In one aspect, the present invention relates to a method of fracturing an earth formation.
In another aspect, the present invention relates to an earth formation borehole system.
In still another aspect, the present invention relates to a method of producing a mineral hydrocarbon substance.
A stimulation treatment that is routinely performed on oil and gas wells in low-permeability reservoirs is so-called formation fracturing. The aim is to stimulate the production of hydrocarbon substances from the reservoir by opening new flow channels in the rock surrounding a production well. Typically, a fracturing fluid is pumped downward through a well bore tubular at relatively high pressure, and forced out below a packer or between two packers that seal off the annulus formed between the well bore wall and the well bore tubular. The pressure is intended to cause fractures in the form of cracks to open in the formation. The fluid typically penetrates the formation through these cracks, causing the cracks to grow.
The well bore tubular may be a production tubing or drill pipe or any other suitable tubing or pipe.
Often, a proppant (typically also referred to as propping agent) may be carried in the fracturing fluid into the cracks. Such a proppant typically is a granular substance that is carried in suspension by the fracturing fluid, that serves to keep the cracks open when fracturing fluid dissipates or is withdrawn after a fracturing treatment.
Fracturing also often occurs around injection wells, during deep-well injection of liquids. The formation around an injection well is often fractured due to an imbalance between the injection pressure and the minimum horizontal rock stress opposing fracturing. The resulting fractures can grow during injection, which may span over several months to years. Flow and transport around an injection well with a vertical fracture exhibits important differences from radial transport that neglects the presence of the fracture, and also from transport from a fracture of constant length. Moreover, operators of injection wells want to avoid the fractures to grow vertically out of the injection interval.
U.S. Pat. No. 7,028,772 discloses a treatment well tilt meter system, wherein one or more tilt meters are located at different depths within a treatment well. Interconnection cable lines interconnect each of the tilt meters, and a main wireline extends from the tilt meter system to the surface. The tilt meters are placed such that one or more tilt meters are located above, below, and/or within an estimated pay zone region, in which a perforation zone is formed.
A fracturing pump supply line is connected to the well head for a fracturing operation. The tilt meter system is used to map hydraulic fracture growth from collected down hole tilt data versus time.
However, tilt meters do not provide a great wealth of information. They essentially operate on the same principle as a carpenter's level, in that they resolve tilt based on gravity. In effect, tilt meters can merely provide feedback on fracture growth or other subsurface processes in so far as they cause tilting or bending of the well bore.
The present invention provides a method of fracturing an earth formation, comprising:
The present invention further provides a borehole system in an earth formation, the borehole system comprising:
The present invention still further provides a method of producing a mineral hydrocarbon fluid from a reservoir in an earth formation, comprising
Monitoring the strain distribution enables detection of bending as well as other types of deformation of the object. Thus, fracturing can be monitored in cases where it leads to bending of the object in the earth formation, as well as in cases where it does not cause bending of the object in the earth formation.
The object in the earth formation may suitably be located in the borehole or in the wellbore itself, and be mechanically interacting with the borehole wall or the wellbore wall.
The invention will hereinafter be illustrated by way of examples and preferred embodiments, with reference to the attached drawing figures. Objects, features and advantages of the present invention will be apparent to those skilled in the art from the following description of the various embodiments and related drawings.
In the attached drawing figures:
The subject matter of the present invention is described with specificity however, the description itself is not intended to limit the scope of the invention. The claimed subject matter thus, might also be embodied in other ways to include different steps or combinations of steps similar to the ones described herein, in conjunction with other present or future technologies. Moreover, although the term “step” may be used herein to connote different methods employed, the term should not be interpreted as implying any particular order among or between various steps herein disclosed except when the order of individual steps is explicitly described.
A plurality of strain sensors 30 and 30A is applied to the object 10, for monitoring a strain distribution in the object 10. The plurality of strain sensors may comprise Fiber Bragg Gratings, which may be interconnected with a single optical fiber. However, in the embodiment as depicted in
As will be explained herein below, the sensors may, for instance, be wrapped around and/or draped around the object 10 or be spiraling along the inside surface of the object 10, or be incorporated in the wall material of the object 10. For the purpose of the present specification, the term “draping around” is understood to include draping “around” the interior of the object or cylindrical object, for instance when the object concerns a tube or a pipe.
The borehole system of
The low-pressure input opening 18 is in fluid communication with a fracturing fluid supply 22. Fracturing fluid supplies are known in the art, and may typically comprise a liquid fluid source 22a; an optional proppant source 22b; and an optional mixing device, which is here schematically depicted at branch connection 22c, wherein a mixture of the liquid and the proppant is produced. The present invention is not limited to a specific type of fracturing fluid supply, and it also works when a proppant-free fracturing fluid is employed.
Various liquids are known to be used for fracturing, including distillate, diesel fuel, crude oil, dilute hydrochloric acid, water, and kerosene. The fracturing liquid may optionally comprise a proppant. Typical known proppants are often granular of nature and may include materials such as sand grains, gravel, aluminum pellets, walnut shells, or similar materials.
