The present invention concerns the control of dynamic physical systems. More particularly, but not exclusively, the invention concerns the control of dynamic physical systems that exhibit chaotic behaviour.
Chaotic dynamic physical systems are dynamic physical systems that exhibit behaviour that is deterministic in a mathematical sense (the behaviour is precisely determined by the state at any particular time), but nevertheless unpredictable over time due to the sensitivity of the system on the state. Due to this unpredictability, when attempting to control a dynamic physical system it is generally considered undesirable to allow it to enter a chaotic state, as this limits the ability to control the system.
However, avoiding chaotic states may mean restricting the system to inefficient states. For example, in a chemical reaction, while they are unpredictable the chaotic states may make use of resources more efficiently than the stable, non-chaotic states. Further, in systems beyond a certain size chaotic behaviour may be inevitable, and so chaotic behaviour can be avoided only by restricting to very small-scale systems. For this reason, the control of chaotic systems has been of some interest.
A dynamic physical system can be represented by a plurality of variables, each representing a quantity of the system that varies over time. (For example, if the system is a chemical process, the variables could represent the quantities of the different chemicals or their concentrations.) The system can then be modelled by a plurality of rate equations for each of the variables, which describe how the quantities vary over time based on the current state.
As is well known, the instantaneous state of a system can be considered to be a point moving around a “state space”, where the dimensions of the state space represent the different variables of the system, and the position of the point at a given time is determined by the values of the variables at that time. The state of an example Rössler system (a well-known simple dynamic physical system that exhibits chaotic behaviour) as a point moving through state space is shown in
It is known that for dynamic physical systems in ranges where chaotic behaviour occurs, the global behaviour of the system is dominated by a subset of the rate equations, which tend to be the non-linear parts of the system that allow the quantities of the system to grow at an exponential rate. The local rate of expansion is proportional to the local behaviour of each of the variables.
A known method of controlling a chaotic system is the OGY (Ott, Grebogi and Yorke) method, as first described in E. Ott, C. Grebogi, and J. A. Yorke, “Controlling chaos”, Phys. Rev. Lett. 64 1196 (1990). The OGY model is based upon the properties of chaotic systems discussed above. In the OGY method, a model of the dynamic physical system is obtained, and analysed to identify an unstable periodic orbit around which the system cycles is identified. The system is then controlled by applying small, pre-determined changes to the variables of the system, in proportion to the local behaviour of the variables, in order to keep the system in or near the chosen orbit.
Another known method of controlling a chaotic system is the Pyragas continuous control method. Similarly to the OGY method, an unstable periodic orbit around which the system cycles is identified. However, in this method adjustments are made to the system in accordance with pre-determined time delays, which need to be carefully matched with the dynamics of the system to allow successful control.
It is a disadvantage of the both OGY method and the Pyragas method that they require the system in operation to be analysed in order to identify a particular unstable periodic orbit, so that the properties of that orbit can be used to implement the method. Further, neither method allows control of systems in all cases.
The present invention seeks to mitigate the above-mentioned problems. Alternatively or additionally, the present invention seeks to provide an improved method of controlling a dynamic physical system, in particular a dynamic physical system that exhibits chaotic behaviour.
In accordance with a first aspect of the invention there is provided a method of controlling a dynamic physical system, wherein the system comprises a plurality of variable quantities, the method comprising the steps of:
obtaining a model of the system, the model comprising a plurality of variables representing the variable quantities, and a plurality of respective rate equations that describe the rate of change of the variables;
identifying a control term in at least one rate equation from the plurality of rate equations;
deriving a rate control function from, for at least one of the variables in the rate equation, the proportion of the variable to the growth rate of the rate equation;
applying the rate control function to the control term to provide a stabilised control term; and
controlling the dynamic physical system by modifying at least one of the quantities represented by the variables in the control term, so that the control term derived from the modified quantities is substantially the same as the stabilised control term.
The control term is a term that in at least some states of the system dominates the control of the variable whose behaviour is defined by the rate equation. As discussed above, in ranges where chaotic behaviour occurs, the local rate of expansion of a variable is proportional to the local behaviour of the variables in the control term. The rate control function is derived from the proportions of the variables, and so acts to stabilise the rate equation. The stabilisation of the model given by the rate control function can be applied to the system itself by modifying the quantities represented by the variables accordingly, thus allowing the system to be stabilised. The control term will in most cases be a term that would under certain conditions expand exponentially if the control provided by the invention were not applied.
