Method to optimize perforations for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic earth formations

Abstract

The subject disclosure relates to determining an optimum orientation for perforations around the circumference of a subsurface borehole and optimum wellbore fluid initiation pressure for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic formations.

Description

BACKGROUND

Perforation techniques are widely used in the oil and gas industry both for enhancing hydrocarbon production by minimizing sand production and for hydraulic fracture stimulation initiation. Citing a comprehensive review on the topic, “the process of optimizing stimulation treatments uses orientated perforations to increase the efficiency of pumping operations, reduce treatment failures and improve fracture effectiveness. Completion engineers develop oriented-perforating strategies that prevent sand production and enhance well productivity by perforating to intersect natural fractures or penetrate sectors of a borehole with minimal formation damage.” See Almaguer et al., “Orienting perforations in the right direction”, Oilfield Review, Volume 1, Issue 1, Mar. 1, 2002.

Hydraulic fractures initiate and propagate from positions around the circumference of the open borehole wall that offer the least resistance in terms of stress and rock strength conditions. If the formation material properties (e.g. elastic stiffness and strength) are isotropic and homogeneous and if the material is intact (free of natural fractures or flaws), it is generally accepted that the fracture initiation occurs at the locus around the borehole where the tensile stress is maximum. The stress conditions at the borehole wall in such formation depends on the local stress orientations and magnitudes (local principal stress tensor), the orientation of the borehole and a material property called Poisson's ratio (if the formation is assumed elastic).

One definition of an optimum perforation orientation is the orientation around the circumference of a subsurface borehole wall and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure that corresponds to the minimum principal stress at the borehole wall (rock mechanics convention is chosen here with positive compressive stress) reaching the tensile strength of the rock. Consequently, the optimum perforation orientation will ultimately lower the treatment pressure during hydraulic fracturing therefore lowering the energy requirement of a job. It will also result in a “smoother” fracture near the wellbore (i.e. less near wellbore tortuosity) in which proppant can be placed more effectively.

Perforation orientations may be designed with the following typical steps:

• 1. A rock property called Poisson's ratio v is estimated along the well most commonly using compressional V_p and shear V_s sonic log data from formula v=0.5(V_p²−2V_s²)/(V_p²−V_s²). Other methods may also be used as is known in the art.
• 2. The far-field stress field (or tensor), σ, and pore pressure, P_p, are characterized using direct or indirect stress measurements, leading to three principal stress directions and magnitudes (σ₁>σ₂>σ₃) in the subsurface. When one principal stress is vertical and called σ_V, the following convention is used σ_H, and σ_h for, respectively, the maximum and minimum horizontal principal stresses. For a recent review of the existing methods, see Hudson, J. A., F. H. Cornet, R. Christiansson, “ISRM Suggested Methods for rock stress estimation Part 1: Strategy for rock stress estimation”, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 991998; Sjoberg, J., R. Christiansson, J. A. Hudson, “ISRM Suggested Methods for rock stress estimation Part 2: Overcoring methods”, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences 40 (2003) 9991010; Haimson, B. C., F. H. Cornet, “ISRM Suggested Methods for rock stress estimation Part 3: hydraulic fracturing (HF) and/or hydraulic testing of pre-existing fractures (HTPF)”, International Journal of Rock and U.S. Pat. No. 8,117,014 to Prioul et al., entitled “Methods to estimate subsurface deviatoric stress characteristics from borehole sonic log anisotropy directions and image log failure directions”.
• 3. Given known well orientation as a function of depth, defined by two angles (well azimuth and deviation), the principal stress tensor σ=[(σ₁ 0 0; 0 σ₂ 0; 0 0 σ₃] can be transformed using tensor rotation into a wellbore frame for example using so-called TOH-frame stress tensor σ_TOH=[σ_xx^TOH σ_xy^TOHσ_xz^TOH σ_xy^TOH σ_yy^TOH σ_yz^TOH; σ_xz^TOH σ_yz^TOH σ_zz^TOH]. The TOH (top of the hole) frame is a coordinate system tied to the tool/borehole. Hence, its x- and y-axes are contained in the plane perpendicular to the tool/borehole, and the z-axis is pointing along the borehole in the direction of increasing depth. The x-axis of the TOH frame is pointing to the top of the borehole, the y-axis is found by rotating the x-axis 90 degrees in the tool plane in a direction dictated by the right hand rule (thumb pointing in the positive z-direction). Given a known internal wellbore pressure, P_w, borehole stresses (or near-field) are then computed using well-known Kirsch analytical expressions, (See Ernst Gustav Kirsch. Die Theorie der Elastizitat and die Bedurfnisse der Festigkeitslehre. “Zeitschrift des Vereines Deutscher Ingenieure”, 42(29):797-807, 1898; Y. Hiramatsu and Y. Oka. “Stress around a shaft or level excavated in ground with a three-dimensional stress state”; Kyoto Teikoku Daigaku Koka Daigaku kiyo, page 56, 1962; Y. Hiramatsu and Y. Oka. “Determination of the stress in rock unaffected by boreholes or drifts, from measured strains or deformations”, International Journal of Rock Mechanics and Mining Sciences & Geomechanics Abstracts, volume 5, pages 337-353. Elsevier, 1968), for the total stresses at the borehole wall for an arbitrary orientation of the borehole relative to the far-field in-situ stress tensor, as follows in cylindrical coordinates:σ_rr=P_w,σ_θθ=σ_xx^TOH+σ_yy^TOH−2(σ_xx^TOH−σ_yy^TOH)cos 2θ−4σ_xy^TOH sin 2θ−P_w,σ_zz^TOH=σ_zz^TOH−2v(σ_xx^TOH−σ_yy^TOH)cos 2θ−4vσ_xy^TOH sin 2θ,σ_θz=2(σ_yz^TOH cos θ−σ_xz^TOH sin θ),σ_rθ=σ_rz=0,where v is the Poisson's ratio, θ is the azimuthal angle around the borehole circumference measured clockwise from a reference axis (e.g. TOH). Equations to compute borehole stresses away from the borehole wall at a desired radial position into the formation are also available.
• 4. Then, the ideal perforation orientation for tensile initiation is found for the azimuthal position θ_t and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure P_w^init where the minimum principal stress at the borehole wall is given by