The high-pressure output opening is in fluid communication with the borehole 13, via line 23. Fluid communication may be established directly into the cased borehole, or via an inner tubing 7 such as is the case in
The casing 10 is provided with one or more perforations 12. A bridge plug, here depicted in the form of packer 8, seals against a lower portion of casing 10, to isolate a zone below the perforations 12 from the pressure of the fracturing fluid 24 in the borehole 13. It may also seal against the borehole wall of an open hole section. An annular plug, here in the form of annular packer 9 sealing against an upper portion of casing 10 and a lower portion of the inner tubing 7, is provided to isolate a zone above the perforations 12 from the pressure of the fracturing fluid 24 in the borehole 13.
During operation, the fracturing fluid is pumped in pressurized condition into the borehole 13, for instance via inner tubing 7, against the formation 6. The fluid is allowed to directly contact the formation 6 via perforations 12. The pressure may be so high as to break or separate the earth formation to initiate a fracture 11a. Continued pumping results in growth of the fracture, successively depicted at 11b through 11h. Such fracturing induces displacements of the earth formation which in turn may exercise a detectable deformation force on the casing 10 resulting in a fracturing-induced strain distribution in the casing 10. This strain distribution may be monitored during the pumping, e.g. by imaging the deformation of the casing 10. Such imaging will be further elucidated below. Monitoring may optionally continue after terminating pump 17, for instance during the phase of dissipating of the pressure.
The monitored strain distribution may be outputted, e.g. displayed, stored, or transmitted. Alternatively, the strain distribution is first analyzed to determine a deformation parameter or a distribution of this deformation parameter along the object, which then in turn may be outputted. Useful deformation parameters include bending curvature of the object, ovalization parameter (e.g. an aspect ratio given by the quotient of the largest diameter and smallest diameter of an oval object), radial strain, axial strain along a longitudinal axis of the object. The tilt angle of the object at various positions along the object, e.g. relative to the vertical or an original axial direction of the object, may be derived from the bending curvature of the object as a function of position along the object. This may involve integrating the curvature.
The pumping of the pressurized fracturing fluid may be controlled in response to the monitoring. Herewith it can be avoided that too much or too little fracturing has been induced, such that optional subsequent hydrocarbon fluid production via the wellbore may be optimized.
The invention may also be advantageously applied on wellbores that are not intended to produce hydrocarbon fluids, such as injection wells in reservoir floods for recovery of hydrocarbons via other wells in the field. Some wells are intended for injection only, for instance for the purpose of disposing of a fluid such as waste water, carbon diode or chemicals.
The continuing description refers to the use of strain sensors in the form of a plurality of transducers that may comprise one or more conventional Fiber Bragg Grating (hereinafter “FBG”) sensors such as, for example, the transducers described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,798,521, 6,426,496, or 6,854,327. Optionally, FBG sensors may be
i) specially treated (short-term blazed) as described in “Characteristics of short-period blazed FBG sensors for use as macro-bending sensors”, APPLIED OPTICS, 41, 631-636 (2002), Baek, S., et al.; and/or
ii) bent as described in “Long-Period Fiber Grating Bending Sensors in Laminated Composite Structures”, SPIE Conference on Sensory Phenomena and Measurement Instrumentation for Smart Structures and Materials, March 1998, San Diego, Calif., SPIE Vol. 3330, 284-292, Du, W., et al.; and/or
iii) coated as described in “Ultrastrong Fiber Gratings and Their Applications”, SPIE Conference Phototonics East “Optical Fiber Reliability and Testing”, 3848-26, Sep. 20, 1999, Starodubov, D. S., et al.
Optical fiber that is treated to comprise Fiber Bragg Gratings may be suitable for use in monitoring compaction-induced strain on a tubular object. Fiber Bragg Gratings may be made by laterally exposing the core of a single-mode fiber to a periodic pattern of intense UV light. This creates areas of increased refractive index within the fiber. The fixed index modulation is referred to as a Fiber Bragg Grating. All reflected light signals combine coherently to one large reflection at one wavelength when the grating period is equal to half the input wavelength. Other wavelengths of light are, for all intents and purposes, transparent. Light therefore, moves through the grating with negligible attenuation or signal variation with only the Bragg wavelength being affected, i.e., strongly back-reflected at each FBG sensor. In other words, the center frequency of the grating is directly related to the grating period, which is affected by thermal or mechanical changes in the environment. Thus, temperature, strain and other engineering parameters may be calculated by measuring the normalized change in reflected wavelength. Being able to preset and maintain the grating wavelength is, thus, what makes FBG sensors so useful. See “Fiber Bragg Grating” 3M US Online, 27 Nov. 2000.
The present invention, however, is not limited to the use of FBG-type sensors and may be implemented with conventional sensors or transducers capable of detecting axial and/or radial strain such as, for example, strain gauges as described in “Strain Gauge Technology,” A. L. Window (Editor), Elsevier Science Pub. Co., 2nd edition, November 1992. Thus, the novel techniques and methods described herein may be implemented and applied through the use of any type of strain sensor or transducer capable of detecting signals and transmitting signals, regardless of whether it is a FBG sensor, strain gauge or other conventional type sensor or transducer. Furthermore, the use of an optical fiber as a transmission means to illustrate various applications of the invention described herein is not exclusive of other well-known transmission means that may be used to connect the transducers such as, for example, electrical wires, which are capable of transmitting power and a signal. Furthermore, conventional wireless transducers may be used provided that they include a power source.
Various tests have been made to study the feasibility of employing FBG sensors wrapped around a tubular for making visible fracturing-induced deformation of the earth formation.
