed that all subsequent processes involving the generation of new vessels in the embryo and neovascularization in adults, are governed by the sprouting or splitting of new capillaries from the pre-existing vasculature in a process called angiogenesis (Pepper et al., 1996, Enzyme & Protein, 49:38-162; Breier et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 204:228-239; Risau, 1997, Nature, 386:671-674). Angiogenesis is not only involved in embryonic development and normal tissue growth, repair, and regeneration, but is also involved in the female reproductive cycle, establishment and maintenance of pregnancy, and in repair of wounds and fractures. In addition to angiogenesis which takes place in the normal individual, angiogenic events are involved in a number of pathological processes, notably tumor growth and metastasis, and other conditions in which blood vessel proliferation, especially of the microvascular system, is increased, such as diabetic retinopathy, psoriasis and arthropathies. Inhibition of angiogenesis is useful in preventing or alleviating these pathological processes.
On the other hand, promotion of angiogenesis is desirable in situations where vascularization is to be established or extended, for example after tissue or organ transplantation, or to stimulate establishment of collateral circulation in tissue infarction or arterial stenosis, such as in coronary heart disease and thromboangitis obliterans.
The angiogenic process is highly complex and involves the maintenance of the endothelial cells in the cell cycle, degradation of the extracellular matrix, migration and invasion of the surrounding tissue and finally, tube formation. The molecular mechanisms underlying the complex angiogenic processes are far from being understood.
Because of the crucial role of angiogenesis in so many physiological and pathological processes, factors involved in the control of angiogenesis have been intensively investigated. A number of growth factors have been shown to be involved in the regulation of angiogenesis; these include fibroblast growth factors (FGFs), platelet-derived growth factor (PDGF), transforming growth factor alpha (TGFα), and hepatocyte growth factor (HGF). See for example Folkman et al., 1992, J. Biol. Chem., 267:10931-10934 for a review.
It has been suggested that a particular family of endothelial cell-specific growth factors, the vascular endothelial growth factors (VEGFs), and their corresponding receptors are primarily responsible for stimulation of endothelial cell growth and differentiation, and for certain functions of the differentiated cells. These factors are members of the PDGF family, and appear to act primarily via endothelial receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs).
Eight different proteins have been identified in the PDGF family, namely two PDGFs (A and B), VEGF and five members that are closely related to VEGF. The five members closely related to VEGF are: VEGF-B, described in International Patent Application PCTUS9602957 (WO 9626736) which corresponds to U.S. Pat. No. 5,928,939, and in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,840,693 and 5,607,918 to Ludwig Institute for Cancer Research and The University of Helsinki; VEGF-C or VEGF-2, described in Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290-298 and Lee et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:1988-1992, and U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,932,540, 5,935,820 and 6,040,157; VEGF-D, described in International Patent Application No. PCTUS9714696 (WO 9807832), and Achen et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:548-553; the placenta growth factor (PlGF), described in Maglione et al., 1991, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:9267-9271; and VEGF3, described in International Patent Application Nos. PCTUS9507283 (WO 9639421) and PCTUS9918054 (WO 0009148) by Human Genome Sciences, Inc. Each VEGF family member has between 30% and 45% amino acid sequence identity with VEGF. The VEGF family members share a VEGF homology domain which contains the six cysteine residues which form the cysteine knot motif. Functional characteristics of the VEGF family include varying degrees of mitogenicity for endothelial cells, induction of vascular permeability and angiogenic and lymphangiogenic properties.
Vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) is a homodimeric glycoprotein that has been isolated from several sources. VEGF shows highly specific mitogenic activity for endothelial cells. VEGF has important regulatory functions in the formation of new blood vessels during embryonic vasculogenesis and in angiogenesis during adult life (Carmeliet et al., 1996, Nature, 380:435-439; Ferrara et al., 1996, Nature, 380:439-442; reviewed in Ferrara and Davis-Smyth, 1997, Endocrine Rev., 18:4-25). The significance of the role played by VEGF has been demonstrated in studies showing that inactivation of a single VEGF allele results in embryonic lethality due to failed development of the vasculature (Carmeliet et al., 1996, Nature, 380:435-439; Ferrara et al., 1996, Nature, 380:439-442). In addition VEGF has strong chemoattractant activity towards monocytes, can induce the plasminogen activator and the plasminogen activator inhibitor in endothelial cells, and can also induce microvascular permeability. Because of the latter activity, it is sometimes referred to as vascular permeability factor (VPF). The isolation and properties of VEGF have been reviewed; see Ferrara et al., 1991, J. Cellular Biochem., 47:211-218 and Connolly, J., 1991, Cellular Biochem., 47:219-223. Alterative mRNA splicing of a single VEGF gene gives rise to five isoforms of VEGF.
VEGF-B has similar angiogenic and other properties to those of VEGF, but is distributed and expressed in tissues differently from VEGF. In particular, VEGF-B is very strongly expressed in heart, and only weakly in lung, whereas the reverse is the case for VEGF. This suggests that VEGF and VEGF-B, despite the fact that they are co-expressed in many tissues, may have functional differences.
VEGF-B was isolated using a yeast co-hybrid interaction trap screening technique by screening for cellular proteins which might interact with cellular retinoid acid-binding protein type I (CRABP-I). Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in PCTUS9602957 and in Olofsson et al., 1996, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:2576-2581.
VEGF-C was isolated from conditioned media of the PC-3 prostate adenocarcinoma cell line (CRL1435) by screening for ability of the medium to produce tyrosine phosphorylation of the endothelial cell-specific receptor tyrosine kinase VEGFR-3 (Flt4), using cells transfected to express VEGFR-3. VEGF-C was purified using affinity chromatography with recombinant VEGFR-3, and was cloned from a PC-3 cDNA library. Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290-298.
VEGF-D was isolated from a human breast cDNA library, commercially available from Clontech, by screening with an expressed sequence tag obtained from a human cDNA library designated “Soares Breast 3NbHBst” as a hybridization probe (Achen et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:548-553). Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in International Patent Application No. PCTUS9714696 (WO9807832).
The VEGF-D gene is broadly expressed in the adult human, but is certainly not ubiquitously expressed. VEGF-D is strongly expressed in heart, lung and skeletal muscle. Intermediate levels of VEGF-D are expressed in spleen, ovary, small intestine and colon, and a lower expression occurs in kidney, pancreas, thymus, prostate and testis. No VEGF-D mRNA was detected in RNA from brain, placenta, liver or peripheral blood leukocytes.
PlGF was isolated from a term placenta cDNA library. Its isolation and characteristics are described in detail in Maglione et al., 1991, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 88:9267-9271. Presently its biological function is not well understood.
VEGF3 was isolated from a cDNA library derived from colon tissue. VEGF3 is stated to have about 36% identity and 66% similarity to VEGF. The method of isolation of the gene encoding VEGF3 is unclear and no characterization of the biological activity is disclosed.
Similarity between two proteins is determined by comparing the amino acid sequence and conserved amino acid substitutions of one of the proteins to the sequence of the second protein, whereas identity is determined without including the conserved amino acid substitutions.
PDGFVEGF family members act primarily by binding to receptor tyrosine kinases. Five endothelial cell-specific receptor tyrosine kinases have been identified, namely VEGFR-1 (Flt-1), VEGFR-2 (KDRFlk-1), VEGFR-3 (Flt4), Tie and TekTie-2. All of these have the intrinsic tyrosine kinase activity which is necessary for signal transduction. The essential, specific role in vasculogenesis and angiogenesis of VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2, VEGFR-3, Tie and TekTie-2 has been demonstrated by targeted mutations inactivating these receptors in mouse embryos.
The only receptor tyrosine kinases known to bind VEGFs are VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3. VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 bind VEGF with high affinity, and VEGFR-1 also binds VEGF-B and PlGF. VEGF-C has been shown to be the ligand for VEGFR-3, and it also activates VEGFR-2 (Joukov et al., 1996, The EMBO Journal, 15:290-298). VEGF-D binds to both VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3. A ligand for TekTie-2 has been described in International Patent Application No. PCTUS9512935 (WO 9611269) by Regeneron Pharmaceuticals, Inc. The ligand for Tie has not yet been identified.
Recently, a novel 130-135 kDa VEGF isoform specific receptor has been purified and cloned (Soker et al., 1998, Cell, 92:735-745). The VEGF receptor was found to specifically bind the VEGF165 isoform via the exon 7 encoded sequence, which shows weak affinity for heparin (Soker et al., 1998, Cell, 92:735-745). Surprisingly, the receptor was shown to be identical to human neuropilin-1 (NP-1), a receptor involved in early stage neuromorphogenesis. PlGF-2 also appears to interact with NP-1 (Migdal et al., 1998, J. Biol. Chem., 273:22272-22278).
VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 are expressed differently by endothelial cells. Both VEGFR-1 and VEGFR-2 are expressed in blood vessel endothelia (Oelrichs et al., 1992, Oncogene, 8:11-18; Kaipainen et al., 1993, J. Exp. Med., 178:2077-2088; Dumont et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 203:80-92; Fong et al., 1996, Dev. Dyn., 207:1-10) and VEGFR-3 is mostly expressed in the lymphatic endothelium of adult tissues (Kaipainen et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 9:3566-3570). VEGFR-3 is also expressed in the blood vasculature surrounding tumors.
Disruption of the VEGFR genes results in aberrant development of the vasculature leading to embryonic lethality around midgestation. Analysis of embryos carrying a completely inactivated VEGFR-1 gene suggests that this receptor is required for functional organization of the endothelium (Fong et al., 1995, Nature, 376:66-70). However, deletion of the intracellular tyrosine kinase domain of VEGFR-1 generates viable mice with a normal vasculature (Hiratsuka et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 95:9349-9354). The reasons underlying these differences remain to be explained but suggest that receptor signalling via the tyrosine kinase is not required for the proper function of VEGFR-1. Analysis of homozygous mice with inactivated alleles of VEGFR-2 suggests that this receptor is required for endothelial cell proliferation, hematopoesis and vasculogenesis (Shalaby et al., 1995, Nature, 376:62-66; Shalaby et al., 1997, Cell, 89:981-990). Inactivation of VEGFR-3 results in cardiovascular failure due to abnormal organization of the large vessels (Dumont et al., 1998, Science, 282:946-949).
Although VEGFR-1 is mainly expressed in endothelial cells during development, it can also be found in hematopoetic precursor cells during early stages of embryogenesis (Fong et al., 1995, Nature, 376:66-70). It is also is expressed by most, if not all, vessels in embryos (Breier et al., 1995, Dev. Dyn., 204:228-239; Fong et al., 1996, Dev. Dyn., 207:1-10). In adults, monocytes and macrophages also express this receptor (Barleon et al., 1996, Blood, 87:3336-3343).
The receptor VEGFR-3 is widely expressed on endothelial cells during early embryonic development, but as embryogenesis proceeds, it becomes restricted to venous endothelium and then to the lymphatic endothelium (Kaipainen et al., 1994, Cancer Res., 54:6571-6577; Kaipainen et al., 1995, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 92:3566-3570). VEGFR-3 continues to be expressed on lymphatic endothelial cells in adults. This receptor is essential for vascular development during embryogenesis. Targeted inactivation of both copies of the VEGFR-3 gene in mice resulted in defective blood vessel formation characterized by abnormally organized large vessels with defective lumens, leading to fluid accumulation in the pericardial cavity and cardiovascular failure at post-coital day 9.5. On the basis of these findings it has been proposed that VEGFR-3 is required for the maturation of primary vascular networks into larger blood vessels. However, the role of VEGFR-3 in the development of the lymphatic vasculature could not be studied in these mice because the embryos died before the lymphatic system emerged. Nevertheless it is assumed that VEGFR-3 plays a role in development of the lymphatic vasculature and lymphangiogenesis given its specific expression in lymphatic endothelial cells during embryogenesis and adult life. This is supported by the finding that ectopic expression of VEGF-C, a ligand for VEGFR-3, in the skin of transgenic mice, resulted in lymphatic endothelial cell proliferation and vessel enlargement in the dermis. Furthermore this suggests that VEGF-C may have a primary function in lymphatic endothelium, and a secondary function in angiogenesis and permeability regulation which is shared with VEGF (Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J., 15:290-298).
Some inhibitors of the VEGFVEGF-receptor system have been shown to prevent tumor growth via an anti-angiogenic mechanism; see Kim et al., 1993, Nature, 362:841-844 and Saleh et al., 1996, Cancer Res., 56:393-401.
As mentioned above, the VEGF family of growth factors are members of the PDGF family. PDGF plays an important role in the growth andor motility of connective tissue cells, fibroblasts, myofibroblasts and glial cells (Heldin et al., “Structure of platelet-derived growth factor: Implications for functional properties”, 1993, Growth Factor, 8:245-252). In adults, PDGF stimulates wound healing (Robson et al., 1992, Lancet, 339:23-25). Structurally, PDGF isoforms are disulfide-bonded dimers of homologous A- and B-polypeptide chains, arranged as homodimers (PDGF-AA and PDGF-BB) or a heterodimer (PDGF-AB).
PDGF isoforms exert their effects on target cells by binding to two structurally related receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs). The alpha-receptor binds both the A- and B-chains of PDGF, whereas the beta-receptor binds only the B-chain. These two receptors are expressed by many cell lines grown in vitro, and are mainly expressed by mesenchymal cells in vivo. The PDGFs regulate cell proliferation, cell survival and chemotaxis of many cell types in vitro (reviewed in Heldin et al., 1998, Biochim Biophys Acta., 1378:F79-113). In vivo, they exert their effects in a paracrine mode since they often are expressed in epithelial (PDGF-A) or endothelial cells (PDGF-B) in close apposition to the PDGFR expressing mesenchyme. In tumor cells and in cell lines grown in vitro, coexpression of the PDGFs and the receptors generate autocrine loops which are important for cellular transformation (Betsholtz et al., 1984, Cell, 39:447-57; Keating et al., 1990, J. R. Coll Surg Edinb., 35:172-4). Overexpression of the PDGFs have been observed in several pathological conditions, including malignancies, arteriosclerosis, and fibroproliferative diseases (reviewed in Heldin et al., 1996, The Molecular and Cellular Biology of Wound Repair, New York: Plenum Press, 249-273).