${\sigma }_t=\frac{{\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz}}+{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\theta \theta }}}{2}-\sqrt{{\left(\frac{{\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz}}-{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\theta \theta }}}{2}\right)}^2+{\sigma }_{\theta z}^2}=-\mathrm{To}+\mathrm{Pp},$ where To is the tensile strength of the rock and Pp is the pore pressure.

• 5. Once the optimum orientation is known a perforation tool is lowered in the well. The perforation tool perforates the well in an optimum orientation obtained from the previous step.

For a stress field with one principal stress that is vertical (σ_V), we consider the special cases of well orientations where the azimuthal position θ_t is always in a principal direction:

• (a) For vertical wells, the azimuthal position θ_t is the minimum hoop stress (minimum of σ_θθ) which is always in the direction of the maximum horizontal principal stress, σ_H.
• (b) For horizontal wells drilled in the direction of a principal stress direction (σ_H or σ_h), the azimuthal position θ_t is also the one given by the minimum hoop stress (minimum of σ_θθ), i.e. is pointing to the top of the hole if σ_V is greater than the horizontal stress orthogonal to the borehole, or to the side of the hole if σ_V is smaller than the horizontal stress orthogonal to the borehole.

If the well is deviated, in such a stress field the orientation is not aligned with a principal stress direction and there is no obvious solution for θ_t as it also depends on the wellbore fluid initiation pressure so the orientation is computed numerically. See Peska, P. & Zoback, M., Compressive and tensile failure of inclined well bores and determination of in situ stress and rock strength, Journal of Geophysical Research, 1995, 100, 12,791-12,811.

When the earth formation has material properties that are directions dependent, i.e. anisotropic, steps 1, 2 and 3 above are not valid anymore and depend on the anisotropy of the rock. Although some studies have been completed on the impact of the anisotropy on the borehole stress concentration (i.e. step 3), those studies have focused on the wellbore stability issues and mud weight requirements to prevent wellbore collapse (shear) and tensile fracturing (tensile), and not on a workflow to assess the best perforation orientation.

SUMMARY

This summary is provided to introduce a selection of concepts that are further described below in the detailed description. This summary is not intended to identify key or essential features of the claimed subject matter, nor is it intended to be used as an aid in limiting the scope of the claimed subject matter.