For instance,
Since the expected fracture-induced bending of a tubular object is expected to be low, 50° or higher, e.g. 60° or higher, is expected to be a preferred wrap angle for this application.
In the embodiment shown in
A cylindrical tube in a bore hole may undergo several types of deformation under the influence of fracturing. For instance, ovalization of the casing could occur in addition to bending and axial straining. Ovalization could typically provide the highest strain distribution signal, in particular when the monitoring is performed from the same well or borehole as the fracturing.
In the embodiment as depicted in
In the embodiment as depicted in
The object of which the deformation is monitored does not have to be in the bore hole through which the fracturing fluid is pumped into the earth formation: it may be anywhere in the earth formation and mechanically interacting with the earth formation anywhere.
For instance, in alternative embodiments, fracturing fluid may be pumped into the formation via a so-called treatment well, while the object and the plurality of strain sensors may be provided in an offset well (not shown), so that the strain distribution in the object can be monitored during fracturing at a distance from the treatment well. The typical deformation in such an offset well may be predominantly bending, such as e.g. shown in U.S. Pat. No. 7,028,772. In case of a of strain sensors applied along an application path that helically winds along the surface of a cylindrical object, such bending results in a sinusoidal strain around the object with a period corresponding to the wrap pitch, as will be further set forth herein below.
Of course, both the treatment well and an offset well may be provided with an object and strain sensors for monitoring the fracturing in multiple wells at the same time.
The provision of the strain sensors, of course, does not exclude embodiments wherein the strain sensors are combined with other types of sensors, including tilt meters, flow sensors, pressure sensors, micro-seismic sensors. In addition, a tagged proppant may be employed, e.g. a proppant tagged with a radio-active tracer to be able to measure where and how much proppant has been put in the formation fracture.
A full disclosure will now be provided showing detailed considerations for determination of preferred wrap angles and showing various methods of applying the strain sensors to the object, all of which may be useful for fracturing monitoring as described above. A large part of the following disclosure has been published in co-pending US Patent application published under number US 2006/0233482, incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.
Referring now to
In
Axial strain along the axis of the object 10 caused by compaction can be represented as ε=ΔL/L. Axial strain along the axis of the object 10 caused by compaction can be translated to strain in the strain sensor 20 and represented as εf=ΔS/S, which may manifest itself in the strain sensor 20 as axial, hoop and/or sheer stress. The relationship between strain (εf) in the strain sensor 20 and its wavelength response is therefore, represented by:
Δλ=λ(1−Pe)Kεf
where Δλ represents a strain sensor wavelength shift due to strain (εf) imposed on the strain sensor 20 and λ represents the average wavelength of the strain sensor 20. The bonding coefficient of the strain sensor 20 to a substrate or system on which the strain is to be measured is represented by K.
A “combined” response for bending (also buckling, shearing) and axial strain may be represented by:
wherein Δλ is the wavelength shift measured on a given grating and λ is the original wavelength of the grating which may nominally be 1560 nanometers. The term (1−Pe) is a fiber response which is nominally 0.8. Bonding coefficient K typically may be 0.9 or greater. The wrap angle (or orientation angle of the sensor) with respect to first imaginary axis of the tubular is represented by θ. The axial strain ε on the tubular that may be from compaction or other external source. The radius of the tubular or cylindrical object is represented by r, and φ is an arbitrary azimuth angle with respect to some reference along the axis of the tubular that allows one to orient the direction of the buckle or bend with respect to this. Capital R represents the bend radius of the buckle or bend in the pipe. As the bend radius gets very large (straight unbent pipe), this portion of the signal vanishes. The Poisson ratio ν of the object may change with strain. An independent measurement may be employed to extract the value of ν. One can, by using two wrap angles simultaneously, solve for this.
For simplicity in the examples that follow, the bonding coefficient (K) is assumed to be constant. Pe represents the strain and temperature effect on the index of refraction of the strain sensor 20. Pe may be a function of strain and temperature, including torque on the strain sensor 20, but is neglected in the following examples. Since it is well known that temperature variations may impart additional strain to the fiber 30, the strain sensors 20 and object 10, which affect the index of refraction in the fiber 30, temperature variations may be considered independently for calibrating the strain measurements. This can easily be done either by a separate temperature measurement that could be performed by mechanically decoupling short lengths of the fiber 30 from the object 10, using a separate but similar fiber that is entirely decoupled mechanically from the object 10 or by any other means of measuring the temperature in the vicinity of the object 10 undergoing the strain measurement.
The foregoing properties may be used to relate the strain (εf) in the strain sensor 20 to the axial compaction strain (ε) in the object 10. The strain (εf) in the strain sensor 20 can be related to the preferred wrap angle (θ1) and the strain (ε) along the axis of the object 10 by:
The Poisson ratio (ν) is an important property of the object 10, which is relevant to the strain (ε) the object 10 may encounter as illustrated in the examples to follow.
The strain factor relating axial strain (ε) in the object 10 to strain (εf) transmitted to the strain sensor 20 is represented by:
which may also be translated to:
ΔS/S=m*ΔL/L=m*ε.