The importance of the PDGFs as regulators of cell proliferation and survival are well illustrated by recent gene targeting studies in mice that have shown distinct physiological roles for the PDGFs and their receptors despite the overlapping ligand specificities of the PDGFRs. Homozygous null mutations for either of the two PDGF ligands or the receptors are lethal. Approximately 50% of the homozygous PDGF-A deficient mice have an early lethal phenotype, while the surviving animals have a complex postnatal phenotype with lung emphysema due to improper alveolar septum formation because of a lack of alveolar myofibroblasts (Bostrom et al., 1996, Cell, 85:863-873). The PDGF-A deficient mice also have a dermal phenotype characterized by thin dermis, misshapen hair follicles and thin hair (Karlsson et al., 1999, Development, 126:2611-2). PDGF-A is also required for normal development of oligodendrocytes and subsequent myelination of the central nervous system (Fruttiger et al., 1999, Development, 126:457-67). The phenotype of PDGFR-alpha deficient mice is more severe with early embryonic death at E10, incomplete cephalic closure, impaired neural crest development, cardiovascular defects, skeletal defects, and edemas (Soriano et al., 1997, Development, 124:2691-70). The PDGF-B and PDGFR-beta deficient mice develop similar phenotypes that are characterized by renal, hematological and cardiovascular abnormalities (Levéen et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1875-1887; Soriano et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1888-96; Lindahl et al., 1997, Science, 277:242-5; Lindahl, 1998, Development, 125:3313-2), where the renal and cardiovascular defects, at least in part, are due to the lack of proper recruitment of mural cells (vascular smooth muscle cells, pericytes or mesangial cells) to blood vessels (Levéen et al., 1994, Genes Dev., 8:1875-1887; Lindahl et al., 1997, Science, 277:242-5; Lindahl et al., 1998, Development, 125:3313-2).
Most recently, an additional member of the PDGFVEGF family of growth factors was identified, PDGF-C. PDGF-C is described in International Patent Application PCTUS9922668 (WO 0018212), filed Sep. 30, 1999. PDGF-C has a two-domain structure not previously recognized within this family of growth factors, a N-terminal C1rC1sembryonic sea urchin protein Uegfbone morphogenetic protein 1 (CUB) domain, and a C-terminal PDGFVEGF homology domain (PVHD). The structure of the PVHD in PDGF-C shows a low overall sequence identity with other PDGFVEGF homology domains, although the eight invariant cysteine residues involved in inter- and intra-molecular disulfide bond formation are present. The cysteine spacing in the central, most conserved region of this domain is different from other PDGFVEGF domains, with an insertion of three amino acid residues. Despite the fact that the insertion occurs close to the loop 2 region which has been proposed to be involved in receptor binding, it was shown that this domain of PDGF-CC binds PDGFR-alpha with almost identical affinities as homodimers of PDGF-A or -B chains. In addition, four extra cysteine residues are present in this domain. Full length and truncated PDGF-CC were found not to bind to VEGFR-1, -2 or -3, or to PDGFR-beta.
PDGF-C requires proteolytic removal of the N-terminal CUB domain for receptor binding and activation of the receptor. This indicates that the CUB domains are likely to sterically block the receptor binding epitopes of the unprocessed dimer. The in vitro and in vivo proteolytically processed proteins are devoid of N-terminal portions corresponding to more than 14-16 kDa as determined from SDS-PAGE analysis which is consistent with a loss of the 110 amino acid long CUB domain and a part of the hinge region between the CUB and core domains that vary in length.
PDGF-C is not proteolytically processed during secretion in transfected COS cells indicating that proteolytic removal of the CUB domain occurs extracellularly, and not during secretion. This is in contrast to PDGF-A and -B (Östman et al., 1992, J. Cell. Biol., 118:509-519) which appear to be processed intracellularly by furin-like endoproteases (Nakayama et al., 1997, Biochem J., 327:625-635).
Northern blots show PDGF-C mRNA in a variety of human tissues, including heart, liver, kidney, pancreas and ovary.
In situ localization studies demonstrate expression of PDGF-C in certain epithelial structures, and PDGFR-alpha in adjacent mesenchyme, indicating the potential of paracrine signaling in the developing embryo. PDGF-C expression seems particularly abundant at sites of ongoing ductal morphogenesis, indicating a role of the factor in connective tissue remodeling at these sites. The expression pattern is distinct from that of PDGF-A or PDGF-B indicating that the three growth factors have different roles despite their similar PDGFR-alpha binding and signaling activities. This is illustrated by the mouse embryonic kidney, in which PDGF-C is expressed in early aggregates of metanephric mesenchyme undergoing epithelial conversion, whereas PDGF-A is expressed in more mature tubular structures, and PDGF-B by vascular endothelial cells. PDGFR-alpha is expressed in the mesenchyme of the kidney cortex, adjacent to the sites of PDGF-C expression, indicating that this mesenchyme may be targeted specifically by PDGF-C. Indeed, PDGFR-alpha −− mouse embryos show an extensive loss of the cortical mesenchyme adjacent to sites of PDGF-C expression, not seen in PDGF-A −− mice or in PDGF-AB −− mice, indicating that PDGF-C has an essential role in the development of kidney mesenchyme.
The invention generally provides an isolated novel growth factor, PDGF-D, a polypeptide that has the ability to stimulate, or enhance, or both, one or more of proliferation, differentiation, growth, and motility of cells expressing a PDGF-D receptor. The cells affected by the inventive growth factor include, but are not limited to, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells, myofibroblasts and glial cells. The invention also provides isolated polynucleotide molecules encoding the novel growth factor, and compositions useful for diagnostic andor therapeutic applications.
According to one aspect, the invention provides an isolated nucleic acid molecule which comprises a polynucleotide sequence having at least 85% identity, more preferably at least 90%, and still more preferably at least 95% identity, and most preferably at 100% identity to at least nucleotides 1 to 600 of the sequence set out SEQ ID NO:3, at least nucleotides 1 to 966 of the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:5, at least nucleotides 176 to 1285 of the sequence set out in SEQ ID NO:7, at least nucleotides 935 to 1285 set out in SEQ ID NO:7, at least nucleotides 1 to 1110 of SEQ ID NO:35, at least nucleotides 1-1092 of SEQ ID NO:37, or SEQ ID NO:39. The sequence of at least nucleotides 1 to 600 of the sequence set out in
PDGF-D is structurally homologous to PDGF-A, PDGF-B, VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C and VEGF-D. The sequence of at least nucleotides 935 to 1285 set out in
According to a second aspect, the PDGF-D polypeptide of the invention has the ability to stimulate andor enhance proliferation andor differentiation andor growth andor motility of cells expressing a PDGF-D receptor including, but not limited to, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells, myofibroblasts and glial cells and comprises a sequence of amino acids having at least 85% identity, more preferably at least 90%, and still more preferably at least 95% identity, and most preferably at 100% identity to the amino acid sequence set out in SEQ ID NOs:4, 6, 8, 36, 38 or 40, or a fragment or analog thereof which has PDGF-D activity.
A preferred fragment is a truncated form of PDGF-D comprising a portion of the PDGFVEGF homology domain (PVHD) of PDGF-D. The portion of the PVHD is from residues 254-370 of
Another preferred fragment is a truncated form of PDGF-D comprising only the CUB domain, as exemplified by the sequence set forth in SEQ ID NO:40. There may exist PDGF-D receptors, other than PDGFR-beta, that bind to the unprocessed or un-cleaved factor (CUB+PDGF-homology domain). The CUB domain alone may bind to these receptors and would prevent activation of said receptors by blocking the receptors from binding to un-cleaved factors.
As used in this application, percent sequence identity is determined by using the alignment tool of “MEGALIGN” from the Lasergene package (DNASTAR, Ltd. Abacus House, Manor Road, West Ealing, London W130AS United Kingdom). The MEGALIGN is based on the J. Hein method (Methods in Enzymology, 1990 183 626-645). The PAM 250 residue weight table is used with a gap penalty of eleven and a gap length penalty of three and a K-tuple value of two in the pairwise alignments. The alignment is then refined manually, and the number of identities are estimated in the regions available for a comparison.
Preferably the polypeptide has the ability to stimulate one or more of proliferation, differentiation, motility, survival or vascular permeability of cells expressing a PDGF-D receptor including, but not limited to, vascular endothelial cells, lymphatic endothelial cells, connective tissue cells (such as fibroblasts), myofibroblasts and glial cells. Preferably the polypeptide has the ability to stimulate wound healing. PDGF-D also has antagonistic effects on cells. For example, an antagonistic PDGF-D variant would be a partial PDGF-D molecule containing one intact full-length chain and one processed chain as a disulphide-linked dimer. In principle such a molecule would be monovalent and bind to single PDGFR-beta receptors, but prevent their dimerization thereby blocking signal transduction. These antagonistic activities are also included in the biological activities of PDGF-D. Collectively, both the stimulating and antagonistic abilities are referred to hereinafter as “biological activities of PDGF-D” and can be readily tested by methods known in the art.
In another preferred aspect, the invention provides a polypeptide comprising an amino acid sequence:
which is unique to PDGF-D and differs from the other members of the PDGFVEGF family of growth factors because of the insertion of the three amino acid residues (NCG) between the third and fourth cysteines (see
Polypeptides comprising conservative substitutions, insertions, or deletions, but which still retain a biological activity of PDGF-D are within the scope of the invention. Persons skilled in the art will be well aware of methods which can readily be used to generate such polypeptides, for example the use of site-directed mutagenesis, or specific enzymatic cleavage and ligation. The skilled person will also be aware that peptidomimetic compounds or compounds in which one or more amino acid residues are replaced by a non-naturally occurring amino acid or an amino acid analog may retain the required aspects of the biological activity of PDGF-D. Such compounds can readily be made and tested for their ability to show the biological activity of PDGF-D by routine activity assay procedures such as the fibroblast proliferation assay and are also within the scope of the invention.
In addition, possible variant forms of the PDGF-D polypeptide which may result from alternative splicing, as are known to occur with VEGF and VEGF-B, and naturally-occurring allelic variants of the nucleic acid sequence encoding PDGF-D are within the scope of the invention. Examples of such a variant include the polypeptides set forth in SEQ ID NOs: 38 and 40. Allelic variants are well known in the art, and represent alternative forms or a nucleic acid sequence which comprise substitution, deletion or addition of one or more nucleotides, but which do not result in any substantial functional alteration of the encoded polypeptide.
Such variant forms of PDGF-D can be prepared by targeting non-essential regions of the PDGF-D polypeptide for modification. These non-essential regions are expected to fall outside the strongly-conserved regions indicated in
Persons ordinarily skilled in the art thus are well aware that these cysteine residues generally should be preserved and that the active sites present in loops 1, 2 and 3 also should be preserved. However, other regions of the molecule can be expected to be of lesser importance for biological function, and therefore offer suitable targets for modification. Modified polypeptides can readily be tested for their ability to show the biological activity of PDGF-D by routine activity assay procedures such as the fibroblast proliferation assay.
It is contemplated that some modified PDGF-D polypeptides will have the ability to bind to PDGF-D receptors on cells including, but not limited to, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells, myofibroblasts andor glial cells, but will be unable to stimulate cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, motility or survival or to induce vascular proliferation, connective tissue development or wound healing. These modified polypeptides are expected to be able to act as competitive or non-competitive inhibitors of the PDGF-D polypeptides and growth factors of the PDGFVEGF family, and to be useful in situations where prevention or reduction of the PDGF-D polypeptide or PDGFVEGF family growth factor action is desirable. Thus such receptor-binding but non-mitogenic, non-differentiation inducing, non-migration inducing, non-motility inducing, non-survival promoting, non-connective tissue promoting, non-wound healing or non-vascular proliferation inducing variants of the PDGF-D polypeptide are also within the scope of the invention, and are referred to herein as “receptor-binding but otherwise inactive variants.” Because PDGF-D forms a dimer in order to activate its only known receptor, it is contemplated that one monomer comprises the receptor-binding but otherwise inactive variant modified PDGF-D polypeptide and a second monomer comprises a wild-type PDGF-D or a wild-type growth factor of the PDGFVEGF family. These dimers can bind to its corresponding receptor but cannot induce downstream signaling.
It is also contemplated that there are other modified PDGF-D polypeptides that can prevent binding of a wild-type PDGF-D or a wild-type growth factor of the PDGFVEGF family to its corresponding receptor on cells including, but not limited to, endothelial cells, connective tissue cells (such as fibroblasts), myofibroblasts andor glial cells. Thus these dimers will be unable to stimulate endothelial cell proliferation, differentiation, migration, survival, or induce vascular permeability, andor stimulate proliferation andor differentiation andor motility of connective tissue cells, myofibroblasts or glial cells. These modified polypeptides are expected to be able to act as competitive or non-competitive inhibitors of the PDGF-D growth factor or a growth factor of the PDGFVEGF family, and to be useful in situations where prevention or reduction of the PDGF-D growth factor or PDGFVEGF family growth factor action is desirable. Such situations include the tissue remodeling that takes place during invasion of tumor cells into a normal cell population by primary or metastatic tumor formation. Thus such PDGF-D or PDGFVEGF family growth factor-binding but non-mitogenic, non-differentiation inducing, non-migration inducing, non-motility inducing, non-survival promoting, non-connective tissue promoting, non-wound healing or non-vascular proliferation inducing variants of the PDGF-D growth factor are also within the scope of the invention, and are referred to herein as “the PDGF-D growth factor-dimer forming but otherwise inactive or interfering variants.”
An example of a PDGF-D growth factor-dimer forming but otherwise inactive or interfering variant is where the PDGF-D has a mutation which prevents cleavage of CUB domain from the protein. It is further contemplated that a PDGF-D growth factor-dimer forming but otherwise inactive or interfering variant could be made to comprise a monomer, preferably a monomer whose own N-terminal CUB domain has been removed (hereinafter a “CUB-removed monomer”) of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C, PDGF-D or PlGF linked to a CUB domain that has a mutation which prevents cleavage of CUB domain from the protein. Dimers formed with the above mentioned PDGF-D growth factor-dimer forming but otherwise inactive or interfering variants and the monomers linked to the mutant CUB domain would be unable to bind to their corresponding receptors.