Unlike the known methods described above, the method of this aspect of the invention does not require the model to be analysed when in operation, so that the properties of a particular unstable orbit can be identified. Rather, only the rate equations defining the model need to be considered, so that the rate control equation can be derived.
Preferably, the control term includes the variable whose behaviour is described by the rate equation. Such a term usually allows exponential expansion of the system, as the feedback of the value of the variable on its own growth rate is what causes the exponential growth.
Preferably, the proportion qx of a variable x to the growth rate is given by the equation:
where μx is a constant. Preferably again, the rate control function is of the form:
feξqx1 . . . qxn
where qx1 to qxn are the proportions of the variables x1 to xn to the growth rate, and f and ξ are scalars. The scalars may f and ξ may advantageously be varied so as to stabilise the system into a pre-determined chosen orbit. The rate control function may include a biasing term, in the form of a constant term added to the original rate control function above.
Preferably, the at least one rate equation describes exponential growth of its respective variable. This is because a rate equation allowing exponential growth will tend to dominate the behaviour of the system in at least some ranges. Preferably, the control term contributes to the growth of the respective variable of the at least one rate equation.
The method is preferably implemented using a computer or computing device. Alternatively the method may be implemented using an electronic circuit. The dynamical physical system may be controlled by a control system, which preferably comprises a computer or computing device. Alternatively the control system may comprise an electronic circuit. The control system preferably measures one or more quantities of the system using one or more input devices, sensors or the like. The values of quantities of the system may be calculated by the control system from the measurements. The control system may calculate the modification required to the controlled quantity of the system, and modify the quantity using one or more control devices.
In accordance with a second aspect of the invention there is provided a dynamic physical system controlled according to any of the methods described above. The dynamical physical system may comprise a control system, which preferably comprises a computer or computing device. Alternatively the control system may comprise an electronic circuit. The control system may be arranged to measure one or more quantities of the system using one or more input devices, sensors or the like. The control system may be arranged to calculated values of quantities of the system from the measurements. The control system may be arranged to calculate the modification required to the controlled quantity of the system, and to modify the quantity using one or more control devices.
In the first aspect of the invention, the dynamic physical system may be a bioreactor. The bioreactor may be a bioethanol fermentor. Advantageously, the control term is D(Csf−Cs), where Cs is the substrate concentration, Csf is a forcing term, and D is a constant. In such a case, preferably the rate control function is:
Alternatively, the control term may be −DCp, where Cp is the product concentration and D is a constant. This allows the system to be controlled by controlling the concentration of the product, or in other words by removing the product from the system as it is produced. In such a case, preferably the rate control function is:
In accordance with a third aspect of the invention there is provided a bioreactor controlled according to any of the methods described above.
In accordance with a fourth aspect of the invention there is provided a bioethanol fermentor controlled according to any of the methods described above.
In the first aspect of the invention, the dynamic physical system may be a wind turbine. Preferably the wind turbine is controlled by varying the pitch of the blades of the turbine. Advantageously, the control term is Tr, the aerodynamic torque of the wind turbine. In that case, he rate control function may be:
The control term may be the wind speed. Alternatively, the control term may be the power output of the turbine generator. The wind turbine may be controlled by a control function that is a combination of a control functions derived from control terms for the wind speed and the power output of the turbine generator respectively.
The wind turbine may be controlled by controlling the torque of the power generator of the wind turbine. Alternatively and/or additionally, the wind turbine may be controlled by controlling the angular velocity of the power generator of the wind turbine. The control term may be the angular velocity of the rotational input of the power generator. Alternatively and/or additionally, the control term may be the torque of the rotational input of the power generator.
In accordance with a fifth aspect of the invention there is provided a wind turbine controlled according to any of the methods described above.