Comparison of the strain factor (m) to other variables reveals that it is highly sensitive to the preferred wrap angle (θ1), somewhat sensitive to the Poisson ratio (ν), and quite insensitive to applied axial strain (ε)
Application of the Sensors
The primary requirements for sensitivity and resolution are a sufficient number of sensors 20 positioned around the circumference (C) of the object 10 and adequate vertical spacing between the sensors 20 so that a sinusoidal pattern associated with a bend, buckle, shear or crushing (ovalization) force can be clearly detected and imaged. As demonstrated by the relationships below, sensitivity to axial strain and radial strain, and hence bending strain, is also a function of the preferred wrap angle (θ1).
A desired sensitivity to axial strain in the cylindrical structure may be selected based on considerations as set forth below. Also set forth below, at least one strain factor corresponding to the desired sensitivity may be calculated. Such a strain factor represents a ratio between strain transmitted to the strain sensor as caused by axial strain in the cylindrical structure and the axial strain in the cylindrical structure. A preferred wrap angle relative to an imaginary reference line extending along a surface of the cylindrical structure may then be determined, in dependence of the at least one determined strain factor. The strain sensor may then be applied to the cylindrical structure in alignment with the preferred wrap angle to measure strain in the direction of the preferred wrap angle.
Preferably, at least ten strain sensors 20 per wrap of the fiber 30 may be used to adequately capture one cycle of the sinusoidal signal produced by a deformation of the object 10. It is also desirable to have at least eight to ten turns or wraps of the fiber 30 covering the vertical distance of the object 10 over which the deformation is expected to occur. Fewer strain sensors 20 will reduce the resolution and ability to unambiguously distinguish between a bend, buckle, shear or crushing type deformation. In terms of the preferred wrap angle (θ1) and the diameter (D) (in inches) of the object 10 the length of object 10 (in feet) covered by each wrap is represented as:
To obtain the length in feet, the length in meters must be divided by 0.30. To obtain the diameter in inches, the diameter in centimeters must be divided by 2.54.
In terms of the preferred wrap angle (θ1) and the diameter (D) (in inches) of the object 10, the length of one wrap around the object 10 (in feet) is represented as:
The total length of the fiber 30 (in feet) based on a preferred number of wraps (Nw) around the object 10 and the length of one wrap (S1) around the object 10 (in feet) is represented as:
S=S1*Nw
The axial length of the fiber 30 (in feet) along the object 10 is based on a preferred number of wraps (Nw) around the object 10 and the length of object 10 (in feet) covered between each wrap is represented as:
Z=L1*Nw
Thus, the preferred number of wraps (Nw) around the object 10 may be determined by the axial length (Z) of the object 10 wrapped in the fiber 30 divided by the length (L1) of object 10 covered between each wrap of the fiber 30. In addition to the preferred wrap angle (θ1), the preferred number of wraps (Nw) may be used to determine a preferred application of the fiber 30 and strain sensors 20 to the object 10.
The strain sensor spacing may be as short as 1 centimeter or as long as necessary to accommodate a judicious number of strain sensors 20 per wrap of the fiber 30 on a object 10 having a large diameter. The total number of strain sensors 20 per wrap of the fiber 30 as a function of strain sensor spacing (Sg) (in centimeters) and wrap length (S1) is represented as:
Assuming that all of the strain sensors 20 on the fiber 30 are within the wrapped portion of the fiber 30, then the total number of strain sensors 20 on the fiber 30 is represented as:
Similarly, the preferred strain sensor spacing (Sg) may be easily determined with a known preferred number of strain sensors (N) and a predetermined total length (S) of fiber 30.
Roughly, the maximum number of strain sensors 20 that can be used on one fiber 30 with this technique may be about 1000. Thus, the preferred wrap angle (θ1), the preferred number of wraps (Nw) and the preferred number of strain sensors (N) may be used to determine a preferred application of the fiber 30 and strain sensors 20 to the object 10.
Using the previous equations, plots such as the one in
In
Based on these structural parameters (P(ν), (ε)), the strain factor (m) may be determined for each wrap angle illustrated in
The ability to easily regulate the amount of strain the fiber and each strain sensor will be exposed to, and even the sign of the strain (tension vs compression) is very important. Most conventional fiber sensors manufactured from glass can be exposed to no more than one or two percent strain (in tension) before damage or failure occurs. Compressional strain in fiber sensors manufactured from glass is even more problematic. Thus, high axial compressional strain exerted on tubular objects in compacting environments can be converted to mild extensional strain in the fiber sensor by simply adjusting the wrap angle. The same principle may be applied to recalculate the amount of strain on other conventional sensor systems that may be used.
In
The principles illustrated in
Determining the preferred wrap angle (θ1) within the preferred wrap angle range may, alternatively, be based on a preferred strain factor range comprising a plurality of the strain factors determined in the manner described above. The determined strain factor or determined strain factor range may be selected to determine the preferred wrap angle (θ1) within the preferred wrap angle range based on a maximum strain the strain sensor 20 and/or fiber 30 can withstand. If a transmission means other than the fiber 30 is used, or wireless transducers are used, then the determined strain factor or determined strain factor range used to determine the preferred wrap angle (θ1) within the preferred wrap angle range may be based on a maximum strain the alternative transmission means and/or transducers, or wireless transducers, can withstand.