A variation on this contemplation would be to insert a proteolytic site between a CUB-removed monomer of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C, PDGF-D or PlGF and the mutant CUB domain which is dimerized to a CUB-removed monomer of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C, PDGF-D or PlGF. Addition of the specific protease(s) for this proteolytic site would cleave the CUB domain and thereby release an activated dimer that can then bind to its corresponding receptor. In this way, a controlled release of an activated dimer is made possible.
According to a third aspect, the invention provides a purified and isolated nucleic acid encoding a polypeptide or polypeptide fragment of the invention as defined above. The nucleic acid may be DNA, genomic DNA, cDNA or RNA, and may be single-stranded or double stranded. The nucleic acid may be isolated from a cell or tissue source, or of recombinant or synthetic origin. Because of the degeneracy of the genetic code, the person skilled in the art will appreciate that many such coding sequences are possible, where each sequence encodes the amino acid sequence shown in
A fourth aspect of the invention provides vectors comprising the cDNA of the invention or a nucleic acid molecule according to the third aspect of the invention, and host cells transformed or transfected with nucleic acids molecules or vectors of the invention. These may be eukaryotic or prokaryotic in origin. These cells are particularly suitable for expression of the polypeptide of the invention, and include insect cells such as Sf9 cells, obtainable from the American Type Culture Collection (ATCC SRL-171), transformed with a baculovirus vector, and the human embryo kidney cell line 293-EBNA transfected by a suitable expression plasmid. Preferred vectors of the invention are expression vectors in which a nucleic acid according to the invention is operatively connected to one or more appropriate promoters andor other control sequences, such that appropriate host cells transformed or transfected with the vectors are capable of expressing the polypeptide of the invention. Other preferred vectors are those suitable for transfection of mammalian cells, or for gene therapy, such as adenoviral-, vaccinia- or retroviral-based vectors or liposomes. A variety of such vectors is known in the art.
The invention also provides a method of making a vector capable of expressing a polypeptide encoded by a nucleic acid molecule according to the invention, comprising the steps of operatively connecting the nucleic acid molecule to one or more appropriate promoters andor other control sequences, as described above.
The invention further provides a method of making a polypeptide according to the invention, comprising the steps of expressing a nucleic acid or vector of the invention in a host cell, and isolating the polypeptide from the host cell or from the host cell's growth medium.
In yet a further aspect, the invention provides an antibody specifically reactive with a polypeptide of the invention or a fragment of the polypeptide. This aspect of the invention includes antibodies specific for the variant forms, immunoreactive fragments, analogs and recombinants of PDGF-D. Such antibodies are useful as inhibitors or antagonists of PDGF-D and as diagnostic agents for detecting and quantifying PDGF-D. Polyclonal or monoclonal antibodies may be used. Monoclonal and polyclonal antibodies can be raised against polypeptides of the invention or fragment or analog thereof using standard methods in the art. In addition the polypeptide can be linked to an epitope tag, such as the FLAG® octapeptide (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.), to assist in affinity purification. For some purposes, for example where a monoclonal antibody is to be used to inhibit effects of PDGF-D in a clinical situation, it may be desirable to use humanized or chimeric monoclonal antibodies. Such antibodies may be further modified by addition of cytotoxic or cytostatic drug(s). Methods for producing these, including recombinant DNA methods, are also well known in the art.
This aspect of the invention also includes an antibody which recognizes PDGF-D and is suitably labeled.
Polypeptides or antibodies according to the invention may be labeled with a detectable label, and utilized for diagnostic purposes. Similarly, the thus-labeled polypeptide of the invention may be used to identify its corresponding receptor in situ. The polypeptide or antibody may be covalently or non-covalently coupled to a suitable supermagnetic, paramagnetic, electron dense, ecogenic or radioactive agent for imaging. For use in diagnostic assays, radioactive or non-radioactive labels may be used. Examples of radioactive labels include a radioactive atom or group, such as 125I or 32P. Examples of non-radioactive labels include enzymatic labels, such as horseradish peroxidase or fluorimetric labels, such as fluorescein-5-isothiocyanate (FITC). Labeling may be direct or indirect, covalent or non-covalent.
Clinical applications of the invention include diagnostic applications, acceleration of angiogenesis in tissue or organ transplantation to promote graft growth and vascularization, or stimulation of wound healing, or connective tissue development, or to establish collateral circulation in tissue infarction or arterial stenosis, such as coronary artery disease, and inhibition of angiogenesis in the treatment of cancer or of diabetic retinopathy and inhibition of tissue remodeling that takes place during invasion of tumor cells into a normal cell population by primary or metastatic tumor formation. Quantitation of PDGF-D in cancer biopsy specimens may be useful as an indicator of future metastatic risk.
PDGF-D may also be relevant to a variety of lung conditions. PDGF-D assays could be used in the diagnosis of various lung disorders. PDGF-D could also be used in the treatment of lung disorders to improve blood circulation in the lung andor gaseous exchange between the lungs and the blood stream. Similarly, PDGF-D could be used to improve blood circulation to the heart and O2 gas permeability in cases of cardiac insufficiency. In a like manner, PDGF-D could be used to improve blood flow and gaseous exchange in chronic obstructive airway diseases.
Thus the invention provides a method for stimulating angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, neovascularization, connective tissue development andor wound healing in a mammal in need of such treatment, comprising the step of administering an effective dose of PDGF-D, or a fragment or an analog thereof which has the biological activity of PDGF-D to the mammal. The PDGF-D polypeptides may be administered either in the form of its bioactive fragment (e.g. residues 254-370 of SEQ ID NO: 8), or in the form of a full-length sequence which may be activated, e.g. with a suitable protease, in situ. Alternatively, a nucleic acid molecule coding for a bioactive PDGF-D polypeptide may be administered, or a nucleic acid molecule coding for a full-length PDGF-D polypeptide together with a nucleic acid molecule coding for a suitable protease are administered together, preferably under the control of regulatory elements suitable for regulation of their respective expression. Optionally the PDGF-D, or fragment or analog thereof may be administered together with, or in conjunction with, one or more of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PlGF, PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C, FGF andor heparin.
PDGF-D polypeptides may be directly delivered to the site of interest where angiogenesis etc are desired. Numerous direct polypeptide delivery methods are known and may be used. See e.g. Talmadge, 1993, The pharmaceutics and delivery of therapeutic polypeptides and proteins, Adv. Drug Del. Rev. 10:247-299. The polypeptides may be administered orally. Although polypeptides are generally known to have poor availability through oral administration, various methods known in the art have been developed to overcome this limitation. For example, biodegradable polymeric matrices have been used for delivering proteins over a desired period of time. For example, the use of biodegradable poly(d, l -lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) microspheres for the delivery of peptides and proteins has been widely reported (Mehta et al., 1996, Peptide containing microspheres from low molecular weight and hydrophilic poly(d,l-lactide-co-glycolide), J. Control Release 41:249-257; Chiba et al., 1997, Controlled protein delivery from biodegradable tyrosine-containing poly(anhydride-co-imide) microspheres. Biomaterials 18:893-901; Ravivarapu et al., 2000, Polymer and microsphere blending to alter the release of a peptide from PLGA microspheres, Eur. J. Pharm. Biopharm. 50:263-270).
Preferably, direct application of the polypeptides, especially direct injection, may be used. Because wound-healing and other conditions requiring enhanced angiogenesis typically require local application of PDGF-D polypeptides and other growth factors for only a limited time, direct injection, even frequent direct injection of the polypeptides to the desired site(s) is acceptable and is not likely to be very tedious or expensive and pose problems such as poor patient acceptance. Methods of direct application of polypeptides are well-known to those ordinarily skilled in the art, and recent successes, strategies, and potentials of topical application of PDGF-BB in improving healing were reviewed by Cupp et al., 2002, Gene therapy, electroporation, and the future of wound-healing therapies, Facial Plast. Surg. 18:53-57.
In another preferred embodiment, the therapeutic polypeptides of the present invention may be delivered in the form of nucleic acid molecules encoding the polypeptides. Many established and well-known methods for gene delivery or gene therapy may be used for administering genes or other nucleic acid molecules encoding PDGF-D to the patient. See e.g. Rubany, 2001, The future of human gene therapy, Mol. Aspects. Med. 22:113-42. A single dose of naked DNA of VEGF and PDGF was used to treat rats with cysteanmine-induced duodenal ulcers, and was shown to significantly accelerate chronic duodenal ulcer healing, and increase VEGF and PDGF levels in duodenal mucosa (Szabo et al., 2001, Gene Expression and gene therapy in experimental duodena ulceration, J. Physiol. Paris 95:325-335).
The polynucleotides encoding PDGF-D preferably are linked operatively under the control of suitable promoter so that they are expressed when taken up by the host cells. PDGF-D is a diffusible protein, and as such it will exert its effects on cells directly expressing the polypeptides, as well as on surrounding cells. Accordingly, suitable promoters may be constitutive promoters such as promoter and enhancer elements from cytomegalovirus (CMV), Rous sarcoma virus (RSV), and SV40, and the rat beta-actin promoter. Preferably, inducible or tissue specific promoters are used to increase expression level, improve specificity and reduce side effects. In this regard, suitable promoters include the keratin 5 (K5) promoter (Pierce et al., 1998, Oncogene 16: 1267-1276; Pierce et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:8858-8863), the Cyr61 promoter (inducible in granulation tissue during wound healing) (Latinkic et al., 2001, Promoter function of the angiogenic inducer Cyr61 gene in transgenic mice: tissue specificity, inducibility during wound healing, and role of the serum response element, Endocrinol. 142:2549-2557), and the FAP promoter (Neidermeyer et al., 2001, Expression of the fibroblast activation protein during mouse embryo development, Int. J. Dev. Biol. 45:445-447).
Suitable polynucleotides may also be delivered as nonviral vectors, using methods well-known to those ordinarily skilled in the art. See e.g. Brown et al., 2001, Gene delivery with synthetic (non-viral) carriers, Int. J. Pharm. 229:1-21; and Pouton et al., 1998, Key issues in non-viral gene delivery, Adv. Drug Deliv. Rev. 34:3-19). Lipofection, liposome mediated gene transfer are preferred (Romano et al., 1999, Gene transfer technology in therapy: current applications and future goals. Stem Cells 17:191-202; Mountain, 2000, Gene therapy: the first decade. Trends. Biotechnol. 18:119-28; Mhashilkar et al., 2001, Gene therapy: Therapeutic approaches and implications. Biotechnol. Adv. 19:279-97; and Lasic, 1998, Novel applications of liposomes, Trends Biotechnol. 16:307-21).
One of the simplest ideas for non-viral gene delivery is the use of purified DNA in the form of plasmids. A naked polynucleotide operatively coding for the polypeptide may be delivered, along with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier, directly to the desired site, where the polynucleotide is taken up by the cells at the site and expressed or otherwise exerts its therapeutic effects. This is particularly preferred if transient expression of the gene is desired. The transfer of naked DNA by physical means is well known, by such means as gene guns and electroporation. See e.g. Spack et al., 2001, Developing non-viral DNA delivery systems for cancer and infectious disease, DDT 6:186-97. See also Cupp et al., 2002, supra.
In general, RNA molecules will have more transient effects than DNA molecules. The effects of the naked RNA molecules so delivered last typically for less than about 20 days, usually less than 10 days, and often less than 3 to 5 days. Delivery may be by injection, spray, biolistic methods, and so on, depending on the site.
In another embodiment, suitable polynucleotides may also be delivered within viral vectors, which are known to have higher transfection efficiency compared to nonviral vectors. See e.g. Robbins et al., 1998, Viral vectors for gene therapy, Pharmacol. Ther. 80:35-47; and Kay et al., 2001, Viral vectors for gene therapy: the art of turning infectious agents into vehicles of therapeutics, Nat. Med. 7:33-40. Suitable viral vectors include those derived from retroviruses (including lentivirues) (see e.g. Breithart et al., 1999, Ann. Plast. Surg. 43:632-9), especially the Moloney murineleukemia virus and pseudotyped retroviruses (Chen et al., 2001, Safety testing for replication-competent retrovirus associated with gibbon apeleukemia virus-pseudotyped retroviral vectors. Hum. Gene. Ther. 12:61-70); adenoviruses, especially the third generation “gutless” adenoviral vector (Kochanek et al., 2001, High-capacity “gutless” adenoviral vectors. Curr. Opin. Mol. Ther. 3:454-63); chimeric viruses that combine the advantages of both retroviruses and adenoviruses (Reynolds et al., 1999, Chimeric viral vectors-the best of both worlds? Mol. Med. Today 5:25-31, 1999); adeno-associated virus (Ponnazhagan et al., 2001, Adeno-associated virus for gene therapy. Cancer Res., 61:6313-21; and Monahan et al., 2000, Adeno-associated virus vectors for gene therapy: more pros than cons? Mol. Med. Today, 6:433-40); vaccinia viruses (Peplinski, et al., 1998, Vaccinia virus for human gene therapy. Surg. Oncol. Clin. N. Am., 7:575-588); and herpes simplex virus (Latchman. 2001, Gene delivery and gene therapy with herpes simplex virus-based vectors. Gene 264:1-9).
Adenoviral vectors are preferred. Chen et al. (2002) showed that recombinant adenoviruses encoding the PDGF-A gene express and secrete PDGF-A in vitro, and induce sustained down regulation of PDGFαR encoded by the growth arrest specific (gas) gene (Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 282:C538-44). Szabo et al., supra, used a single dose of adenoviral vectors expressing VEGF and PDGF to treat rats with cysteanmine-induced duodenal ulcers, and showed significant acceleration of chronic duodenal ulcer healing, and increased VEGF and PDGF levels in duodenal mucosa. Giannobile et al., 2001, J. Periodontol. 72:815-23 showed that adenoviral vectors expressing PDGF-A stimulated cementoblast DNA synthesis and subsequent proliferation. Zhu et al., 2001, J. Dent. Res. 80:892-7 demonstrated that adenoviruses encoding PDGF-A enhanced mitogenic and proliferative responses in osteoblasts, periodontal ligament fibroblasts and gingival fibroblasts. See also Liechty et al., 1999, Adenoviral mediated overexpression of PDGF-B corrects ischemic impaired wound healing, J. Invest. Dermatol. 113:375-83.