In the first aspect of the invention, the dynamic physical system may be an HVAC system. The control term may be the volumetric flow-rate {dot over (v)}e of the exhaust air. In that case, the rate control function may be:
Alternatively, the control term may be the volumetric flow-rate {dot over (v)}e of the conditioned supply air. In that case, the rate control function may be:
In the first aspect of the invention, the dynamic physical system may be a semiconductor laser system. The semiconductor laser system may be of a non-linear laser ring cavity type. Advantageously, the control term may be the amount of dissipation within the cavity. Alternatively, the semiconductor laser system may be a laser operating with delayed optical feedback. Advantageously, the control term may be the feedback strength of the system. The semiconductor laser system may be a physical optoelectronic device with a feedback loop. Advantageously, the control term may be the voltage at the output of the low-pass filter.
In accordance with a sixth aspect of the invention there is provided a laser system controlled according to any of the methods described above.
In accordance with a seventh aspect of the invention there is provided a non-linear laser ring cavity laser system controlled according to any of the methods described above.
In accordance with an eight aspect of the invention there is provided a laser operating with delayed optical feedback according to any of the methods described above.
In accordance with an ninth aspect of the invention there is provided a physical optoelectronic device laser system with a feedback loop according to any of the methods described above.
In the first aspect of the invention, the dynamic physical system may be an internal combustion engine.
The internal combustion engine may be controlled by controlling the pressure of the air intake of a cylinder of the internal combustion engine. In that case, the control term may be the drive-side torque acting against crankshaft rotation. Alternatively, the control term may be the crankshaft angular velocity of the internal combustion engine. Advantageously, both the torque of the cylinder against the rotation of the crankshaft and the crankshaft angular velocity are control terms.
Alternatively or additionally, the internal combustion engine may be controlled by controlling the pressure of the fuel injection line of a cylinder of the internal combustion engine. In that case, the control term may be the mass of oxygen in the cylinder.
Alternatively, the control term may be the pressure of the exhaust chamber of the internal combustion engine. Alternatively, the control term may be the mass of fuel in a cylinder of the engine. Alternatively, the control term may be the ignition time of a cylinder of the engine.
In accordance with a tenth aspect of the invention there is provided an internal combustion engine controlled according to any of the methods described above. The internal combustion engine may be controlled by controlling the operation at least two cylinders of the internal combustion engine. Advantageously, the at least two cylinders are controlled using different control terms.
Embodiments of the present invention will now be described by way of example only, with reference to the accompanying schematic drawings of which:
A first embodiment of a method of the present invention is now described with reference to the flow chart of
First, a model for the system is obtained (step 10). The system is modelled by a set of variables that represent the variable quantities of the system, and the model comprises a set of rate equations for the variables that describe the rate of change of the quantities based on its current state. The model may be obtained, for example, by studying the system to derive its properties, in other words deriving the model from the observed properties of the system. Alternatively, the system may already have been studied and so a model is already available.
Next, a control term for at least one of the rate equations is identified (step 11). As described above in relation to known methods of controlling chaotic behaviour, in chaotic states the global behaviour of a system tends to be dominated by non-linear parts of the system that allow quantities grow at an exponential rate. This implies that the growth of a variable in such a state will often be determined by a term including the variable itself, as this feedback of the value of the variable on its own growth rate causes the exponential growth. Thus, a control term for a rate equation for a particular variable will often be a term of the equation that includes the variable itself. However, it is not necessary (or even desirable) that the control term contains the particular variable; the control term can be any term within the rate equation that is liable to expand at an exponential rate.
A rate control function is then derived from the rate equation (step 12). In particular, the rate control function is derived using the proportions of the variables that contribute to the growth rate of the rate equation. This is because, again as discussed above in relation to known methods of control of chaos, the local rate of expansion is proportional to the local behaviour of each of the variables.
The rate control function is then applied to the control term (step 13). This provides a stabilised control term for the rate equation, in which the rate control function limits the control term in proportion to the divergence rate of the variable. Thus, if the model of the system is modified by using the stabilised control term in place of the original control term, this should give a model in which the system is stabilised.
In some embodiments the rate control function may depend on one or more scalars. A scalar may apply to the rate control function as a whole, in which case it simply defines the strength of the control applied to the system. The scalar must not be too small, in which case the control is not sufficient to prevent exponential growth, or too large, in which case it would materially affect the overall behaviour of the system (for example by preventing chaotic behaviour altogether). A suitable value for such a scalar may be determined experimentally, for example; any value that acts to keep the system stable is sufficient.