In
Once a preferred application of the strain sensors has been determined, the strain sensors may be applied to the object 10 along a preferred application line represented by the fiber 30 in
The strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 may be applied to an exterior surface of the object 10 (as illustrated in
Furthermore, the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 may be applied to the object 10 in a protective sheath and/or a protective sheet coating the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30, provided that the protective coating is capable of transferring strain from the object 10 to the strain sensors 20. Acceptable protective coatings may comprise, for example, a metal, a polymer, an elastomer, a composite material or a thin tube comprising one or more of these materials that is flexible yet capable of being applied to the object 10 in a way that couples the strain experienced by the object 10 with the strain sensors 20. In the event the object 10 must be run in a well bore, the strain sensors 20 and fiber 30 may be applied before the object 10 is run in the well bore.
Alternatively, the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 may be applied to the object 10 after it is run in the well bore using a conduit, or may be applied to the interior or exterior surface of the object 10 after the object 10 is run in the well bore. Any conventional conduit capable of being coupled to the object 10 is acceptable. Acceptable materials for the conduit may comprise, for example, a metal, a polymer, an elastomer, a composite material or a thin tube comprising one or more of these materials that is flexible yet capable of being applied to the object 10 in a way that couples the strain experienced by the object 10 with the strain sensors 20.
The strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 may be introduced into an opening in the conduit and positioned therein with a fluid capable of securing the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 within the conduit and transferring strain on the object 10 to each strain sensor 20. In one example, the fluid may at least partially solidify and secure the strain sensors within the conduit. The fluid may, for example, comprise any conventional polymer, polymer solution, polymer precursor, or epoxy. The fluid may also be used to convey the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 through the conduit. Additionally, the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 may be positioned in the conduit with the fluid by applying force on either, or both, ends of the fiber 30 to push and/or pull the same through the conduit. For example, a weighted object may be attached to the leading end of the fiber 30 to propel (pull) the fiber 30 and strain sensors 20 through the conduit. The conduit may be positioned within the object 10 along the preferred application line or on the object 10 along the preferred application line. In either case, the preferred wrap angle may be formed between the preferred application line (represented by the fiber 30 in
Application of the strain sensors 20 and fiber 30 to a object 10 after it has been positioned in a well bore may be preferred in that this technique does not require the tubular object to be rotated or a fiber spool to be rotated about the object during application of the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30. Similar advantages may be preferred by application of the strain sensors 20 and the fiber 30 to the object 10 in a protective sheet, which may be positioned on the object 10 and fastened along one side as described further in U.S. Pat. No. 6,854,327.
Multiple and Variable Wrap Angles
As reservoir depletion progresses, the sensitivity/resolution requirements and strain factors are likely to change. By combining multiple wrap angles over a single zone of the formation, the sensitivity and dynamic range of the measurements may be extended. For example, a fiber wrapped at 20 degrees may fail at one level of strain while the same fiber wrapped at 30 degrees or more may not fail at the same level of strain or at a slightly higher level of strain.
Another advantage multiple wrap angles provide is better characterization of the change in the Poisson ratio (ν) as the structural material yields under higher strains. Common steel used in tubulars may have a Poisson ratio of near 0.3 while it is elastic but trends toward 0.5 after the material yields. Applying the fiber 30 and strain sensors 20 at two or more wrap angles, as illustrated in
Restrictions on the number of strain sensors, the wrap length and the strain sensor spacing may also be overcome using multiple wrap angles. Therefore, multiple wrap angles may be used to extend the measuring length of a single region along the object or span multiple zones along the object as illustrated in sections A, B and C of
Although the wavelength response is more complicated, the application of the fiber 30 and the strain sensors 20 at variable wrap angles may also be desirable. Configurations utilizing multiple and variable wrap angles over a single section of the object 10, like section B in
The present invention will now be described further with reference to its application in different formation environments such as, for example, formation shear and formation compaction. In each of the examples to follow, a cylindrical object was tested using a Distributed Sensing System (DSS) manufactured by Luna Innovations Incorporated under license from NASA. The LUNA INNOVATIONS® Distributed Sensing System (DSS) utilizes technology covering an optical fiber containing multiple FBG sensors, and a projection device or monitor capable of imaging a wavelength response produced by the FBG sensors as a result of structural strain detected by the FBG sensors. The present invention, however, is not limited to such technology by the following examples, and other transmission means and transducers and/or strain sensors may be used as described hereinabove.
Strain sensors may be pre-positioned on the tubular object and/or casing without having to run conventional logging tools into the well. Accordingly, in-situ measurements can be taken of shear forces at any time without disturbing the well and with essentially no additional cost. The onset of damage can be observed substantially in real time so that remedial action can be taken as soon as possible.
In
Assuming a 76-millimeter (3-inch) diameter tubular object to be monitored across a slip or shear zone, the location of which is known to be within ten feet, requires at least 6.1 meters (20 feet) of coverage along the tubular. Applying the principles taught by the present invention to the known variables illustrated in
A need exists for imaging deformation of an object, in order to image the shape and magnitude of the deformation. The same wrap technique may be used to image, detect and measure bending and buckling of the cylindrical object as will be explained in the forthcoming examples.
In this example, a 0.025 mm (0.001-inch) lateral offset translates into a dogleg in the object of about less than one-half degree for each one hundred-foot section of the object, which is inconsequential. However, a lateral offset of about 2.54 mm (0.1 inch) over the same length of object translates into a dogleg of approximately 48 degrees for each 30.5 meter (one hundred-foot) section of the object, which could prevent entry with production logging tools. Knowing the magnitude of the lateral offset (dogleg) before attempting entry could therefore, prevent lost and stuck logging tools and lost wells.