The effects of vectors coding for PDGF-D polypeptides may also be improved with matrix immobilization to enhance tissue repair activity. Biocompatible matrices capable of immobilizing adenoviral vectors have been successfully used in treating ischemic excisional wounds. Specifically, collagen-formulated vectors encoding PDGF-B, when delivered as subcutaneously implanted sponges, have been shown to enhance granulation tissue deposition, enhance epithelial area, and improve wound closure more effectively than aqueous formulations of the same vectors. With longer time, complete healing without excessive scar formation was achieved. In comparison, aqueous formulations allowed vector seepage and led to PDGF-induced hyperplasia in surrounding tissues but not in wound beds. In addition, repeated applications of PDGF-BB proteins were required for neotissue induction approaching equivalence to a single application of collagen-immobilized vectors. (Doukas et al., 2002, Hum. Gene Ther. 12:783-98). In the same study, Doukas et al. also showed that vectors encoding fibroblast growth factor 2 or vascular endothelial growth factor promoted primarily angiogenic responses. Similar improvements were observed in dermal ulcer wounds in the ears of young adult New Zealand white rabbits with collagen embedded PDGF-B or PDGF-A DNA plasmids (Tyrone et al., 2000, J. Surg. Res. 93:230-6); in soft tissue repair by enhancing de novo tissue formation (Chandler et al., 2000, Mol. Ther. 2:153-60).
Other materials may also be used as sustained release matrices for delivering vectors encoding PDGF genes. For example, matrices of poly(lactide-co-glycolide) (PLG) were loaded with plasmids and shown to release the plasmids over a period ranging from days to months in vitro, and led to the transfection of large numbers of cells. In vivo delivery enhanced matrix deposition and blood vessel formation in the developing tissue (Shea et al., 1999, Nat. Biotechnol. 17:551-4).
Another method of gene delivery uses fusigenic virosomes. This approach combines some of the advantages of viral delivery vectors with the safety and ‘simplicity’ of the liposome to produce fusigenic virosomes (Dzau et al., 1996, Fusigenic viral liposome for gene therapy in cardiovascular diseases. Proc Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 93:11421-25). Virosomes have been engineered by complexing the membrane fusion proteins of haemagglutinating virus of Japan (HVJ, which is also known as Sendai virus) with either liposomes that already encapsulate plasmid DNA or oligodeoxynucleotides (ODN) for antisense applications. The inherent ability of the viral proteins in virosomes to cause fusion with cell membranes means that these hybrid vectors can be very efficient at introducing their nucleic acid to the target cell, resulting in good gene expression. Each viral vector has a limit on the size of transgene that can be incorporated into its genome; no such limit exists for virosome or liposome technology. Genes of up to 100 kilobase pairs have been delivered by fusigenic virosomes to cells both ex vivo and in vivo.
A further embodiment of the invention utilizes DNA-ligand conjugates for delivery of genes encoding the PDGF-polypeptides. DNA-ligand conjugates have two main components: a DNA-binding domain and a ligand for cell-surface receptors. The transgene can therefore be guided specifically to the target cell, where it is internalized via receptor-mediated endocytosis. Once the DNA-ligand complex is in the endocytic pathway, the conjugate is likely to be destroyed when the endosome fuses with a lysosome. To avoid this, an adenovirus-derived domain may be incorporated into the cell-surface receptor part of the ligand (Curiel et al, 1992, High-efficiency gene transfer mediated by adenovirus coupled to DNA-polylysine complexes, Hum. Gene Ther. 3:147-154). The conjugates then have the same specificity as adenoviruses, binding to a wide host-cell range; they also possess an adenovirus characteristic that allows the conjugate to leave the endosome and enter the cytoplasm (by a process known as endosomolysis) before the endosome is destroyed by a lysosome.
According to another embodiment of the invention, suitable host cells may be transformed with polynucleotides, preferably vectors, more preferably viral vectors, encoding the PDGF-D polypeptides of the invention, and the host cells expressing the PDGF-D polypeptides may be introduced to a host animal in need of wound healing or other treatment. Many methods of in vitro cell transformation are known and well established in the art, including CaPO4 transfection, which is a chemical method that has been successfully used by molecular biologists for many years to introduce transgenes into cells in vitro with a relatively good efficiency (10%). Mathisen et at. showed that autoreactive memory Th2 T cells can be genetically modified so that upon engagement of self antigen they produce regenerative growth factors such as PDGF-A capable of mediating tissue repair during autoimmune disease (Mathisen et al., 1999, J. Autoimmun. 13:31-8.
Conversely, PDGF-D antagonists (e.g. antibodies andor competitive or noncompetitive inhibitors of binding of PDGF-D in both dimer formation and receptor binding) could be used to treat conditions, such as congestive heart failure, involving accumulation of fluid in, for example, the lung resulting from increases in vascular permeability, by exerting an offsetting effect on vascular permeability in order to counteract the fluid accumulation. Administrations of PDGF-D could be used to treat malabsorptive syndromes in the intestinal tract, liver or kidneys as a result of its blood circulation increasing and vascular permeability increasing activities.
Thus, the invention provides a method of inhibiting angiogenesis, lymphangiogenesis, neovascularization, connective tissue development andor wound healing in a mammal in need of such treatment, comprising the step of administering an effective amount of an antagonist of PDGF-D to the mammal. The antagonist may be any agent that prevents the action of PDGF-D, either by preventing the binding of PDGF-D to its corresponding receptor on the target cell, or by preventing activation of the receptor, such as using receptor-binding but otherwise inactive PDGF-D variants. Suitable antagonists include, but are not limited to, antibodies directed against PDGF-D; competitive or non-competitive inhibitors of binding of PDGF-D to the PDGF-D receptor(s), such as the receptor-binding or PDGF-D dimer-forming but non-mitogenic PDGF-D variants referred to above; and anti-sense nucleotide sequences as described below. For example, a truncated PDGFβ receptor was shown to inhibit thrombosis and neointima formation in an avian arterial injury model (Ding et al., 2001, Thromb. Haemost. 86:914-22).
In one embodiment, an antagonist of PDGF-D is a negative dominant mutant of a PDGF-D gene. This negative dominant mutant is able to inhibit the expression of the native PDGF-D gene in the appropriate tissue of the animal, thereby disrupting PDGF-D activity. See e.g. Chen et al., 2002, Am. J. Physiol. Cell Physiol. 282:C538-44 (showing that dominant negative mutant of PDGF-A gene disrupts PDGF activity).
A method is provided for determining agents that bind to an activated truncated form of PDGF-D. The method comprises contacting an activated truncated form of PDGF-D with a test agent and monitoring binding by any suitable means. Potential binding agents include proteins and other substances. The invention provides a screening system for discovering agents that bind an activated truncated form of PDGF-D. The screening system comprises preparing an activated truncated form of PDGF-D, exposing the activated truncated form of PDGF-D to a test agent, and quantifying the binding of said agent to the activated truncated form of PDGF-D by any suitable means. The inhibitory effects of a binding agent are further determined by assaying the PDGF-D activities of the PDGF-D polypeptides bound with the binding agent. Both in vivo and in vitro assay methods may be used. Specifically, this screening system is used to identify agents which inhibit the proteolytic cleavage of the full length PDGF-D protein and thereby prevent the release of the activated truncated form of PDGF-D. For this use, the full length PDGF-D is generally preferred.
Use of this screening system provides a means to determine compounds that may alter the biological function of PDGF-D. This screening method may be adapted to large-scale, automated procedures such as a PANDEX® (Baxter-Dade Diagnostics) system, allowing for efficient high-volume screening of potential therapeutic agents.
For this screening system, an activated truncated form of PDGF-D or full length PDGF-D is prepared as described herein, preferably using recombinant DNA technology. A test agent, e.g. a compound or protein, is introduced into a reaction vessel containing the activated truncated form of or full length PDGF-D. Binding of the test agent to the activated truncated form of or full length PDGF-D is determined by any suitable means which include, but is not limited to, radioactively- or chemically-labeling the test agent. Binding of the activated truncated form of or full length PDGF-D may also be carried out by a method disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,585,277, which is incorporated by reference. In this method, binding of the test agent to the activated truncated form of or full length PDGF-D is assessed by monitoring the ratio of folded protein to unfolded protein. Examples of this monitoring can include, but are not limited to, monitoring the sensitivity of the activated truncated form of or full length PDGF-D to a protease, or amenability to binding of the protein by a specific antibody against the folded state of the protein.
Those of skill in the art will recognize that IC50 values are dependent on the selectivity of the agent tested. For example, an agent with an IC50 which is less than 10 nM is generally considered an excellent candidate for drug therapy. However, an agent which has a lower affinity, but is selective for a particular target, may be an even better candidate. Those skilled in the art will recognize that any information regarding the binding potential, inhibitory activity or selectivity of a particular agent is useful toward the development of pharmaceutical products.
Where PDGF-D or a PDGF-D antagonist is to be used for therapeutic purposes, the dose(s) and route of administration will depend upon the nature of the patient and condition to be treated, and will be at the discretion of the attending physician or veterinarian. Suitable routes include oral, subcutaneous, intramuscular, intraperitoneal or intravenous injection, parenteral, topical application, implants etc. Topical application of PDGF-D may be used in a manner analogous to VEGF. Where used for wound healing or other use in which enhanced angiogenesis is advantageous, an effective amount of the truncated active form of PDGF-D is administered to an organism in need thereof in a dose between about 0.1 and 1000 μgkg body weight.
The PDGF-D or a PDGF-D antagonist may be employed in combination with a suitable pharmaceutical carrier. The resulting compositions comprise a therapeutically effective amount of PDGF-D or a PDGF-D antagonist, and a pharmaceutically acceptable non-toxic salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable solid or liquid carrier or adjuvant. Examples of such a carrier or adjuvant include, but are not limited to, saline, buffered saline, Ringer's solution, mineral oil, talc, corn starch, gelatin, lactose, sucrose, microcrystalline cellulose, kaolin, mannitol, dicalcium phosphate, sodium chloride, alginic acid, dextrose, water, glycerol, ethanol, thickeners, stabilizers, suspending agents and combinations thereof. Such compositions may be in the form of solutions, suspensions, tablets, capsules, creams, salves, elixirs, syrups, wafers, ointments or other conventional forms. The formulation should be constituted to suit the mode of administration. Compositions which comprise PDGF-D may optionally further comprise one or more of PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C, VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PlGF andor heparin. Compositions comprising PDGF-D will contain from about 0.1% to 90% by weight of the active compound(s), and most generally from about 10% to 30%.
For intramuscular preparations, a sterile formulation, preferably a suitable soluble salt form of the truncated active form of PDGF-D, such as hydrochloride salt, can be dissolved and administered in a pharmaceutical diluent such as pyrogen-free water (distilled), physiological saline or 5% glucose solution. A suitable insoluble form of the compound may be prepared and administered as a suspension in an aqueous base or a pharmaceutically acceptable oil base, e.g. an ester of a long chain fatty acid such as ethyl oleate.
According to yet a further aspect, the invention provides diagnosticprognostic devices typically in the form of test kits. For example, in one embodiment of the invention there is provided a diagnosticprognostic test kit comprising an antibody to PDGF-D and a means for detecting, and more preferably evaluating, binding between the antibody and PDGF-D. In one preferred embodiment of the diagnosticprognostic device according to the invention, a second antibody (the secondary antibody) directed against antibodies of the same isotype and animal source of the antibody directed against PDGF-D (the primary antibody) is provided. The secondary antibody is coupled directly or indirectly to a detectable label, and then either an unlabeled primary antibody or PDGF-D is substrate-bound so that the PDGF-Dprimary antibody interaction can be established by determining the amount of label bound to the substrate following binding between the primary antibody and PDGF-D and the subsequent binding of the labeled secondary antibody to the primary antibody. In a particularly preferred embodiment of the invention, the diagnosticprognostic device may be provided as a conventional enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA) kit.
In another alternative embodiment, a diagnosticprognostic device may comprise polymerase chain reaction means for establishing sequence differences of a PDGF-D of a test individual and comparing this sequence structure with that disclosed in this application in order to detect any abnormalities, with a view to establishing whether any aberrations in PDGF-D expression are related to a given disease condition.
In addition, a diagnosticprognostic device may comprise a restriction length polymorphism (RFLP) generating means utilizing restriction enzymes and genomic DNA from a test individual to generate a pattern of DNA bands on a gel and comparing this pattern with that disclosed in this application in order to detect any abnormalities, with a view to establishing whether any aberrations in PDGF-D expression are related to a given disease condition.
In accordance with a further aspect, the invention relates to a method of detecting aberrations in PDGF-D gene structure in a test subject which may be associated with a disease condition in the test subject. This method comprises providing a DNA sample from said test subject; contacting the DNA sample with a set of primers specific to PDGF-D DNA operatively coupled to a polymerase and selectively amplifying PDGF-D DNA from the sample by polymerase chain reaction, and comparing the nucleotide sequence of the amplified PDGF-D DNA from the sample with the nucleotide sequences shown in
The invention also provides a method of detecting PDGF-D in a biological sample, comprising the step of contacting the sample with a reagent capable of binding PDGF-D, and detecting the binding. Preferably the reagent capable of binding PDGF-D is an antibody directed against PDGF-D, particularly a monoclonal antibody. In a preferred embodiment the binding andor extent of binding is detected by means of a detectable label; suitable labels are discussed above.
In another aspect, the invention relates to a protein dimer comprising the PDGF-D polypeptide, particularly a disulfide-linked dimer. The protein dimers of the invention include both homodimers of PDGF-D polypeptide and heterodimers of PDGF-D and VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PlGF, PDGF-A, PDGF-B or PDGF-C.
According to a yet further aspect of the invention there is provided a method for isolation of PDGF-D comprising the step of exposing a cell which expresses PDGF-D to heparin to facilitate release of PDGF-D from the cell, and purifying the thus-released PDGF-D.
Another aspect of the invention involves providing a vector comprising an anti-sense nucleotide sequence which is complementary to at least a part of a DNA sequence which encodes PDGF-D or a fragment or analog thereof that has the biological activity of PDGF-D. In addition the anti-sense nucleotide sequence can be to the promoter region of the PDGF-D gene or other non-coding region of the gene which may be used to inhibit, or at least mitigate, PDGF-D expression.