Alternatively or additionally, a scalar may apply only to the proportions of the variables in the rate control function, and not to the rate control function as a whole. Such a scalar will have a more precise effect on the behaviour of the rate control function beyond simply determining whether it successfully stabilises the system or not. For example, by varying the scalar it may be possible to select different orbits into which the system can be stabilised. Similarly to above, a suitable value for such a scalar may be determined experimentally. In practice, a scalar applied to the rate control function as a whole may need to be adjusted to take account of different values for a scalar applied to the proportions only.
Thus, a stabilised model of the system has been provided. In order to stabilise the system itself, the quantities whose variables are present in the control term are adjusted so that the control term derived from the modified quantities is the same (or at least substantially the same) as the stabilised control term (step 14). In other words, the rate control function identifies what the result of calculating the control term using the values of the quantities should be in order to stabilise the system, and thus gives a result which the quantities should be varied so as to achieve.
To give a simple example, if a growth term consists of a single variable x, and at a given point in time the rate control function has a value of 0.5, this indicates that the quantity represented by the variable x should be reduced by one half in order to keep the system stable. If on the other hand the growth term comprises more than one variable, the quantities they represent can be varied in any suitable way such that the rate control function is satisfied. This means that the quantity that is most easily to adjust can be varied, for example.
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to an example system is now described. The system is the Rössler system, a well-known dynamic physical system that exhibits chaotic behaviour, which is defined by the following rate equations:
Considering third rate equation for the variable z, the growth of the variable z is given by the terms zx and β/α, and so the control term is taken to be the term zx (as the constant term β/α cannot be varied). The proportion of each variable in the control term, to the growth rate is given by the quotients:
where ux and uz are constants.
These quotients are then used to derive a rate control function σ for the variable z, as follows:
where f and ξ are scalars as discussed above. (The scalar f is used to set the overall level of control applied to the system, while the scalar ξ is used to stabilise the system to different orbits.)
The rate control functions are then applied to the control term in rate equation, to give the following modified control term:
σ(x,z)zx
which can be substituted in the rate equation as follows:
This gives a stabilised system, and as described above the rate control function together with the control term defines a target for varying the quantities represented by z and x in order to stabilise the system.
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to a bioreactor is now described; that is, a biochemical process to manufacture a desired product by means of a biochemical reaction. Bioreactors and generic models thereof are described in Michael A. Henson. Exploiting cellular biology to manufacture high-value products. IEEE Control Systems Magazine, pages 54-62, August 2006.
In particular, the method of the invention as applied to a bioethanol fermentor is now described. A bioethanol fermentor is a system that produces ethanol by fermenting biomass such as waste agricultural material (sugar, fruit, grains, potatoes etc.). The biomass is fermented using a microorganism such as Zymomonas mobilis. A bioethanol fermentor is described in I. M. Jöbses, G. T. Egberts, K. C. Luyben, and J. A. Roels, “Fermentation kinetics of Zymomonas mobilis at high ethanol concentrations: Oscillations in continuous cultures”, Biotechnology and Bioengineering, 28(6):868-877, 1986. Also described therein is a model of the bioethanol fermentor. Similarly, a bioethanol fermentor and its model are described in M. E. E. Abashar and S. S. E. H. Elnashaie, “Dynamic and chaotic behavior of periodically forced fermentors for bioethanol production. Chemical Engineering Science”, 65(16):4894-4905, 15 Aug. 2010. However, in this case the model of the bioethanol fermentor includes a sinusoidal forcing term, which describes a periodic adjustment to one of the quantities of the system, as described below.
A model of the system with forcing term is given by the following rate equations:
for the active component concentration Ce, the product concentration Cp, the substrate concentration Cs, and the biomass concentration Cx of the system. μ is the specific growth rate of the system, given by the equation:
where μmax and Ks are constants. Csf is the forcing term, the periodic feed concentration given by the equation:
Csf=Cs0+A sin(ωt)
where Cs0, A and ω are constants and t is time. A defines the amount of forcing applied, and ω the frequency of the forcing. (A model of the unforced system can be obtained by simply setting A to zero.) The other values in the equations are constants.