The wavelength response illustrated in
Another effect of fracturing is local compaction. Axial compaction is commonly measured with radioactive tags and special logging tools, which typically requires shutting in the well. Measurement of strain on the tubular object or casing below one percent is difficult to achieve, however, with these conventional techniques. At higher strains, a bend or a buckle in the casing or tubular object is also difficult to detect without pulling the production tubing and running acoustic or mechanical multi-finger calipers or gyroscopes into the well.
The disadvantages associated with conventional means of detecting and measuring strain induced by axial compaction may be avoided with pre-positioned strain sensors. In other words, the application of pre-positioned strain sensors on the object may be used for in-situ detection and measurement of axial compaction forces in the manner described above.
In this example, accurate measurements of low strain and high sensitivity to bending or buckling induced by axial compaction are important objectives. A thin-walled PVC pipe was tested using the weight of the pipe, horizontally suspended by its ends, as the applied force. A preferred wrap angle of about 20 degrees was used to apply the strain sensors and optical fiber to a 3-meter (10-foot) long section of the pipe with a 16.5-centimeter (6.5-inch) diameter. A 5-centimeter strain sensor spacing was used to resolve the wavelength response from a buckle or a bend.
In
In this example, the same pipe was tested using a weight hung from the center of the pipe, which was horizontally suspended at each end. The lateral offset due to a bend is about 5.791 millimeters (0.228 inches). As illustrated in
In addition to detecting a bend or a buckle, the onset of ovalization or crushing forces may also be detected and distinguished from a bend or a buckle. A pure ovalization or crushing force should produce a pure ovalization wavelength response. In this example, the same pipe was tested with clamps that were applied as a crushing force near the center of the pipe and slightly tightened with the orientation of the applied force aligned across the diameter of the pipe so as to slightly decrease its cross-sectional diameter. The resulting wavelength response is illustrated in
In this example, the same pipe was tested by rotating the clamps near the center of the pipe 90 degrees. The resulting wavelength response is illustrated in
The increased strain (and therefore deformation) is obvious when comparing
In
In this example, the sensitivity is decreased to allow for measurements of higher axial strains (ε≅2 percent) on a tubular object. As the structural material begins to undergo plastic deformation, the Poisson ratio (ν) will tend towards 0.5 in the limit of plastic deformation. In
A 30-degree wrap angle should easily accommodate and measure up to five percent axial strain while imparting only a fraction of that strain to the fiber. As the axial strain increases, the onset of buckling and other higher modes of deformation are revealed by the periodic nature of the wavelength response.
Even though
One of the most sensitive areas in a well to compaction and deformation is the completion zone. This is particularly true in highly compacting unconsolidated formations in which sand control is required.
In order to control formation areas comprising sand, the base pipe is usually fitted with a filter, commonly referred to as a sand screen. A gravel pack (carefully sized sand) may also be used between the sand screen and the outer casing or formation. The sand screen may comprise a conventional sand screen wire wrap and multiple other conventional screen components (hereinafter referred to as a screen assembly). The wire wrap in the screen assembly is designed to allow fluid to flow through openings that are small enough to exclude large particles.
High axial strain imposed on the base pipe can close the wire wrap openings and impair fluid flow. Bends or buckles in the base pipe may also compromise the structural integrity of the screen assembly, thereby causing a loss of sand control. In this event, the well must be shut in until repairs can be made. Such failures require, at a minimum, a work over of the well and in extreme cases, a complete redrill. Consequently, monitoring the object for bends, buckles and axial strain in the completion zone is preferred-particularly where sand control is required. Accordingly, the strain sensors may be applied to the base pipe and/or screen assembly at about a 20-degree wrap angle.
In this example, a 914-millimeter (36-inch) tubular object having about a 76-millimeter (3-inch) diameter and a Poisson ratio (ν) of about 0.5, was tested in a controlled environment using a 21-degree wrap angle for the application of the strain sensors and fiber. Various amounts of axial strain εa were applied at each end of the object, which was otherwise unsupported. The average wavelength response (actual, ♦) over the applied strain sensors at each level of applied axial strain is compared to the calculated wavelength (□) response in
The following Figures (
In
In
One of the areas in the well where the least amount of strain is likely to occur in compacting reservoirs is in the overburden. The highest tensile strains are usually observed very near the compacting zone and the magnitude of the strain reduces as the distance from the compacting zone increases. This is reflected in the theoretical plot in
The actual magnitude of the extensional strain in the overburden just above the reservoir is highly dependent upon the reservoir geometry and the material properties of the reservoir and overburden. The ratio of the extensional strain just above the reservoir to the compressional strain in the reservoir can be used as one diagnostic for reservoir performance. Likewise, the amount of a tensional strain in the overburden affects such things as seismic signals used for 4D seismic measurements. Thus, the fiber and strain sensors are preferably applied at about 90 degrees longitudinally along the object to increase sensitivity to tensile strains. When the fiber and strain sensors are positioned on a tubular object specifically designed for monitoring such strain, a very accurate measurement can be made.