According to a yet further aspect of the invention such a vector comprising an anti-sense sequence may be used to inhibit, or at least mitigate, PDGF-D expression. The use of a vector of this type to inhibit PDGF-D expression is favored in instances where PDGF-D expression is associated with a disease, for example where tumors produce PDGF-D in order to provide for angiogenesis, or tissue remodeling that takes place during invasion of tumor cells into a normal cell population by primary or metastatic tumor formation. Transformation of such tumor cells with a vector containing an anti-sense nucleotide sequence would suppress or retard angiogenesis, and so would inhibit or retard growth of the tumor or tissue remodeling.
Another aspect of the invention relates to the discovery that the full length PDGF-D protein is likely to be a latent growth factor that needs to be activated by proteolytic processing to release an active PDGFVEGF homology domain. A putative proteolytic site is found in residues 254-257 in the full length protein, residues -RKSK- (SEQ ID NO:9). This is a dibasic motif. The -RKSK- (SEQ ID NO:9) putative proteolytic site is also found in PDGF-A, PDGF-B, VEGF-C and VEGF-D. In these four proteins, the putative proteolytic site is also found just before the minimal domain for the PDGFVEGF homology domain. Together these facts indicate that this is the proteolytic site.
Preferred proteases include, but are not limited, to plasmin, Factor X and enterokinase. The N-terminal CUB domain may function as an inhibitory domain which might be used to keep PDGF-D in a latent form in some extracellular compartment and which is removed by limited proteolysis when PDGF-D is needed.
According to this aspect of the invention, a method is provided for producing an activated truncated form of PDGF-D or for regulating receptor-binding specificity of PDGF-D. These methods comprise the steps of expressing an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide having the biological activity of PDGF-D and supplying a proteolytic amount of at least one enzyme for processing the expressed polypeptide to generate the activated truncated form of PDGF-D.
This aspect also includes a method for selectively activating a polypeptide having a growth factor activity. This method comprises the step expressing an expression vector comprising a polynucleotide encoding a polypeptide having a growth factor activity, a CUB domain and a proteolytic site between the polypeptide and the CUB domain, and supplying a proteolytic amount of at least one enzyme for processing the expressed polypeptide to generate the activated polypeptide having a growth factor activity.
In addition, this aspect includes the isolation of a nucleic acid molecule which codes for a polypeptide having the biological activity of PDGF-D and a polypeptide thereof which comprises a proteolytic site having the amino acid sequence RKSK (SEQ ID NO:9) or a structurally conserved amino acid sequence thereof.
Also this aspect includes an isolated dimer comprising an activated monomer of PDGF-D and an activated monomer of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PDGF-D, PDGF-A, PDGF-B, PDGF-C or PlGF linked to a CUB domain, or alternatively, an activated monomer of VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C, VEGF-D, PDGF-D, PDGF-A, PDGF-B or PlGF and an activated monomer of PDGF-D linked to a CUB domain. The isolated dimer may or may not include a proteolytic site between the activated monomer and the CUB domain.
Polynucleotides of the invention such as those described above, fragments of those polynucleotides, and variants of those polynucleotides with sufficient similarity to the non-coding strand of those polynucleotides to hybridize thereto under stringent conditions all are useful for identifying, purifying, and isolating polynucleotides encoding other, non-human, mammalian forms of PDGF-D. Thus, such polynucleotide fragments and variants are intended as aspects of the invention. Exemplary stringent hybridization conditions are as follows: hybridization at 42° C. in 5×SSC, 20 mM NaPO4, pH 6.8, 50% formamide; and washing at 42° C. in 0.2×SSC. Those skilled in the art understand that it is desirable to vary these conditions empirically based on the length and the GC nucleotide base content of the sequences to be hybridized, and that formulas for determining such variation exist. See for example Sambrook et al, “Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual”, Second Edition, pages 9.47-9.51, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y.: Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory (1989).
Moreover, purified and isolated polynucleotides encoding other, non-human, mammalian PDGF-D forms also are aspects of the invention, as are the polypeptides encoded thereby and antibodies that are specifically immunoreactive with the non-human PDGF-D variants. Thus, the invention includes a purified and isolated mammalian PDGF-D polypeptide and also a purified and isolated polynucleotide encoding such a polypeptide.
It will be clearly understood that nucleic acids and polypeptides of the invention may be prepared by synthetic means or by recombinant means, or may be purified from natural sources.
It will be clearly understood that for the purposes of this specification the word “comprising” means “included but not limited to.” The corresponding meaning applies to the word “comprises.”
FIGS. 31A-F show the K14-PDGF-D transgene, its mRNA expression, expression of the transgene in the skin, and analysis of the phenotype in the dermis of transgenic mice.
FIGS. 32A-D show total cell and macrophage numbers in wounds of K14-PDGF-D and control mice.
FIGS. 33A-H show AAV-PDGF-D induced macrophage accumulation in skeletal muscle.
The amino acid sequence of the polypeptide encoded by the nucleotides 1 to 198 of the polynucleotide of
To generate more sequence information on human PDGF-D, a human fetal lung λgt10 cDNA library was screened using a 327 bp polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-generated probe, based on the originally identified EST sequence. The probe was generated from DNA from a commercially available human fetal lung cDNA library (Clontech) which was amplified by PCR using two primers derived from the identified EST (AI488780). The primers were:
The amplified 327 bp fragment was cloned into the pCR2.1 vector (Invitrogen). Nucleotide sequencing verified that the insert corresponded to the EST. The screen identified several positive clones. The inserts from two of these clones, clones 5 and 8 were subcloned into pBluescript and subjected to nucleotide sequencing using internal or vector-specific primers. The nucleotide sequences determined were identical in both clones and are shown in
Extended nucleotide sequencing of the isolated human PDGF-D cDNA clones from this human fetal lung cDNA library has provided additional sequence.
The sequence for the 5′ end of full-length PDGF-D was obtained using Rapid Amplification of cDNA Ends (RACE) PCR, and clones containing cDNA from the human heart (Marathon-Ready™ cDNA, Clontech, Cat# 7404-1). These cDNA clones have an adaptor sequence attached to the 5′ end of each clone, including a site for primer called Adaptor Primer 1 (Clontech):
This primer and a second primer:
were used to amplify the sequence found at the 5′ end of PDGF-D. In the PCR reaction a special polymerase mix was used (Advantage<<-GC cDNA PCR Kit, Clontech, Cat# K1907-1). The reaction mix included (in microliters):
The 5′ end of PDGF-D was amplified for 31 cycles, five cycles consisted of 45 seconds denaturation at 94° C. and four minutes extension at 72° C., five cycles consisted of 45 seconds denaturation at 94° C. and four minutes extension at 70° C., and twenty-one cycles consisted of 45 seconds denaturation at 94° C. and four minutes extension at 68° C. and an initial denaturation step at 94° C. for two minutes. From this PCR, an approximately 790 bp long product was obtained. This product was run on a 1% agarose gel, purified (QIAquick gel extraction Kit, Qiagen, Cat # 28706) from the gel, cloned into a vector (TOPO TA Cloning Kit, Invitrogen) and transformed into bacteria (E. Coli). Transformed bacteria were plated, and incubated at 37° C. overnight. Single colonies were picked and grown in fresh media overnight. Plasmids were prepared (QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kit, Qiagen, Cat# 27106) and sequenced with the plasmid primers, T7 and M13R. The result of this sequencing was that 312 bp of previously unknown PDGF-D sequence was obtained. The rest of the sequence (478 bp) was identical with previously obtained sequence from other PDGF-D cDNA clones.
Similar to PDGF-C, PDGF-D has a two domain structure with a N-terminal CUB domain (residues 67-167, discussed below) and a C-terminal PDGFVEGF homology domain (residues 272-362, the core domain). The overall amino acid sequence identity between PDGF-C (SEQ ID NO:32) and PDGF-D (SEQ ID NO:8) is approximately 43% (
The alignment shows that the core domain of PDGF-D displays about a 50% identity to the corresponding domain in PDGF-C, and about a 20-23% identity to the core domains in the classical PDGFs and VEGFs. It also shows that, with two exceptions, PDGF-D has the expected pattern of invariant cysteine residues, involved in inter- and intra-disulfide bonding, a hallmark of members of this family. The first exception occurs between cysteine 3 and 4. Normally these two cysteines are spaced by 2 residues. However, similar to PDGF-C, PDGF-D has an unique insertion of three additional amino acids residues, NCG. In total, ten cysteine residues reside in the core domain, including the extreme C-terminal region, suggesting a unique arrangement of the cysteines in the disulfide-bonded PDGF-D dimer. The second exception is that the invariant fifth cysteine found in the other members of the PDGFVEGF family is not conserved in PDGF-D. This feature is unique to PDGF-D.
Based on the amino acid sequence alignments in
Cub Domain
The N-terminal region of the partial PDGF-D amino acid sequence of
As shown in
The portion of the cDNA encoding amino acid residues 24-370 of SEQ ID NO:8 was amplified by PCR using Taq DNA polymerase (Biolabs). The forward primer used was 5′GATATCTAGAAGCAACCCCGCAGAGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO:33). This primer includes a XbaI site (underlined) for in frame cloning. The reverse primer used was 5′ GCTCGAATTCTAAATGGTGATGGTGATGATG TCGAGGTGGTCTTGA 3′ (SEQ ID NO:34). This primer includes an EcoRI site (underlined) and sequences coding for a C-terminal 6×His tag preceded by an enterokinase site. The PCR product was digested with XbaI and EcoRI and subsequently cloned into the baculovirus expression vector, pAcGP67A. Verification of the correct sequence of the cloned PCR product was done by nucleotide sequencing. The expression vectors were then co-transfected with BaculoGold linearized baculovirus DNA into Sf9 insect cells according to the manufacturer's protocol (Pharmingen). Recombined baculovirus were amplified several times before beginning large scale protein production and protein purification according to the manual (Pharmingen).
Sf9 cells, adapted to serum free medium, were infected with recombinant baculovirus at a multiplicity of infection of about seven. Media containing the recombinant proteins were harvested four days after infection and were incubated with Ni-NTA-Agarose beads (Qiagen). The beads were collected in a column and after extensive washing with 50 mM sodium phosphate buffer pH 8, containing 300 mM NaCl (the washing buffer), the bound proteins were eluted with increasing concentrations of imidazole (from 100 mM to 500 mM) in the washing buffer. The eluted proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE using 12.5% polyacrylamide gels under reducing and non-reducing conditions.
Rabbit antisera against full-length PDGF-DD and against a synthetic peptide derived from the PDGF-D sequence (residues 254-272, amino acid sequence RKSKVDLDRLNDDAKRYSC of SEQ ID NO:36 were generated. These peptides were each conjugated to the carrier protein keyhole limpet hemocyanin (KLH, Calbiochem) using N-succinimidyl 3-(2-pyridyldithio)propionate (SPDP) (Pharmacia Inc.) according to the instructions of the supplier. 200-300 micrograms of the conjugates in phosphate buffered saline (PBS) were separately emulsified in Freunds Complete Adjuvant and injected subcutaneously at multiple sites in rabbits. The rabbits were boostered subcutaneously at biweekly intervals with the same amount of the conjugates emulsified in Freunds Incomplete Adjuvant. Blood was drawn and collected from the rabbits. The sera were prepared using standard procedures known to those skilled in the art. The antibodies to full-length PDGF-DD were affinity-purified on a column of purified PDGF-DD coupled to CNBr-activated Sepharose 4B (Pharmacia).
As seen in
To investigate the tissue expression of PDGF-D in several human tissues, a Northern blot was done using a commercial Multiple Tissue Northern blot (MTN, Clontech). The blots were hybridized at according to the instructions from the supplier using ExpressHyb solution at 68° C. for one hour (high stringency conditions), and probed sequentially with a 32P-labeled 327 bp PCR-generated probe from the human fetal lung cDNA library (see description above) and full-length PDGF-B cDNA. The blots were subsequently washed at 50° C. in 2×SSC with 0.05% SDS for 30 minutes and at 50° C. in 0.1×SSC with 0.1% SDS for an additional 40 minutes. The blots were then put on film and exposed at −70° C. As shown in
The spatial and temporal patterns of expression of the PDGF-D protein in mouse embryos were determined by immunohistochemistry using standard procedures and employing affinity-purified rabbit antibodies to full-length PDGF-DD generated in Example 2 on tissue sections of embryos during mid-gestation (embryonic day (E) 14.5). The embryos were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde overnight at 4° C. and processed for cryosectioning. 14 μm cryosections were used for the stainings. Paraffin-embedded sections which were prepared by routine procedures were also used. After sectioning, the slides were air dried for one to three hours followed by a ten minute post fixation with 4% paraformaldehyde. After washing 3×5 minutes with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) containing 0.3% Triton X-100 (PBS-T), the slides were incubated in 0.3% H2O2 in PBS-T for 30 minutes to quench the endogenous peroxidase activity. This was followed by washing 2×5 minutes with PBS-T and 2×5 minutes in PBS. Blocking of non-specific binding was done using 3% bovine serum albumin (BSA) in PBS for 30 minutes. The slides were incubated with the affinity purified antibody to human PDGF-DD (3-9 mg of Igml) overnight at 4° C. After washing, the slides were incubated with the secondary Ig (goat anti-rabbit HRP, Vector Laboratories) at a dilution of 1:200 for one hour. After washing, the slides were incubated with the AB complex (Vector Laboratories) for one hour and washed with Tris pH 7.4. Either 3,3′-diaminobenzidine tetrahydrochloride (DAB from SIGMA) or 3-amino-9-ethyl carbazole (AEC from Vector Laboratories) was used for color development. The reaction was quenched by washing in Tris-HCl buffer. In control experiments the antibodies were preincubated with a 30× molar excess of full-length PDGF-DD. This blocked the staining, while a similar preincubation with full-length PDGF-CC did not affect the staining of the tissue sections. The photomicrographs were taken using a Zeiss microscope equipped with differential interference contrast optics.
Intense staining for PDGF-D was noted in the developing heart, lung, kidney and some muscle derivatives.