An example of the chaotic behaviour of the system is shown by
Considering the rate equation for the substrate concentration Cs, the control term for this equation is the term D(Csf−Cs). The proportion of the variable Cs to the growth rate of the rate equation is given by the quotient:
From this equation the rate control function σ(Cs) is derived:
σ(Cs)=fseξqc
This is applied to the control term to give a modified rate equation with stabilised control term as follows:
This then shows how the quantities represented by the variables making up the control term can be adjusted in order to stabilise the system. In other words, in this particular case the rate control function defines how to adjust the substrate concentration Cs of the system in order to keep the system stabilised.
Considering instead the rate equation for the product concentration Cp, the control term for this equation is taken to be the term −DCp. This is because, in this case, it can be seen that production of the product Cp is inhibited by the presence of the product itself, and it is desired to control the system by removing the product as it is produced. Considering then the rate equation that contribute, the variables that contribute to the growth of the rate equation are the variables Cx and Ce, and their proportions to the growth rate of the rate equations are given by the equations:
From these equations the rate control function σ(Cp) is derived:
This is applied to the control term to give a modified rate equation with stabilised control term as follows:
While in this embodiment control of both Cs and Cp has been described in order to control the system, in practice control of only one is required. However, control of the system could be achieved by controlling both variables (in practice controlling their underlying quantities, of course), if desired.
The effect of the applying the control method is shown in
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to a wind turbine power generator is now described. A wind turbine comprises a number of blades arranged around a rotor shaft, which convert kinetic energy in the wind into rotational movement. The rotor shaft is connected mechanically to a generator, which converts the rotational movement into electricity. There exist many types of wind turbine design, each with their own particular characteristics. In the following embodiment, the wind turbine is a variable speed, Horizontal Axis Wind Turbine (HAWT). However, the invention is equally applicable to other designs of wind turbine.
Typical wind turbine control methods are primarily dependant on the wind speed, as measured by an anemometer located at or near the top of the turbine structure. The turbine control is typically split into three regions, primarily governed by the prevailing wind speed but also by the rotational frequency of the generator shaft and the mechanical and electrical limits of the equipment. These control regions are defined as follows:
Region 1: In region 1, the generator is decoupled from the rotor shaft (i.e. rotation of the rotor shaft is not transmitted to the generator). If the wind speed is deemed too low to start the turbine the blades are pitched so as to produce minimal aerodynamic torque, so as to reduce stress on the blades while they are stationary. When the wind speed rises above a pre-determined value (based on the type of turbine), the blades are pitched to the angle which provides maximal aerodynamic torque, with the result that the wind acts to rotate the turbine. Once the generator shaft has reached a pre-determined angular velocity (again based on the type of turbine), the generator control torque is enabled, coupling the rotor shaft to the generator. At this stage region 2 power production is entered.
Region 2: The wind speed in region 2 is less than that required to produce the rated power of the generator and the generator control torque is adjusted in an attempt to track optimal power capture for the current rotor angular velocity and wind speed.
Region 3: The wind speed in region 3 is at least enough for the wind turbine to produce rated power output. The generator control torque is held at the rated torque. The control system is now responsible for maintaining the turbine at rated power by altering the rotor blade pitch to control the aerodynamic torque acting on the blades, and thereby controlling the amount of power extracted from the wind. The standard, non-proprietary, method of control used to alter the blade pitch and maintain rated power in this region is proportional-integral-derivative (PID) control, as described in Bossanyi, E. 1987, Adaptive Pitch Control for a 250 kW Wind Turbine, Proceedings of the British Wind Energy Conference, pp. 85-92; and Boukhezzar, B. and Siguerdidjane, H. Nonlinear Control of a Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Using a Two-Mass Model, IEEE Transactions on energy conversion, vol 26, No. 1. 2011.
The progression from region to region described above assumes a relatively smooth and steady change in wind speed. However, a particularly difficult scenario from the perspective of a control mechanism is that of gusting wind conditions. During large and variable wind gusts the wind turbine control mechanism must be able to maintain the angular velocity of the rotor assembly below a rated value and minimise mechanical stresses. Under such conditions, and without an appropriate control mechanism as provided by the present invention, power production must be halted.