Furthermore, three or more fibers containing strain sensors may be longitudinally and equidistantly positioned around the tubular object in order to detect not only axial strain on the object but also bending strain. The strain on the outside of the radius of curvature of the bend or buckle will be higher (in tension) than the strain on the inside radius. Thus, when 3 or more fibers containing strain sensors are positioned in this manner, the detection and measurement of a long radius bend is possible through the uneven wavelength response.
Applying the string of sensors to the cylindrical object at the preferred wrap angle is not limited to actually spiraling the string around the object such as is exemplified in
The zig-zag pattern comprises first and second application lines, schematically represented in
As explained above, the preferred first wrap angle may also be represented by θ2=90°−θ1 to represent the angle with the longitudinal axis. Likewise, the preferred second wrap angle be represented relative to the longitudinal axis as θ2′=90°−θ1′.
The preferred first and second wrap angles may be determined as described above, and may be based on first and/or second strain factors.
The preferred second wrap angle may be chosen equal to 180° minus the first preferred wrap angle, resulting in a zig-zag pattern of two constant helicities of opposite parity. However, the zig-zag pattern allows for two distinct wrap angles corresponding to different strain factors.
The zig-zag pattern moreover allows for easy application of the string of strain sensors without the need of continuously wrapping.
As depicted in
When the loop angle equals 180° plus the included angle between the first application line and the second application line, the string of strain sensors can enter and exit the loop in directions along the respective application lines.
This loop is preferably mechanically decoupled, or at least strain-isolated from the object, such that the fiber in the loop is not significantly strained due to deformation of the object. When the loop moreover comprises a third portion 20″ of the strain sensors, the signal from such free loops 27 provides a calibration point in the signal image because the signal originating from the third portion 20″ of strain sensors is not significantly subject to deformation strain caused by the object 10. In fact, the free loops 27 allow for an integral temperature measurement because the signal originating from the third portion 20″ of the strain sensors is predominantly governed by temperature changes. Such temperature measurement may be used to separate a contribution in the signal from the first and second portions of the strain sensors of deformation of the object from a temperature effect the signal.
As explained above, the string of strain sensors may be applied to the object in at least one of a protective sheath and a protective sheet.
The string of strain sensors may be mechanically coupled, in the selected zig-zag pattern, to a pliable support structure 60, as schematically depicted in
The term “pliable support structure” includes not only support structures formed from a pliable or compliant material but also support structures comprising two or more relatively rigid parts that are movable relative to each other to convey pliability, such as pivotably inter-hinged shell parts or separate shell parts that may be interconnected after bringing them together.
The pliable support structure 60 is capable of being draped around the cylindrical object 10.
The selected zig-zag pattern of the string of strain sensors on the pliable support structure may comprise first and second application lines extending in mutually differing directions defining an included angle between the first and second application lines of less than 180°. The application lines each extend in an essentially straight fashion within the plane of the support structure. When draped around the object, the application lines then follow the curvature of the object in an otherwise straight line. A first portion of the strain sensors is mechanically coupled to the pliable support structure along the first application line and a second portion of the strain sensors is mechanically coupled to the pliable support structure along the second application line.
The fiber 30 has been visibly depicted in
Once draped around the cylindrical object, the pliable support structure may be held in place in any suitable way, including one or more of a zipper, straps, clamps, adhesive, Velcro®, or combinations of such means.
In a first group of embodiments, the pliable support structure may be made of a generally compliant material, such as a cloth, a blanket, a sheet, a fabric. A fabric may be woven from strands, including strands comprising metal wires and/or epoxy fiber glass combined with an elastomer such as comprising a butyl rubber. A cloth may be formed of a metallic cloth. A sheet may comprise a rubber sheet.
The pliable support structure may be more compliant than the material of the cylindrical object around which it is to be draped.
This group of embodiments may be stored on a spool 70, such as is depicted in
The spool 70 may be transported to a rig site, and used to facilitate the act of draping of the pliable support structures around a tubular object, such as for instance a casing 10, while it is suspended in the rig. One of the pliable support structures may paid out from the spool 70, separated from the protective cover 66, and positioned against the tubular object 10 between two joints. Subsequently, it may be draped around the tubular object 10 and fastened to it. Protective rings, such as centralizers or clamps shown in
The fiber 30 may be a continuous fiber, or it may be provided with fiber connectors, preferably “dry-mate” type fiber optic connectors, between subsequent pliable support structures on the spool. In the case of the latter, the fiber connectors may suitably be connected before applying the protective rings 80 so that the connectors may also be protected underneath the protective rings.
It will be appreciated that the application of a string of strain sensors employing the pliable support structure, as described here, in particular in a rig site environment, is beneficial not only to strings of strain sensors arranged in a zig-zag pattern but to strings laid out in any pattern, including longitudinal strings of sensors and/or axially aligned strings of sensors or generally meandering strings of sensors.
In a second group of embodiments, the pliable support structure is provided in the form of a clamshell structure. An example is shown in
The first and second shell parts may be relatively rigid, whereby the pivotable rotatability provides pliability to the clamshell structure. “Pliability” may also be achieved by providing two or more separate clam shell parts that are connected to one another after draping them around the cylindrical object, for instance by means of a latching mechanism or by means of bands binding the clam shell parts in place. The zig-zag pattern of the string of sensors in one of the shell parts could match or complement that of the pattern in the other of the shell parts.