The expression of PDGF-D partially overlaps with the expression of PDGF-C in the cortical area of the developing kidney. The different receptor specificities of PDGF-C and PDGF-D and their apparent inability to form heterodimers indicate that the two novel PDGFs may provide distinct signals for migration and proliferation for at least two different cell populations in the undifferentiated metanephric mesenchyme; either interstitial cell progenitors expressing PDGF alpha-receptor, or the PDGFR-beta expressing perivascular progenitor cells.
The phenotypic differences in the kidneys of mice lacking PDGFR-alpha and PDGF-A argue for a unique role of PDGF-C in the formation of the renal mesenchyme. Interestingly, a comparison of the PDGFR-beta and PDGF-B deficient mice have not revealed a similar phenotypic discrepancy arguing for, at least partially, redundant roles of PDGF-D and PDGF-B during early stages of kidney development.
To assess the interactions between PDGF-D and the VEGF receptors, truncated PDGF-D was tested for its capacity to bind to soluble Ig-fusion proteins containing the extracellular domains of human VEGFR-1, VEGFR-2 and VEGFR-3 (Olofsson et al., 1998, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 95:11709-11714). An expression vector encoding the PDGFVEGF homology domain of PDGF-D was generated in the vector pSecTag (Invitrogen). The primers 5′-CCCAAGCTTGAAGATCTTGAGAATAT 3′ (forward) (SEQ ID NO:30) and 5′-TGCTCTAGATCGAGGTGGTCTT 3′ (reverse) (SEQ ID NO:31) were used to amplify a 429 bp fragment (nucleotides 556 to 966 in
The Ig-fusion proteins, designated VEGFR-1-Ig, VEGFR-2-Ig and VEGFR-3-Ig, were transiently expressed in human 293 EBNA cells. All Ig-fusion proteins were human VEGFRs. Cells were incubated for 24 hours after transfection, washed with Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM) containing 0.2% bovine serum albumin (BSA) and starved for 24 hours. The fusion proteins were then precipitated from the clarified conditioned medium using protein A-Sepharose beads (Pharmacia). The beads were combined with 100 microliters of 10× binding buffer (5% BSA, 0.2% Tween 20 and 10 μgml heparin) and 900 microliter of conditioned medium prepared from the COS cells transfected with the expression vector for truncated PDGF-D or the control vector. The cells were then metabolically labeled with 35S-cysteine and methionine (Promix, Amersham) for 4 to 6 hours. After 2.5 hours at room temperature, the Sepharose beads were washed three times with binding buffer at 4° C., once with phosphate buffered saline (PBS) and boiled in SDS-PAGE buffer. Labeled proteins that were bound to the Ig-fusion proteins were analyzed by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions. Radiolabeled proteins were detected using a phosphorimager analyzer andor on film. In all these analyses, radiolabeled PDGF-D failed to show any interaction with any of the VEGF receptors. These results indicate that secreted truncated PDGF-D does not bind to VEGF receptors R1, R2 and R3.
To test if PDGF-D causes increased phosphorylation of the PDGFR-beta, full-length and plasmin-digested PDGF-D were tested for their capacity to bind to the PDGFR-beta and stimulate increased phosphorylation.
A plasmin-digested preparation of PDGF-DD was generated and analyzed since it is known that plasmin-digestion of full-length PDGF-CC releases the core domain and thus allow the ligand to interact with the receptor. Full length PDGF-DD was digested with plasmin in 20 mM Tris-HCl (pH 7.5) containing 1 mM CaCl2, 1 mM MgCl2 and 0.01% Tween 20 for 1.5 to 4.5 hours at 37° C. using two to three units of plasmin (Sigma) per ml.
Analysis of the plasmin-digested preparation of PDGF-DD by SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions showed two prominent bands of 28 kDa and 15 kDa. The 15 kDa band was identified as the core domain due to its immunoreactivity in immunoblotting with a peptide antiserum raised against a sequence of PDGF-D just N-terminal of the first cysteine residue in the core domain.
Serum-starved porcine aortic endothelial-1 (PAE-1) cells stably expressing the human PDGFR-beta (Eriksson et al., 1992, EMBO J. 11:543-550) were incubated on ice for 90 minutes with a solution of conditioned media mixed with an equal volume of PBS supplemented with 1 mgml BSA and 10 ngml of PDGF-BB, 300 ngml or 1200 ngml of full length human PDGF-DD homodimers or 300 ngml or 1200 ngml of digested PDGF-DD. The full length and digested PDGF-DD homodimers were produced as described above. Sixty minutes after the addition of the polypeptides, the cells were lysed in lysis buffer (20 mM tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 0.5% Triton X-100, 0.5% deoxycholic acid, 10 mM EDTA, 1 mM orthovanadate, 1 mM PMSF 1% Trasylol). The PDGFR-beta were immunoprecipitated from cleared lysates with rabbit antisera against the human PDGFR-beta (Eriksson et al., 1992, supra). The precipitated receptors were applied to a SDS-PAGE gel. After SDS gel electrophoresis, the precipitated receptors were transferred to nitrocellulose filters, and the filters were probed with anti-phosphotyrosine antibody PY-20, (Transduction Laboratories). The filters were then incubated with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-mouse antibodies. Bound antibodies were detected using enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL, Amersham Inc). The filters were then stripped and reprobed with the PDGFR-beta rabbit antisera, and the amount of receptors was determined by incubation with horseradish peroxidase-conjugated anti-rabbit antibodies. Bound antibodies were detected using enhanced chemiluminescence (ECL, Amersham Inc). The probing of the filters with PDGFR-beta antibodies confirmed that equal amounts of the receptor were present in all lanes. Human recombinant PDGF-BB (100 ngml) and untreated cells were included in the experiment as a control.
Next, full length and plasmin-digested PDGF-D were tested for their capacity to bind to human PDGF alpha- and beta-receptors by analyzing their abilities to compete with PDGF-BB for binding to the PDGF receptors. The binding experiments were performed on porcine aortic endothelial-1 (PAE-1) cells stably expressing the human PDGF alpha- and beta-receptors, respectively (Eriksson et al., 1992, supra). Binding experiments were performed essentially as in Heldin et al. (1998, EMBO J. 7:1387-1393). Different concentrations of human full-length and plasmin-digested PDGF-DD, or human PDGF-BB were mixed with 5 ngml of 125I-PDGF-BB in binding buffer (PBS containing 1 mgml of bovine serum albumin). Aliquots were incubated with the receptor expressing PAE-1 cells plated in 24-well culture dishes on ice for 90 minutes. After three washes with binding buffer, cell-bound 125I-PDGF-BB or 125I-PDGF-AA was extracted by lysis of cells in 20 mM Tris-HCl, pH 7.5, 10% glycerol, 1% Triton X-100. The amount of cell bound radioactivity was determined in a gamma-counter. An increasing excess of the unlabeled protein added to the incubations competed efficiently with cell association of the radiolabeled tracer.
These studies indicate that PDGF-DD is a PDGFR-beta-specific agonist and that proteolytic processing releases the core domains of PDGF-DD from the N-terminal CUB domains which is necessary for unmasking the receptor-binding epitopes of the core domain similar to the situation for PDGF-CC.
Primers were designed for the amplification of the whole coding area of murine PDGF-D by PCR from mouse heart cDNA (Clontech). These primers were: 5′-CAAATGCAACGGCTCGTTT-3′ (SEQ ID NO:41) and 5′-GATATTTGCTTCTTCTTGCCATGG-3′ (SEQ ID NO:42). PCR reaction conditions were as follows: PCR Cycles: 94° C. for 2 minutes, followed by 30 cycles: 94° C. for 45 seconds, 62° C. for 45 seconds, 72° C. for 90 seconds, and 72° C. for 7 minutes.
The expected product from this reaction was a 1.2 kb cDNA fragment. However, the product was two bands, one approximately 1.2 kb and the other only 1.0 kb. These two products were checked in a 1% agarose gel, purified from the gel (QIAquick Gel Extraction Kit, Qiagen, Cat # 28706), cloned into a vector (TOPO TA Cloning Kit, Invitrogen), and transformed into E. Coli bacteria.
Transformed bacteria were plated and incubated at 37° C. overnight. The next morning some single colonies were picked and grown in fresh medium overnight. Plasmids were prepared (QIAprep Spin Miniprep Kit, Qiagen, Cat # 27106) and sequenced with plasmid primers T7 and M13R, and also with mPDGF-D specific primers. The results revealed three different types of murine PDGF-D cDNAs, one being completely identical with the earlier mouse clones, depicted in SEQ ID NO: 35.
The second clone was almost identical to the earlier mouse sequence, however, it lacked six amino acid residues (aa 42-47) from the region between the signal sequence and the CUB domain. The second clone is depicted in SEQ ID NO:37. The third clone was comprised of part of the earlier mouse sequence, lacking amino acids 42-47 as in the second clone, and also lacking the PDGF-homology domain. The third clone is depicted in SEQ ID NO:39. The similarities and differences between regions of the three clones are depicted in
The surprising results show that at least two alternatively spliced versions of the PDGF-D gene are transcribed into polyadenylated RNA. The variant transcript structures suggest an alternative splice acceptor site is used in exon two, producing a variant protein lacking six amino acid residues (ESNHLT).
In addition to lacking the above noted six amino acid residues, the third clone also lacks the PDGF-homology domain. This is because of the skipping of exon six and the resulting frameshift. This ends the open reading frame in a stop codon after four additional amino acid residues (GIEV). As shown in detail in
The process as described (Bergsten et al., 2001, Nat. Cell Biol. 3:512-516) was followed to generate recombinant human PDGF-DD core domain. Human PDGF-DD was expressed as a mutant full-length form containing a factor Xa protease cleavage site that allowed the generation of the active C-terminal fragment of the protein (PDGF-homology domain) upon cleavage with factor Xa. The recombinant protein has an extreme C-terminal His6-tag to allow its purification on a nickel-containing resin. Following purification, the protein solution was dialyzed against 0.1M acetic acid and lyophilized. SDS-PAGE analysis under reducing conditions on the purified protein revealed that it migrated as a homogenous 21 kDa species (
The mouse corneal micropocket assay was performed according to procedures described in Cao et al., 1998, Proc Natl Acad Sci USA 95:14389-94; Cao et al., 1999, Nature 398:381. Specifically, lyophilized proteins were dissolved in phosphate buffer solutions (PBS) and used to make protein bound polymer beads, as described.
The beads were then implanted in mouse cornea. Male 5-6 week-old C57BI6J mice were acclimated and caged in groups of six or less. Animals were anaesthetized by injection of a mixture of dormicum and hypnorm (1:1) before all procedures. Corneal micropockets were created with a modified von Graefe cataract knife in both eyes of each male 5-6-week-old C57BI6J mouse. A micropellet (0.35×0.35 mm) of sucrose aluminum sulfate (Bukh Meditec, Copenhagen, Denmark) coated with slow-release hydron polymer type NCC (IFN Sciences, New Brunswick, N.J.) containing various amounts of homodimers of truncated PDGF-DD was surgically implanted into each cornal pocket.
For comparison purposes corresponding amounts of PDGF-AA, PDGF-AB, PDGF-BB, and PDGF-CC were similarly implanted into corneal pockets of test mice. In each case, the pellet was positioned 0.6-0.8 mm from the corneal limbus. After implantation, erythromycinophthalmic ointment was applied to each eye.
On day 5 after growth factor implantation, animals were sacrificed with a lethal dose of CO2, and corneal neovascularization was measured and photographed with a slit-lamp stereomicroscope. In
The corneal angiogenesis model is one of the most rigorous mammalian angiogenesis models that requires a putative compound to be sufficiently potent in order to induce neovascularization in the corneal avascular tissue. Potent angiogenic factors including FGF-2 and VEGF have profound effects in this system.
The results are shown in
The overall angiogenic response induced by PDGF-DD was similar to that induced by other PDGF isoforms. The results again clearly demonstrate that the truncated PDGF-D homodimer exhibits marked angiogenic activity in vivo. In light of the foregoing test results, which demonstrate the in vivo angiogenesis inducing activity of PDGF-DD, treatments with PDGF-DD alone, or in combination with other angiogenic factors such as VEGF family members and FGFs, provide an attractive approach for therapeutic angiogenesis of ischemic heart, brain and limb disorders.
The healing of wounds is a complex process involving three discreet but overlapping stages: inflammation, proliferation and repair, and remodeling. Wound healing involves many growth factors, some of which exert different effects on multiple cell types. PDGF in general has been known to be active in all stages of the healing process and to promote wound healing. It is synthesized in significant quantities throughout the process by a number of different cells, including platelets, macrophages, fibroblasts and endothelial cells. Despite the critical role played by other growth factors involved in wound healing (EGF, FGF, insulin-like growth factors, and the TGFs), only PDGF has been shown to augment wound healing in vivo (Steed, 1998, Am. J. Surg. 176:205-255). In fact, as early as 1991, PDGF-B was used for would healing purposes. See e.g. Pierce et al., 1991, J. Biol. Chem. 45:319-326 “Role of PDGF in wound-healing” and Pierce et al., 1994, Tissue repair processes in healing chronic pressure ulcers treated with recombinant PDGF-BB, Am. J. Pathology 145:1399-1410. Nagai and Embil (2002) Expert Opin. Biol. Ther. 2:211-218 reviewed the use of recombinantly produced PDGF-B and concluded that it is safe, effective and easy to use in the treatment for healing diabetic foot ulcers.
PDGF-B and PDGF-D share the same type of receptors. The effects of PDGF-D on wound healing were investigated using transgenic mice which overexpress PDGF-D in skin keratinocytes. The human PDGF-D gene was cloned and operatively linked with the keratin 14 promoter (K-14 promoter), which directs the expression of the gene to the basal epithelial cells of the skin of transgenic animals (Jeltsch et al., 1997, Hyperplasia of lymphatic vessels in VEGF-C transgenic mice, Science 276:1423-1425; Detmar et al., 1998, Increased microvascular density and enhanced leukocyte rolling and adhesion in the skin of VEGF transgenic mice, J. Investigative Dermatol. 111:1-6). A schematic diagram of the K14-PDGF-D construct is depicted in
Transgenic mice overexpressing PDGF-D in skin keratinocytes were obtained. Four mice from the same transgenic litter were tested postitive for PDGF-D and four negative.