It is known to use a Proportional Integral Derivative (PID) controller to as a method of control in many industries, including for the control of wind turbines. However, PID control is linear in nature, whereas a wind turbine is a non-linear dynamical system, as wind speed is inherently chaotic. The performance shortcomings of PID control can be mitigated using feedback techniques such as neural networks and fuzzy control, but these add complexity to the tuning process and can require high precision and sampling rates. Further, PID control must be adjusted for different operating conditions in order to ensure that thresholds are not exceeded, and the inability of PID control to work throughout the full spectrum of operating conditions can itself be a reason for requiring the shutdown of a wind turbine in highly gusty wind conditions.
A model of the wind turbine is given by the following equations, taken from Eisenhut, C., Krug, F., Schram, C. and Klockl, B. 2007, Wind-Turbine Model for System Simulations Near Cut-In Wind Speed, IEEE Transactions on energy conversion, vol. 22, No. 2; and Soltani, M., Wisniewski, R., Brath, P and Boyd, S, Load Reduction of Wind Turbines Using Receding Horizon Control, Proceedings IEEE Multi-Conference on Systems and Control, Denver, September 2011:
and where Cp is approximated by a non-linear function of λ and β, from Muhando, E. B., Senjyu, T., Urasaki, N., Yona, A., Funabashi, T, Robust Predictive Control of Variable-Speed Wind Turbine Generator by Self-Tuning Regulator 2007 IEEE:
with:
and c1=0.5176, c2=116, c3=0.4, c4=5, c5=21 and c6=0.0068.
The following terms are used in the above equations and below:
In order to control the wind turbine during gusty conditions, the aerodynamic torque Tr is adjusted in order to keep the amount of power extracted from the wind within the rated limit of the turbine. Considering the rate equation Ir{dot over (ω)}r, the control term for this equation is simply Tr. From this, the following rate control function is derived:
and applying this to the existing model gives:
Ir{dot over (ω)}r=σω
In practice, the application of this control function to the aerodynamic torque would be used to determine how the blade pitch β should be adjusted.
The effect of applying the control method is shown with reference to
In a related embodiment, the control functions are derived by considering the wind turbine system to be a combination of two distinct systems working together. The first system is the turbine rotor assembly, which needs to be limited in cases of high and/or gusty wind. The second system is the generator system, which needs to be controlled to operate within its rated power limits.
Control functions as follows are derived:
These are applied to the model of the wind turbine as follows:
so the torque Tg and angular velocity ωg of the generator are controlled by the control function derived from the angular velocity ωg of the generator; and the blade pitch is controlled as follows:
where:
σβ=σV(qV)σp(qp)
so the blade pitch β is controlled by the combination of the control functions based on the wind speed V and the power output of the turbine generator P.
Other controls that may be used are as follows:
Simulations of the model incorporating the above control functions, particularly in contrast to models incorporating PID control, provided a more controlled power output and so were able to operate at a higher mean power output while still ensuring that power spikes would not exceed the rated output of the generator. Further, the drive train of the turbine had a lower mean level of stress, and lower maximum stress peak amounts.
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to a Heating Ventilation and Air Conditioning (HVAC) system is now described. HVAC systems may be found operating in a large number of different scenarios, such as offices, automobiles, factories, laboratories, refrigeration systems and life-support/protective suits.
A schematic drawing of a laboratory HVAC system is shown in
A model for a laboratory HVAC system, derived from Osman, A., Mitchell, J. W. & Klein, S. A, Development of a Simulator for Laboratory HVAC System (http://www.inive.org/members_area/medias/pdf/Inive/clima200 0/1997/P274.pdf) is as follows:
where the terms used are as follows:
In some laboratory spaces the pressure of the air in the laboratory, P, will be maintained at a lower value than that of the adjacent spaces, Pad. This will help to prevent the flow of any harmful substances out laboratory. Alternatively, in a space such as a clean-room, this relationship is reversed as in this case it is desirable to ensure that no contaminant can enter the laboratory from the adjacent spaces.
The control system for such an HVAC system would typically be responsible for maintaining specific variables such as temperature, pressure differential (Pad−P), volumetric air-flow rates, general exhaust among others, within well-defined ranges corresponding to safety and/or comfort.