The fiber 30 has been depicted as mechanically coupled to the concave surface of the shell parts, with free loops 27 extending beyond the edges 91 and 92A which mark the extrema or turning points of the zig-zag pattern.
Free loops 28 are also provided at the hinged edges 91A and 92 to allow flexibility facilitating the rotational movement of the shell parts. Similar to the first group of embodiments, each or any of the free loops 28 may be protected from impacts from the outside, by a protective cover.
The clamshell structures may be draped around the tubular object depicted in
When draping these shell parts around the cylindrical object, a first shell part would be attached and subsequent adjoining shell parts would be fed off of the stack as they are draped around the cylindrical object. At a rigsite, the cylindrical object could gradually be lowered into the well as the next shell parts are being draped around. The draping may also occur simultaneously with making up the tubular joints in the slips.
The plurality of clam shell parts may be stacked in a holding box or rack that could be moved laterally and/or vertically, and/or rotated so as to feed the adjoining joints without damaging the interconnecting flexible cables 96.
It will be appreciated that the string of strain sensors may be mechanically coupled to the exterior convex surface of the clamshell structure, and it may also be sandwiched between an inner and an outer shell of each shell part. Such an inner and/or outer shell part may be formed by, for instance, a relatively thin and compliable protective sheet adhered to the other outer and/or inner shell part.
At least one of the clam shell parts may cover more than half a circle so that at least one free longitudinal edge of at least one of the shell parts overlaps the mating longitudinal edge of another adjacent shell part. Such overlap may be provided with a protective housing space to accommodate free loops.
It will also be appreciated that the clamshell structure may comprise three or more shell parts each hinged one to another to form a chain. Free loops 28 may be provided at each hinging edge.
In both groups of embodiments, the protective cover 65 may be part of a closure mechanism. For instance, the latching brackets 97 and 97A shown in
In one example schematically shown in
Similarly, the free loops 27 may be accommodated in tabs or sheets as for instance shown at 65 in
Such protective covers also protects the string of sensors against the cement if the cylindrical object concerns, for instance, a casing that is cemented into a well. Otherwise, the loops that are intended to be free loops may become mechanically coupled to the cement.
The above described application of the plurality of transducers in a zig-zag pattern may be employed in a method of imaging deformation of an object, as will now be illustrated with reference to
The tubular object had a diameter of 17.78 cm (7 inch) and a Poisson's ratio of 0.3, and the response of each sensor has been calculated from expected local bend radii at the sensor locations along the application lines of the sets of sensors, resulting from subjecting the tubular object to an S-bend. The local bend radii together form the S-bend as shown in line 33 in
The calculations were made in respect of a first set of optical strain sensor gratings spiral wrapped around the tubular object at a wrap angle of 20°, and in respect of a second set of optical strain sensor gratings draped around the tubular object under a zig-zag pattern employing first and second wrap angles of 20° and 160°.
Line 31 in
The signal from the square-marked strain sensors 34 originate from strain sensors in the loop parts of the second set, that are not mechanically coupled to the tubular object. They show zero wavelength shift, as they are not strained due to object deformation. Any wavelength shift associated in these strain sensors would be due to temperature and pressure effects and therefore can be used to adjust for such effects on the object. The loops also provide an orientation key that allow the direction of any bending in the object to be ascertained.
The present invention may be utilized to detect and monitor deformation of any substantially cylindrical object in an earth formation, for example in a well bore, caused by structural strain. As described herein, the present invention may be uniquely tailored to detect and measure axial compaction, shear, bending, buckling, and crushing (ovalization) induced strain on the well bore object due to fracturing the formation.
Accordingly, the cylindrical object may be provided in the form of a wellbore tubular, such as for instance a drill pipe, a production tube, a casing tube, a tubular screen, a sand screen.
In particular when employed on a casing tube or a production tube, the methods described above may be used in a method of producing a mineral hydrocarbon fluid from an earth formation, comprising:
applying the string of interconnected strain sensors to the cylindrical object in the form of a casing tube, a production tube, or a screen;
inserting the cylindrical object into a wellbore in the earth formation;
producing the mineral hydrocarbon fluid through the cylindrical object.
The strain and bending condition of the cylindrical object can thus be monitored during production and completion, such that preventive and/or remedial action may be taken to maximize the production efficiency in under the given circumstances.
It is therefore, contemplated that various situations, alterations and/or modifications may be made to the disclosed embodiments without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims and equivalents thereof.
This is a continuation-in-part of PCT/US2006/013823, filed 13 Apr. 2006, which is a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 11/107,270, filed 15 Apr. 2005. The present application is also a continuation-in-part of U.S. Ser. No. 11/107,270, filed 15 Apr. 2005. In addition, the present application also claims priority benefits of U.S. provisional application 60/939,467, filed 22 May 2007, the content of which is incorporated herein by reference.
Number | Date | Country | |
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60939467 | May 2007 | US |
Number | Date | Country | |
---|---|---|---|
Parent | 11107270 | Apr 2005 | US |
Child | 11759127 | Jun 2007 | US |
Parent | PCT/US06/13823 | Apr 2006 | US |
Child | 11759127 | Jun 2007 | US |
Parent | 11107270 | Apr 2005 | US |
Child | PCT/US06/13823 | Apr 2006 | US |