In embodiments of the subject disclosure methods are disclosed to determine the optimum orientation for perforations around a circumference of a subsurface borehole and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure that is for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic formations.

In embodiments of the subject disclosure methods are disclosed for determining a perforation orientation for hydraulic fracturing in an anisotropic earth formation. In embodiments the method comprises the steps of determining anisotropic rock properties; determining far-field stresses in the anisotropic earth formation; determining borehole stresses in the anisotropic earth formation; determining an optimum perforation orientation; and perforating a well in the determined optimum perforation orientation.

Further features and advantages of the subject disclosure will become more readily apparent from the following detailed description when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawings.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The subject disclosure is further described in the detailed description which follows, in reference to the noted plurality of drawings by way of non-limiting examples of embodiments of the subject disclosure, in which like reference numerals represent similar parts throughout the several views of the drawings, and wherein:

FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of the geographic and borehole reference frames and the principal stress directions;

FIG. 2 illustrates the material coordinate system for a transverse isotropic medium with a tilted symmetry axis (TTI);

FIG. 3 illustrates a workflow for determining perforation orientations for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic earth formations; and

FIG. 4 illustrates an example of a perforation orientation angle around a borehole.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

The particulars shown herein are by way of example and for purposes of illustrative discussion of the embodiments of the subject disclosure only and are presented in the cause of providing what is believed to be the most useful and readily understood description of the principles and conceptual aspects of the subject disclosure. In this regard, no attempt is made to show structural details in more detail than is necessary for the fundamental understanding of the subject disclosure, the description taken with the drawings making apparent to those skilled in the art how the several forms of the subject disclosure may be embodied in practice. Furthermore, like reference numbers and designations in the various drawings indicate like elements.

Embodiments of the subject disclosure relate to the determination of the orientation around the circumference of a subsurface borehole and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure that is optimum for perforation operations for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic formations. In one non-limiting example, perforation operations include shaped charge perforation operations.

Embodiments of the subject disclosure comprise methods which are applicable to arbitrary well orientation, arbitrary stress field and arbitrary elastic anisotropy of a formation.

Embodiments of the subject disclosure disclose a workflow method comprising a plurality of steps for determining perforation orientations for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic earth formations. The plurality of steps include determination of anisotropic rock properties, determination of far-field stresses in anisotropic formations, determination of borehole stresses in anisotropic formations, determination of the optimum fracture orientation and optimum initiation pressure, lowering in the well a perforation tool and perforating the well in the direction of the optimum orientation obtained from the previous steps. Anisotropic rock properties and far-field stress properties may vary along the well and borehole stresses may vary along the borehole, therefore, the step of determining the borehole stresses in anisotropic formations may be used to select the depth points of where to place perforation clusters for a given hydraulic fracturing stage in rock with similar near-wellbore stresses or similar wellbore fluid initiation pressure. Therefore, the step of determining the borehole stresses in anisotropic formations and the borehole stresses may be used to determine how to place hydraulic fracturing stages along the well.

The subject disclosure will be described in greater detail as follows. First, a number of definitions useful to understanding the subject disclosure are presented.

Definitions:

Geometry and Coordinate Systems:

In the far-field an in-situ stress field is applied where the principal stress tensor takes the form:

$\sigma =\left(\begin{array}{ccc}{\sigma }_H& 0& 0\\ 0& {\sigma }_h& 0\\ 0& 0& {\sigma }_v\end{array}\right)$ where σ_H and σ_h are the maximum and minimum horizontal stresses, respectively, and σ_v is the vertical stress. FIG. 1 illustrates a schematic of the geographic and borehole reference frames and the principal stress directions. The geographic reference frame is the north-east-vertical (NEV) frame whose x-axis points to the north, y-axis points to the east, and z-axis points downward in vertical direction. The borehole frame is the top-of-hole (TOH) frame whose z-axis points along the borehole in the direction of increasing depth. The x-axis is in the cross-sectional plane and points to the most upward direction, and the y-axis is found by rotating the x-axis 90° in the cross-sectional plane in a direction dictated by the right-hand rule. The orientation of the borehole is defined by the deviation angle α_D and the azimuth angle α_A.