Mice were then anesthetized (ksylatsine+ketaminehydrochloride) and punch biopsy wounds were made to their flank skin (4 wounds with a diameter of 6 mm per mouse). An analgesic was used to inhibit pain (buprenorfine).
One positive and one negative mouse were sacrificed two days after the wounding, and as can be seen from
The next mice were sacrificed after 4 days. The amount of the developing connective tissue was greater in PDGF-D expressing mouse as shown by the van Gieson elastic connnective tissue stain (
Because increased amount of elastic connective tissue results in a greater tensile strength of the PDGF-D treated wounds, these results indicate that PDGF-D enhances the wound repair process, and that PDGF-D can be used as a valuable enhancer of wound healing.
The ability of PDGF-D to stimulate wound healing is also tested in the most clinically relevant model available, as described in Schilling et al., 1959, Surgery 46:702-710 and utilized by Hunt et al., 1967, Surgery 114:302-307.
The effects of PDGF-D overexpression in normal skin and muscle and its effects on wound healing were investigated. Human PDGF-D cDNA was overexpressed under the keratin 14 (K14) promoter in the basal skin keratinocytes of transgenic mice. This promoter should deliver abundant PDGF-D to the wounds, because it is strongly upregulated during the wound healing process [Werner et al., 2000, Exp Cell Res, 254:80-90]. Full-length PDGF-D and the activated growth factor domain were cloned into an adeno-associated virus (AAV) vector, and overexpressed alone or in combination with a known angiogenic factor, VEGF-E, in the ear and skeletal muscle, and the results were compared with the effects seen in the skin. PDGF-D was found to induce macrophage recruitment, increased interstitial pressure and blood vessel maturation during angiogenesis.
Human PDGF-D cDNA (bp 176-1285; Genbank seq. number: AF336376) was inserted into the Bam HI site of the K14 promoter expression vector [Vassar et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1563-1567].
For the Affymetrix™ microarray analysis, total RNA (5 μg) was isolated from the skin of three transgenic and three wild type littermate mice and used for the synthesis of double-stranded (ds) cDNA using the Custom SuperScript ds-cDNA Synthesis Kit (Invitrogen). Biotin-labeled cRNA was prepared using the Enzo BioArray™ HighYield™ RNA Transcript Labeling Kit (Affymetrix), and the unincorporated nucleotides were removed using RNeasy columns (Qiagen). The hybridization, washing and staining of Mouse Genome MOE430A microarrays were carried out according to the manufacturer's instructions (Affymetrix, GeneChip™ Expression Analysis Technical Manual). The probe arrays were scanned at 570 nm using an Agilent GeneArray™ Scanner, and the readings from the quantitative scanning were analyzed by the Affymetrix™ Microarray Suite version 5.0. For the comparisons, the hybridization intensities were calculated using a global scaling intensity of 100.
Full-length PDGF-D was expressed under control of the K14 promoter in the basal epidermal keratinocytes of transgenic mice. PDGF-D expression was detected in the skin of the transgenic, but not control littermate mice by Northern hybridization and immunohistochemistry.
No obvious differences were detected in the macroscopic inspection of the skin between the transgenic mice and their wild type littermates. Epidermal thickness, dermal cellularity, and blood and lymphatic vessel numbers were similar in transgenic and wild type skin as detected by staining for DNA (nucleae), and PECAM-1, laminin and LYVE-1 antigens. Whole mount immunohistochemistry of arteries and anti-smooth muscle actin antibodies and microlymphangiography using fluoresecent dextran did not either show differences between the transgenic and wild type mice. However, an increased number of CD45 positive hematopoietic cells was detected in the dermis of the transgenic mice and staining with the F480 antibodies indicated that most of these cells were macrophages (
This result was verified with RT-PCR. RNA extracted from the skin of three transgenic mice and their wild type littermates was reverse transcribed using oligo-dT (Boehringer-ingelheim) and Superscript II (Invitrogen). RT products were subjected to PCR analysis using a pair of primers specific for mouse monocyte to macrophage differentiation-associated gene [from GeneBank sequence BC021914, forward: 5′-CCCTCCTCCATCGGCTGTCT (SEQ ID NO: 43) and reverse: 5′-CCGTGGCCACAAACAGGTG (SEQ ID NO: 44)]. PCR cycles were: 94° C. 5 min (1×), 94° C. 30 sec, 58° C., 72 1 min (30×). Equal amounts of PCR products were analyzed on 1% agarose gel.
The human homologue of this gene is expressed only in mature macrophages, not in monocytes [Rehli et al., 1995, Biochem Biophys Res Commun. 217:661-667].
Interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) affects capillary fluid filtration and the filling of lymphatic vessels and it is a useful parameter for the estimation of interstitial compliance [Wiig, 1990, Crit Rev Biomed Eng 18:27-54]. Many solid tumors demonstrate interstitial hypertension thus making the delivery of many anticancer drugs more difficult [Jain, 1994, Scientific Amer. 271, 58-65]. PDGF-BB has been shown to raise dermal IFP to a normal level after it has been lowered for example by anaphylaxis [Rodt et al., 1996, J. Physiol 495:193-200]. Furthermore, it has been shown that the inhibition of the PDGFR-β signaling lowers interstitial hypertension in tumors [Pietras et al., 2001, Cancer Res. 61:2929-2934] and that the lowering of IFP also increases the efficacy of chemotherapy [Salnikov et al., 2003, FASEB J. 17:1756-1758].
The effect of PDGF-D overexpression on the skin interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) was investigated. Measurement of interstitial fluid pressure from the skin of seven transgenic and seven wild type mice was carried out by using the modified Wick technique as described by Fadnes et al., 1977, Interstitial fluid pressure in rats measured with a modified wick technique. Microvasc Res. 14:27-36. Statistical analyses were performed using the unpaired Student's t test, and P<0.05 was considered statistically significant. The IFP measured from the dermis was between −1.1 and −2.1 mmHg (±0,065) in wild type mice and between −1.0 and −1.5 (±0,136) in transgenic mice. This increase in the IFP in the skin of the transgenic mice was statistically significant (n=7 in both groups, *p<0.05).
Eight to ten week old mice were anesthetized with ketamine HCl (50 mgkg s.c.) and xylazine-HCl (10 mgkg s.c.). Adequate pre- and postoperative pain medication was given (buprenorphine 0.5 mgkg s.c. 3 times a day or when needed). The backs of the mice were shaved and the skin was cleaned with ethanol. One or two circular wounds were made on both sides of the back with a 5 mm punch-biopsy tool (Fray Products Corp.). After wounding, the mice were given free access to food and drink. The wounds were allowed to heal for up to 10 days after which the mice were sacrificed with carbon monoxide and cervical dislocation and the wounds were collected. Infected wounds were discarded. Samples were fixed in 4% paraformaldehyde, dehydrated and embedded in paraffin. Some samples were snap-frozen in liquid nitrogen and embedded in Tissue-Tek (Sakura-Finetek Europe BV).
Sections were deparaffinized and stained with haematoxylin and eosin. Digital images were acquired with a Olympus AX70 microscope and DP50 digital camera equipped with a Macintosh system 9.1 computer and analyzed with the NIH image program. The remaining wound area was quantified by measuring the distance between the edges of the migrating epidermis and dividing it with that of the original wound, measured as the distance between the edges of the panniculus carnosus muscle layer.
Paraffin sections were treated with xylene and dehydrated in ethanol. They were then treated with trypsin for 20 min at 37° C. and stained with rat anti-mouse monoclonal F480 antibodies against macrophages (Serotec), with rat anti-mouse monoclonal antibodies against the CD45 common leukocyte antigen (BD Pharmingen), the endothelial marker PECAM-1 (BD Pharmingen) and anti-laminin [Iivanainen et al., 1997, J. Biol. Chem. 272:27862-27868], using the TSA-kit (Perkin Elmer Life Sciences). Biotinylated anti-rat IgG (Vector laboratories) diluted 1:300 was used for detection. Anti-PDGF-D antibodies were produced and used as described in Uutela et al., 2001, Chromosomal Location, Exon Structure and Vascular Expression Patterns of the Human PDGF-C and PDGF-D Genes. Circulation 103:2242-2247, as were antibodies against VEGFR-3 [Kubo et al., 2000, Blood 96:546-553] and LYVE-1 [Laakkonen et al., 2002, Nat Med. 8:751-755].
Frozen sections were fixed in acetone and stained with biotinylated hamster anti-mouse monoclonal CD3e antibodies (BD Pharmingen) against T-lymphocytes and rat anti-mouse monoclonal B220 antibodies (BD Pharmingen) against B-lymphocytes. Rat anti-mouse monoclonal Ly-6G antibodies (BD Pharmingen) against granulocytes (both neutrophils and eosinophils) were used with biotinylated anti-rat IgG (Vector laboratories) for detection. For evaluation of the skin and wound connective tissue, sections were also stained with Van Gieson's stain and Masson's Trichrome stain. Cells were counted from three grids of equal size from the wounded areas and from normal skin of each section. This was done for samples from the Van Gieson's (total cell count), F480 (macrophage count) and PECAM-1 (endothelial cellblood vessel count) and VEGFR-3 (lymphatic vessel count) stainings.
Whole mount staining of smooth muscle actin (SMA) positive blood vessels was performed by first fixing the ears with 4% paraformaldehyde, after this, tissues were blocked in 3% milk 0.3% Triton-X in PBS overnight and Cy3 conjugated antibodies against SMA (Sigma) were applied overnight at +4° C. and viewed in a Zeiss Axioplan 2 fluorescent microscope.
The K14 promoter driven transgene expression starts at E15 in mouse embryos, peaks during the first hair cycle in the skin and is maintained constitutively in adult mice [Vassar et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:1563-1567]. In order to analyze the effects of PDGF-D expression in adult skin and muscle, AAV vectors encoding the full-length PDGF-D (DFL) or the activated form (ΔN) lacking the CUB domain were generated and tested in vitro. AAV encoding HSA was used as a control.
The full length VEGF-E (bp 1-399, Genbank seq. AF106020), the full length PDGF-D (PDGF-DFL), and a short form (PDGF-DΔN, bp 917-1285) as well as human serum albumin (HSA, bp 112-1866, Genbank seq. NM—000477) cDNAs were cloned as blunt-end fragments into the MluI site of the psub-CMV-WPRE plasmid [Paterna et al., 2000, Gene Ther. 7:1304-1311].
Production of VEGFR-2-Ig Fusion Protein and In Vitro Testing of the AAVs
To construct a VEGFR-2IgG expression plasmid, the first three Ig homology domains of the extracellular part of VEGFR-2 were amplified by PCR using primers 5′-GCGGATCCTTGCCTAGTGTTTCTCTTGATC-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 45) and 5′-CCAGTCACCTGCTCCGGATCTTCATGGACCCTGACAAATG-3′ (SEQ ID NO: 46) and cloned into the Signal plgplus vector (Ingenius). The resulting plasmid was cut with BamHI and KpnI, treated with T4 polymerase and back-ligated. The generation of stable Drosophila S2 cells and purification of the VEGFR-2-Ig fusion proteins was carried out as described by Makinen et al., 2001, Inhibition of lymphangiogenesis with resulting lymphedema in transgenic mice expressing soluble VEGF receptor-3, Nat Med. 7:199-205.
HeLa cells were infected with 2 μl purified AAV (5×1011 genomic particlesml) in 5 ml DMEM supplemented with 2% fetal bovine serum and glutamine overnight, after which the cells were washed and cultured for further 24 hours in DMEM supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and glutamine. The cells were metabolically labelled in methionine and cysteine free MEM supplemented with 100 μCiml [35S]methionine and [35S]cysteine (Redivue ProMix; Amersham Pharmacia Biotech). Immunoprecipitation of metabolically 35S-labelled PDGF-D was carried out by using PDGFR-α-Ig or PDGFR-β-Ig (R&D), and VEGF-E was precipitated by a VEGF receptor 2-Ig. The complexes were adsorbed to protein A-sepharose (Pharmacia), washed twice in 0.5% BSA, 0.02% Tween 20 in PBS, and once in PBS and analyzed in a 12.5% SDS-PAGE under reducing conditions.
The recombinant AAVs were injected into the mouse gastrognemius muscle and the muscle histology and immunohistochemistry were analyzed five weeks later. No difference in blood vessel numbers, their smooth muscle coating or the amount of connective tissue could be detected in the injected region.
Chimeric mice reconstituted with green fluorescent protein (GFP)-positive bone marrow (BM) cells were produced to study the behavior of BM cells in vivo. Briefly, BM was collected by flushing femurs of C57BL6-TgN (ACTbEGFP)1Osb mice [Okabe et al., 1997, FEBS Lett. 407:313-319] obtained from the Jackson Laboratory, Bar Harbor, Me. This is a transgenic mouse line with an enhanced GFP (eGFP) cDNA under the control of the chick beta-actin promoter and cytomegalovirus enhancer. Transgenic mice were identified by fluorescence upon exposure of the tissues to a 488 nm light source. 2×106 unselected BM cells from GFP-transgenic mice were transplanted into C57BL6JO1aHsd wild type recipient mice (Harlan, Horst, Netherlands) by means of tail vein injection. The recipient mice were irradiated 1 day before transplantation by a sublethal dosage of 4.0 Gy. Microscopic examination and fluorescence-assisted cell sorter (FACS) analysis showed that bone marrow cells as well as peripheral blood cells were almost completely (80-95%) reconstituted with GFP+ cells 5 weeks after transplantation. After 5 weeks of bone marrow recovery the mice were used for AAV-experiments. The transplantation efficiency was measured by the flow cytometry analysis of GFP+ cells in the peripheral blood on the day the mice were killed.
FIGS. 33C-E shows staining of the macrophage antigen F480 in mice injected with AAV-PDGF-DΔN (
The foregoing results show that the major effects of PDGF-D overexpression in the skin were macrophage recruitment and a significant rise of the IFP in the dermis. In skeletal muscle injected with AAV-PDGF-D macrophage accumulation was similarly observed. The increase of the mRNA for monocyte to macrophage differentiation marker in the skin of the transgenic mice confirmed that the cells were not monocytes, but instead differentiated macrophages as the gene is active only in mature macrophages, not in monocytes. These results are consistent with the studies that have shown that PDGF-BB induces macrophage migration [Siegbahn et al., 1990, J. Clin. Invest. 85:916-920], since PDGF-B and PDGF-D both bind and activate the PDGF-β-receptor.