Considering the first equation, the control term is {dot over (V)}e (the volumetric flow-rate of the exhaust air), giving a control function:
Considering instead the second equation, the control term is {dot over (v)}s (the volumetric flow-rate of the conditioned supply air), giving a control function:
σp(q{dot over (v)}
where:
The control functions can then be applied to the control terms in the first and second equation respectively, in order to determine how the exhaust air and/or conditioned supply air should be controlled.
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to control chaotic behaviour of lasers is now described. Semiconductor lasers are used in many applications, for example in optical communication networks, DVD players and many other applications. The dynamic behaviour of lasers can be extremely complex, in particular under the influence of external perturbations such as feedback or delay coupling.
A first type of semiconductor laser system is a non-linear laser ring cavity, which can be modelled using an Ikeda map as described in K. Ikeda, Multiple-valued stationary state and its instability of the transmitted light by a ring cavity system, Optics Communications, 30(2):257-261, 1979. By plotting the real and imaginary parts of the complex equation:
with x=Re(z) and y=Im(z), the Ikeda map can be described as follows, where typically a=1, b=0.9, K=0.4 and η=6.0:
Considering the equations xn+1 and yn+1, the control term is φ, which represents the amount of dissipation within the cavity, giving a control function of:
where:
giving:
Taking μ=5 and ξ=1,
A second type of semiconductor laser system is a laser operating with delayed optical feedback. A model of this type of system, the Lang-Kobayashi model, is described in T. Sano, Antimode dynamics and chaotic itinerancy in the coherence collapse of semiconductor lasers with optical feedback, Physical Review A, 50(3):2719-2726, 1994, and is as follows:
where P is the photon number, φ the slowly varying part of the optical phase, and the deviation of the carrier number from the threshold value Nth of the solitary laser ΔN=N−Nth. ω is the optical angular frequency, which is assumed to be zero. K=1000 is the damping constant for the photon number, and ΔJ the pumping current deviation from the threshold. The feedback strength γ is given by:
where R is the power reflectivity of the external mirror, r that of the laser facets, τc the round trip time of the cavity and η the coupling ratio. Other parameter values are α=6, β=10−5, η=1, Nth=103.
Considering the equations for the changes in P or φ, the control term is taken to be γ; this is also a practical choice as it can be controlled in a physical implementation. The control function is σ then given by:
where f=6 and ξ=−1, giving the new term:
A third type of semiconductor laser system is a physical optoelectronic device with a feedback loop. A model of this type of system, the Blakely model, is described in J N Blakely, L Illing, and Daniel J Gauthier, High-speed chaos in an optical feedback system with flexible timescales, Quantum Electronics, IEEE, 40(3):299-305, 2004; and in Y. G. Zheng and Z. H. Wang. Stability and Hopf bifurcations of an optoelectronic time-delay feedback system, Nonlinear Dynamics, 57(1-2):125-134, September 2008. Its main features are delay feedback with additional low-pass and high-pass filters to give it a band-pass characteristic. The Blakely model is described by the equations:
where v(t) is the voltage at the output of the low-pass filter, p(t) is the laser output which relates to the voltage at the output of the high-pass filter, Vdet(t) is the voltage output of the (non-linear) photodiode, p0=26 is the emission power, T0=19.1 is the timed delay in the feedback loop, τl=0.66 is the low-pass filter time constant, τh=22 is the high-pass filter time constant, γ=0.0053 is the system amplification by feedback strength, k=4.8 is the voltage to power conversion strength, α=1.89 determines the sensitivity of the interferometer and β=0.8 is the fringe visibility.
Considering the equation for the change in time of p, the control term of this equation is taken to be v(t), voltage at the output of the low-pass filter. This is also practical for physical implementation, as feedback strength is not easily modifiable. The control function and modified rate equation are then:
where f=20 and ξ=−1.
An embodiment in which the method of the invention is applied to an internal combustion engine is now described. An internal combustion engine comprises a crankshaft which is driven by a plurality of cylinders. An exemplary cylinder is shown in
In conventional engines various parameters such as amount of fuel to be injected are controlled by means of lookup tables, which use properties of the engine such as current speed, torque, temperature, acceleration and the like in order to provide pre-determined ideal values for the parameters. The ideal values are typically determined by testing an engine throughout its range of performance at the product development stage. However, while this allows a certain level of performance to be guaranteed, it does not allow the optimal performance of which the engine may be capable. In the internal combustion engine of the present embodiment of the invention, the various parameters of the engine are controlled using control functions based on the properties of the engine, as described below.