For the sake of simplicity, but without loss of generality, we assume that the vertical stress σ_v is always aligned with the vertical component (V) of the NEV (north-east-vertical) coordinates system. The horizontal stress field can be rotated by an angle γ measured between N (north) and σ_H towards E (east). For the computation of the borehole stress concentration it is convenient to rotate the stress field in the NEV frame into the top-of-hole borehole coordinate system, hereafter called TOH (see definition above), i.e. σ_TOH=[σ_xx^TOH σ_xy^TOH σ_xz^TOH σ_xy^TOH σ_yy^TOH σ_yz^TOH; σ_xz^TOH σ_yz^TOH σ_zz^TOH]. The orientation of the borehole is defined by the deviation angle α_D and the azimuth angle α_A.

Elasticity Equation

The strain components ε_ij are related to the stress components σ_kl via the constitutive relation:ε_ij=S_ijklσ_kl where S_ijki is the fourth rank compliance tensor (and as s_ij if the 6×6 matrix contracted Voigt notation is used). The inverse of the compliance tensor is the fourth rank stiffness tensor defined as C_ijki (and c_ij in Voigt notation). Rotation of the compliance tensor into the TOH frame can be done by applying two Bond transformations to the 6×6 Voigt notation compliance matrix s_ij giving a new matrix noted σ_ij.Material Anisotropy

Embodiments of the subject disclosure use an anisotropic medium that is transversely isotropic rocks with a titled axis of symmetry (called hereafter TTI). In general, this is the most typical type of anisotropy encountered in the Earth, although it should be understood that methods of the subject disclosure are not restricted to TI media. The TTI medium is described by five elastic constants in different notations as

• (a) Elasticity notation: c₁₁, c₃₃, c₁₃, c₄₄ and c₆₆ are the five stiffness coefficients in Voigt notation of the stiffness tensor entering in the elasticity relationship between stress and strain. The orientation of the TI plane is defined by two angles as depicted in FIG. 2, the dip azimuth β_A and the dip angle β_D. FIG. 2 depicts the material coordinate system for transverse isotropic medium with tilted symmetry axis (called TTI) where β_D is the dip of the transverse isotropy plane and β_A is the dip azimuth.
• (b) Engineering notation: E_v, and E_h are the vertical and horizontal Young's moduli (with respect to TI plane), v_v and v_h the vertical and horizontal Poisson's ratios, and G_v the vertical shear moduli. The orientation of the TI plane is also defined by two angles as depicted in FIG. 2, the dip azimuth and the dip angle.
• (c) Geophysics notation: Vp0 and Vs0 are respectively the compressional and shear velocities along the symmetry axis and ε, δ, γ are three dimensionless parameters (called Thomsen parameters) and ρ is the rock bulk density. The orientation of the TI plane is also defined by two angles as depicted in FIG. 2, the dip azimuth and the dip angle.Initiation Pressure

In the present disclosure, the failure criterion used is a tensile strength criterion; therefore, the initiation pressure will be understood herein as the fluid pressure within the borehole resulting in the initiation of a tensile crack in a defect free subsurface material.

Workflow

This subject disclosure considers the following improvements to take into account the anisotropic nature of the rocks and is further depicted in the workflow in FIG. 3. FIG. 3 illustrates an embodiment of the subject disclosure. FIG. 3 illustrates a workflow for determining perforation orientations for hydraulic fracturing in anisotropic earth formations. The workflow comprises a plurality of steps as illustrated in FIG. 3.

The first step is determination of anisotropic rock properties (301). This step involves (1) the acquisition of wireline or Logging While Drilling (LWD) sonic logs with all modes (monopole, dipole and Stoneley) with a 3D deviation survey, and (2) data processing to identify and estimate borehole sonic anisotropy. This step is performed using tools and procedures which have been described. See U.S. Pat. No. 6,714,480 to Sinha et al, entitled “Determination of anisotropic moduli of earth formations”, U.S. Pat. No. 6,718,266 to Sinha et al., entitled “Determination of dipole shear anisotropy of earth formations”, U.S. Patent Publication No.: 2009-0210160 to Suarez-Rivera et al. entitled “Estimating horizontal stress from three-dimensional anisotropy” and U.S. Pat. No. 8,117,014 to Prioul et al, entitled “Methods to estimate subsurface deviatoric stress characteristics from borehole sonic log anisotropy directions and image log failure directions”. For TTI media, this leads to five elastic constants, e.g. c₁₁, c₃₃, c₁₃, c₄₄ and c₆₆, and two angles (the dip azimuth (β_A and dip angle β_D of the TI plane, as described above). The five elastic constants will define the stiffness tensor in the TI frame which can be inverted to get the compliance tensor rotated in the borehole frame and noted a_ij. This step can be completed for wells of arbitrary orientation.