The application of PDGF-B into a wound increases cellular density in the wound bed from day four until day 14 of wound healing and also increases the influx of macrophages into the wound granulation tissue [Pierce et al., 1991, J. Cell Biochem. 45:319-326]. The foregoing results show that extra PDGF-D recruits macrophages into unperturbed skin, and that its effects are enhanced in the wound healing process. Macrophages are known to play an important role in wound healing by producing a variety of growth factors and cytokines (e.g. TGF-α, TGF-β, IGF-1) and by phagocytosing cellular and matrix debris [Rappolee et al., 1988, Science 241:708-712]. Removal of macrophages impairs the healing process significantly [Martin, 1997, Science 276:75-81][Leibovich et al., 1975, Am. J. Pathol. 78:71-100]. Recent results have shown that the removal of PDGF-B of hematopoietic origin actually promotes vascularization of the granulation tissue, leading to the conclusion that PDGF-B has an inhibitory role in the vascularization of the scar tissue [Buetow et al., 2001, Am. J. Pathol. 159:1869-1876]. The foregoing results indicate that unlike PDGF-B, which may be anti-angiogenic during wound healing, PDGF-D does not have a significant effect on angiogenesis in the granulation tissue.
The fact that PDGF-D increases interstitial fluid pressure (IFP) in vivo is also a novel function for this growth factor, consistent with the fact that the PDGF receptor β is essential for the maintenance of steady-state IFP [Pietras et al., 2001, Cancer Res. 61:2929-2934]. Thus, the PDGF receptor β and its ligands have an important role in maintaining and controlling the IFP. Modulation of PDGF-D activity may therefore be useful in the delivery of cancer chemotherapy, where the high tumor IFP is a problem [Salnikov et al., 2003, FASEB J. 17:1756-1758].
Bioassays to Determine the Function of PDGF-D
Assays are conducted to evaluate whether PDGF-D has similar activities to PDGF-A, PDGF-B, VEGF, VEGF-B, VEGF-C andor VEGF-D in relation to growth andor motility of connective tissue cells, fibroblasts, myofibroblasts and glial cells; to endothelial cell function; to angiogenesis; and to wound healing. Further assays may also be performed, depending on the results of receptor binding distribution studies.
I. Mitogenicity of PDGF-D for Endothelial Cells
To test the mitogenic capacity of PDGF-D for endothelial cells, the PDGF-D polypeptide is introduced into cell culture medium containing 5% serum and applied to bovine aortic endothelial cells (BAEs) propagated in medium containing 10% serum. The BAEs are previously seeded in 24-well dishes at a density of 10,000 cells per well the day before addition of the PDGF-D. Three days after addition of this polypeptide the cells are dissociated with trypsin and counted. Purified VEGF is included in the experiment as positive control.
II. Mitogenicity of PDGF-D for Fibroblasts
To test the mitogenic capacity of PDGF-D for fibroblasts, different concentrations of truncated homodimers of PDGF-DD or PDGF-AA (as control) are added to serum starved human foreskin fibroblasts in the presence of 0.2 mCi [3H]thymidine. The fibroblasts are then incubated for 24 hours with 1 ml of serum-free medium supplemented with 1 mgml BSA. After trichloroacetic acid (TCA) precipitation, the incorporation of [3H]thymidine into DNA is determined using a beta-counter. The assay is performed essentially as described in Mori et al., 1991, J. Biol. Chem. 266:21158-21164.
III. Assays of Endothelial Cell Function
a) Endothelial Cell Proliferation
Endothelial cell growth assays are performed by methods well known in the art, e.g. those of Ferrara & Henzel, 1989, Nature 380:439-443, Gospodarowicz et al., 1989, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 86:7311-7315, andor Claffey et al., 1995, Biochem. Biophys. Acta 1246:1-9.
b) Cell Adhesion Assay
The effect of PDGF-D on adhesion of polymorphonuclear granulocytes to endothelial cells is tested.
c) Chemotaxis
The standard Boyden chamber chemotaxis assay is used to test the effect of PDGF-D on chemotaxis.
d) Plasminogen Activator Assay
Endothelial cells are tested for the effect of PDGF-D on plasminogen activator and plasminogen activator inhibitor production, using the method of Pepper et al., 1991, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun. 181:902-906.
e) Endothelial Cell Migration Assay
The ability of PDGF-D to stimulate endothelial cells to migrate and form tubes is assayed as described in Montesano et al., 1986, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 83:7297-7301. Alternatively, the three-dimensional collagen gel assay described in Joukov et al., 1996, EMBO J. 15:290-298 or a gelatinized membrane in a modified Boyden chamber (Glaser et al., 1980, Nature 288:483-484) may be used.
IV. Angiogenesis Assay
The ability of PDGF-D to induce an angiogenic response in chick chorioallantoic membrane is tested as described in Leung et al., 1989, Science, 246:1306-1309. Alternatively the rat cornea assay of Rastinejad et al., 1989, Cell, 56:345-355 may be used; this is an accepted method for assay of in vivo angiogenesis, and the results are readily transferrable to other in vivo systems.
V. The Hemopoietic System
A variety of in vitro and in vivo assays using specific cell populations of the hemopoietic system are known in the art, and are outlined below. In particular a variety of in vitro murine stem cell assays using fluorescence-activated cell sorter to purified cells are particularly convenient:
a) Repopulating Stem Cells
These are cells capable of repopulating the bone marrow of lethally irradiated mice, and have the Lin−, Rhh1, Ly-6AE+, c-kit+ phenotype. PDGF-D is tested on these cells either alone, or by co-incubation with other factors, followed by measurement of cellular proliferation by 3H-thymidine incorporation.
b) Late Stage Stem Cells
These are cells that have comparatively little bone marrow repopulating ability, but can generate D13 CFU-S. These cells have the Lin−, Rhh1, Ly-6AE+, c-kit+ phenotype. PDGF-D is incubated with these cells for a period of time, injected into lethally irradiated recipients, and the number of D13 spleen colonies is enumerated.
c) Progenitor-Enriched Cells
These are cells that respond in vitro to single growth factors and have the Lin−, Rhh1, Ly-6AE+, c-kit+ phenotype. This assay will show if PDGF-D can act directly on haemopoietic progenitor cells. PDGF-D is incubated with these cells in agar cultures, and the number of colonies present after 7-14 days is counted.
VI. Atherosclerosis
Smooth muscle cells play a crucial role in the development or initiation of atherosclerosis, requiring a change of their phenotype from a contractile to a synthetic state. Macrophages, endothelial cells, T lymphocytes and platelets all play a role in the development of atherosclerotic plaques by influencing the growth and phenotypic modulations of smooth muscle cell. An in vitro assay using a modified Rose chamber in which different cell types are seeded on to opposite cover slips measures the proliferative rate and phenotypic modulations of smooth muscle cells in a multicellular environment, and is used to assess the effect of PDGF-D on smooth muscle cells.
VII. Metastasis
The ability of PDGF-D to inhibit metastasis is assayed using the Lewis lung carcinoma model, for example using the method of Cao et al., 1995, J. Exp. Med. 182:2069-2077.
VIII. Migration of Smooth Muscle Cells
The effects of the PDGF-D on the migration of smooth muscle cells and other cells types can be assayed using the method of Koyama et al., 1992, J. Biol. Chem. 267:22806-22812.
IX. Chemotaxis
The effects of the PDGF-D on chemotaxis of fibroblast, monocytes, granulocytes and other cells can be assayed using the method of Siegbahn et al., 1990, J. Clin. Invest. 85:916-920.
X. PDGF-D in Other Cell Types
The effects of PDGF-D on proliferation, differentiation and function of other cell types, such as liver cells, cardiac muscle and other cells, endocrine cells and osteoblasts can readily be assayed by methods known in the art, such as 3H-thymidine uptake by in vitro cultures.
XI. Construction of PDGF-D Variants and Analogues
PDGF-D is a member of the PDGF family of growth factors which exhibits a high degree of homology to the other members of the PDGF family. PDGF-D contains seven conserved cysteine residues which are characteristic of this family of growth factors. These conserved cysteine residues form intra-chain disulfide bonds which produce the cysteine knot structure, and inter-chain disulfide bonds that form the protein dimers which are characteristic of members of the PDGF family of growth factors. PDGF-D interacts with a protein tyrosine kinase growth factor receptor.
In contrast to proteins where little or nothing is known about the protein structure and active sites needed for receptor binding and consequent activity, the design of active mutants of PDGF-D is greatly facilitated by the fact that a great deal is known about the active sites and important amino acids of the members of the PDGF family of growth factors.
Published articles elucidating the structureactivity relationships of members of the PDGF family of growth factors include for PDGF: Oestman et al., 1991, J. Biol. Chem., 266:10073-10077; Andersson et al., 1992, J. Biol. Chem., 267:11260-1266; Oefner et al., 1992, EMBO J., 11:3921-3926; Flemming et al., 1993, Molecular and Cell Biol., 13:4066-4076 and Andersson et al., 1995, Growth Factors, 12:159-164; and for VEGF: Kim et al., 1992, Growth Factors, 7:53-64; Pötgens et al., 1994, J. Biol. Chem., 269:32879-32885 and Claffey et al., 1995, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1246:1-9. From these publications it is apparent that because of the eight conserved cysteine residues, the members of the PDGF family of growth factors exhibit a characteristic knotted folding structure and dimerization, which result in formation of three exposed loop regions at each end of the dimerized molecule, at which the active receptor binding sites can be expected to be located.
Based on this information, a person skilled in the biotechnology arts can design PDGF-D mutants with a very high probability of retaining PDGF-D activity by conserving the eight cysteine residues responsible for the knotted folding arrangement and for dimerization, and also by conserving, or making only conservative amino acid substitutions in the likely receptor sequences in the loop 1, loop 2 and loop 3 region of the protein structure.
As used herein, the term “conservative substitution” denotes the replacement of an amino acid residue by another, biologically similar residue. Examples of conservative substitutions include the substitution of one hydrophobic residue such as isoleucine, valine, leucine, alanine, cysteine, glycine, phenylalanine, proline, tryptophan, tyrosine, norleucine or methionine for another, or the substitution of one polar residue for another, such as the substitution of arginine for lysine, glutamic acid for aspartic acid, or glutamine for asparagine, and the like. Neutral hydrophilic amino acids which can be substituted for one another include asparagine, glutamine, serine and threonine. The term “conservative substitution” also includes the use of a substituted amino acid in place of an unsubstituted parent amino acid.
As such, it should be understood that in the context of the present invention, a conservative substitution is recognized in the art as a substitution of one amino acid for another amino acid that has similar properties. Exemplary conservative substitutions are set out in the following Table A from WO 9709433.
Alternatively, conservative amino acids can be grouped as described in Lehninger, Biochemistry, Second Edition; Worth Publishers, Inc. NY:NY (1975), pp. 71-77 as set out in the following Table B.
Exemplary conservative substitutions are set out in the following Table C.
If desired, the peptides of the invention can be modified, for instance, by glycosylation, amidation, carboxylation, or phosphorylation, or by the creation of acid addition salts, amides, esters, in particular C-terminal esters, and N-acyl derivatives of the peptides of the invention. The peptides also can be modified to create peptide derivatives by forming covalent or noncovalent complexes with other moieties. Covalently-bound complexes can be prepared by linking the chemical moieties to functional groups on the side chains of amino acids comprising the peptides, or at the N- or C-terminus.
In particular, it is anticipated that the aforementioned peptides can be conjugated to a reporter group, including, but not limited to a radiolabel, a fluorescent label, an enzyme (e.g., that catalyzes a colorimetric or fluorometric reaction), a substrate, a solid matrix, or a carrier (e.g., biotin or avidin).
The formation of desired mutations at specifically targeted sites in a protein structure is considered to be a standard technique in the arsenal of the protein chemist (Kunkel et al., 1987, Methods in Enzymol. 154:367-382). Examples of such site-directed mutagenesis with VEGF can be found in Pötgens et al., 1994, J. Biol. Chem. 269:32879-32885 and Claffey et al., 1995, Biochem. Biophys. Acta, 1246:1-9. Indeed, site-directed mutagenesis is so common that kits are commercially available to facilitate such procedures (e.g. Promega 1994-1995 Catalog., Pages 142-145).
The connective tissue cell, fibroblast, myofibroblast and glial cell growth andor motility activity, the endothelial cell proliferation activity, the angiogenesis activity andor the wound healing activity of PDGF-D mutants can be readily confirmed by well-established routine screening procedures. For example, a procedure analogous to the endothelial cell mitotic assay described by Claffey et al., 1995, Biochem. Biophys. Acta. 1246:1-9) can be used. Similarly the effects of PDGF-D on proliferation of other cell types, on cellular differentiation and on human metastasis can be tested using methods which are well known in the art.
The foregoing description and examples have been set forth merely to illustrate the invention and are not intended to be limiting. Since modifications of the disclosed embodiments incorporating the spirit and substance of the invention may occur to persons skilled in the art, the invention should be construed broadly to include all variations falling within the scope of the appended claims and equivalents thereof.
This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10260,539, filed Oct. 1, 2002, which in turn is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 10086,623, filed Mar. 4, 2002, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09691,200, filed Oct. 19, 2000, now abandoned, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 09438,046, filed Nov. 10, 1999 and claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 60107,852, filed Nov. 10, 1998; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60113,997, filed Dec. 28, 1998; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60150,604, filed Aug. 26, 1999; U.S. Provisional Application No. 60157,108, filed Oct. 4, 1999; and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60157,756, filed Oct. 5, 1999.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60107852 | Nov 1998 | US | |
| 60113997 | Dec 1998 | US | |
| 60150604 | Aug 1999 | US | |
| 60157108 | Oct 1999 | US | |
| 60157756 | Oct 1999 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10260539 | Oct 2002 | US |
| Child | 10794392 | Mar 2004 | US |
| Parent | 10086623 | Mar 2002 | US |
| Child | 10794392 | Mar 2004 | US |
| Parent | 09691200 | Oct 2000 | US |
| Child | 10794392 | Mar 2004 | US |
| Parent | 09438046 | Nov 1999 | US |
| Child | 09691200 | Oct 2000 | US |