The operation of the engine is modelled as follows. The height h of the cylinder head with respect to the crankshaft angle A is described by:
h=r cos(A)+(l2−r2 sin2(A))1/2
where r is the radius of the crankshaft 204 and l is the length of the arm 203. The mass-flow equations for the fuel and other components are as follows:
where typical modelling assumptions have been made regarding heat loss (zero heat loss during the combustion process) and ideal gas behaviour. Dissociation of other combustion species is not specifically modelled, rather it has been assumed that excess fuel is not combusted fully or partially and is represented as octane in the combustion products.
The crank dynamics are then described by:
while the torque on the crank τc due to the force acting on the piston head as a result of the pressure inside the cylinder cavity is described by:
where A is the crank-angle and is in the range [0, 4π) radians, F is the force exerted on the piston-head by the gas mixture, Fl is the force transmitted down the piston rod, Fc is the tangential force exerted on the crankshaft at the interface between the crankshaft and the piston rod and τc is the torque exerted on the crankshaft by the piston.
Combustion is modelled using the octane combustion equations described in Flagan, Richard C. & Seinfeld, John H. Fundamentals of air pollution engineering. Prentice-Hall, Inc., Englewood Cliffs, N.J. (1988). In a stoichiometric situation (there is exactly the amount of air required to burn all the fuel) or off-stoichiometric situation (more air than required to burn all the fuel), for one mole of fuel the reaction equation is:
C8H18+x(O2+3.76N2)→8CO2+9H2O+(3.76X)N2+(x−12.5)O2
In a rich air/fuel mixture (not enough air required to burn all the fuel) again for one mole of fuel the reaction equation is:
where χ=12.5 for complete stoichiometric combustion. It is assumed that there is no partial burning of octane during rich conditions, and that octane that is not combusted is simply present in the reactants as pure octane. It is also assumed that air composition is 80% Nitrogen and 20% Oxygen.
The heat produced during this reaction is derived from a heat balance equation of this reaction equation, assuming constant-volume specific heat capacity values of the constituent species. The temperature change due to combustion is approximated by calculating the change in temperature using an averaging of specific heat values for all substances involved (taken at a reasonable temperature of approx. 500 K). This model is representative enough of the dynamics involved in the combustion process and the assumptions do not adversely affect the results the fine details of the combustion process do not significantly affect the general behaviour of the system. For example, the modelling of dissociation of species such as carbon monoxide, hydrogen and nitrogen oxide would not significantly alter the macroscopic dynamics of the system.
Using this model, the following control functions are derived based on the drive-side torque acting against crankshaft rotation, the crankshaft angular velocity and the mass of oxygen in the cylinder (which could in practice be estimated using mass flow sensors):
The control functions are then used to control the pressure of the air intake and the pressure of the fuel injection line as follows:
In other words, the control function based on the mass of oxygen in the cylinder is used to control the pressure of the fuel injection line, while the control functions based on the drive-side torque acting against crankshaft rotation and the crankshaft angular velocity are used to control the pressure of the air intake.
Other control functions that could be used are as follows:
The terms used in the above are as follows:
The crankshaft angular velocity of the engine controlled in the embodiment is shown in
The skilled person will appreciate that in other embodiments each cylinder of the engine could be controlled using a different set of control functions to control different parameters of the cylinder.
Whilst the present invention has been described and illustrated with reference to particular embodiments, it will be appreciated by those of ordinary skill in the art that the invention lends itself to many different variations not specifically illustrated herein. In particular, it will be appreciated that the invention will have application to chaotic system found in many different areas of technology. By way of example only, certain possible variations will now be described.
Number | Date | Country | Kind |
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1119036.0 | Nov 2011 | GB | national |
Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind |
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PCT/GB2012/052739 | 11/5/2012 | WO | 00 |
Publishing Document | Publishing Date | Country | Kind |
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WO2013/064840 | 5/10/2013 | WO | A |
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Number | Date | Country | |
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20140309755 A1 | Oct 2014 | US |