The second step is the determination of far-field stresses in anisotropic formations (303). In embodiments of the subject disclosure it is assumed that the principal stress field (σ1>σ2>σ3) and the pore pressure P_p are given but important considerations to estimate far-field stresses in anisotropic formations are considered. See United States Patent Publication No.: 2009-0210160 to Suarez-Rivera et al. entitled “Estimating horizontal stress from three-dimensional anisotropy”. For example, this includes taking into account the anisotropy of the rock in the determination of the gravitational component of the stress field which leads to a relationship between the vertical and horizontal stresses for a transversely isotropic rocks with vertical axis of symmetry (VTI) or a titled axis of symmetry (TTI, see FIG. 2 above) such as described respectively by Thiercelin and Plumb (1994, SPE 21847), Amadei & Pan (1992, IJRMMS) and United States Patent Publication No.: 2009-0210160 to Suarez-Rivera et al. entitled “Estimating horizontal stress from three-dimensional anisotropy”. The stress tensor is rotated in the TOH frame, to get σ_TOH=[σ_xx^TOH σ_xy^TOH σ_xz^TOH; σ_xy^TOH σ_yy^TOH σ_yz^TOH; σ_xz^TOH σ_yz^TOH σ_zz^TOH].

The third step is the determination of borehole stresses in an anisotropic formation (305). In embodiments of the subject disclosure a general solution for the stresses around a borehole in an anisotropic medium can be found using elasticity results from the superposition of the far field in-situ stress tensor σ_TOH and the general expressions for the borehole-induced stresses (σ_bi). See B. Amadei, Rock Anisotropy and the theory of stress measurements. Lecture notes in engineering. Springer Verlag, 1983, S. G. Lekhnitskii, Theory of elasticity of an anisotropic body. MIR Publishers, Moscow, 1963, Gaede, O., Karpfinger, F., Jocker, J. & Prioul, R., Comparison between analytical and 3D finite element solutions for borehole stresses in anisotropic elastic rock, International Journal of Rock Mechanics & Mining Sciences, 2012, 51, 53-63. This step applies to arbitrary well orientation, arbitrary stress field and arbitrary elastic anisotropy of the formation.

• • The stress components in the plane orthogonal to the borehole are in Cartesian coordinates:σ_xx,BH=σ_xx,TOH+σ_xx,bi=σ_xx,TOH+2Re[μ₁²φ′₁(z₁)+μ₂²φ′₂(z₂)+λ₃μ₃²φ′₃(z₃)]σ_yy,BH=σ_yy,TOH+σ_yy,bi=σ_yy,TOH+2Re[φ′₁(z₁)+φ′₂(z₂)+λ₃φ′₃(z₃)]σ_xy,BH=σ_xy,TOH+σ_xy,bi=σ_xy,TOH+2Re[μ₁φ′₁(z₁)+μ₂φ′₂(z₂)+λ₃μ₃φ′₃(z₃)]σ_xz,BH=σ_xz,TOH+σ_xz,bi=σ_xz,TOH+2Re[λ₁μ₁φ′₁(z₁)+λ₂μ₂φ′₂(z₂)+λ₃μ₃φ′₃(z₃)]σ_yz,BH=σ_yz,TOH+σ_yz,bi=σ_yz,TOH+2Re[λ₁φ′₁(z₁)+λ₂φ′₂(z₂)+φ′₃(z₃)]
  • The stress component in the borehole axis direction is deduced from the generalized plane stress assumption using the other stress components and the compliance tensor component a_ij:

${\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz},\mathrm{BH}}={\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz},\mathrm{TOH}}-\frac{1}{a_{33}}\left(a_{31}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{xx},\mathrm{bi}}+a_{32}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{yy},\mathrm{bi}}+a_{34}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{yz},\mathrm{bi}}+a_{35}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{xz},\mathrm{bi}}+a_{36}{\sigma }_{\mathrm{xy},\mathrm{bi}}\right)$

• • The Cartesian stresses are then transformed into cylindrical coordinates to get σ_rr, σ_θθ, σ_zz, σ_θz, σ_rθ, σ_rz
  • These equations include the solutions to compute borehole stresses away from the borehole wall at a desired radial position into the formation.The fourth step is the determination of an optimum perforation orientation (307). This step is the same as for an isotropic rock. The ideal perforation orientation for tensile initiation is found for the azimuthal position θ_t and the initiation pressure P_w^init where the minimum principal stress at the borehole wall is given by

${\sigma }_t=\frac{{\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz}}+{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\theta \theta }}}{2}-\sqrt{{\left(\frac{{\sigma }_{\mathrm{zz}}-{\sigma }_{\mathrm{\theta \theta }}}{2}\right)}^2+{\sigma }_{\theta z}^2}=-\mathrm{To}+\mathrm{Pp},$ where To is the tensile strength of the rock and Pp is the pore pressure.Steps three and four can be performed not only at the borehole wall but at any desired radial position within the formation using the appropriate stress concentration solutions from step 3.

The fifth step is to perforate a well in an optimum orientation (309). Knowing the optimum orientation, a perforation tool may be lowered into a well, the tool perforating the well in the direction of the optimum orientation obtained from the previous step.

In addition to the previous steps at a given depth point, it is understood that since anisotropic rock properties and far-field stress properties (from steps 1 and 2 above) can vary along the well, borehole stresses (step 3 above) will vary along the borehole and therefore step 3 can be used to select the depth points with similar near-wellbore stresses or similar wellbore fluid initiation pressure where to place perforation clusters for a given hydraulic fracturing stage in rock. Therefore, step 3 may be used with the borehole stresses to determine how to place hydraulic fracturing stages along the well.

EXAMPLE

If the following conditions are considered at a given depth for a hypothetical well:

• • The stress field is the result of step 1: σ_v=19.98 MPa, σ_H=19.9 MPa, σ_h=18.73 MPa, P_p=11.63 MPa. σ_H is oriented in the North direction.
  • The anisotropic material properties are the result of step 2: E_h=3.55 GPa, E_v=2.13 GPa, υ_h=0.4, υ_v=0.29, G_h=1.27 GPa. The dip azimuth and dip angle are both zero here (β_D=β_A=0).

If we loop over a grid of well orientation with deviation angle between 0 and 90° and azimuth between 0 and 360°, we can perform steps 3 and 4 for each well orientation to get the ideal azimuthal position θ^TTI_t and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure P_w^init_TTI. If step 3 of this workflow is replaced by its isotropic version (described in the background) using the horizontal Poisson's ratio as a material property, we can compute azimuthal position θ^ISO_t and the wellbore fluid initiation pressure P_w^init_ISO and compare the difference between those two angles. Results on FIG. 4A-4C show that the difference |θ^TTI_t−θ^ISO_t| due to the anisotropy of the material orientation which can be up to 45° in this example (Difference between P_w^init_TTI and P_w^init_ISO not shown here, for such details, we refer to Prioul, R., Karpfinger, F., Deenadayalu, C. & Suarez-Rivera, R, Improving Fracture Initiation Predictions on Arbitrarily Oriented Wells in Anisotropic Shales, Society of Petroleum Engineers, SPE-147462, 2011, 1, 1-18).

FIG. 4A-C depicts examples of an optimum perforation orientation angle around a borehole computed using in FIG. 4A isotropic stress concentration and in FIG. 4B anisotropic stress concentrations. The difference between FIG. 4A and FIG. 4B is shown in FIG. 4C. Results are plotted on a polar grid where each point of the grid correspond to well orientation, with radial variation corresponding to well deviation (from 0 to 90) and azimuthal variation corresponding to well azimuth (from 0 to 360) with the convention of clockwise positive rotation from North to East.

Although only a few example embodiments have been described in detail above, those skilled in the art will readily appreciate that many modifications are possible in the example embodiments without materially departing from this invention. Accordingly, all such modifications are intended to be included within the scope of this disclosure as defined in the following claims. In the claims, means-plus-function clauses are intended to cover the structures described herein as performing the recited function and not only structural equivalents, but also equivalent structures. Thus, although a nail and a screw may not be structural equivalents in that a nail employs a cylindrical surface to secure wooden parts together, whereas a screw employs a helical surface, in the environment of fastening wooden parts, a nail and a screw may be equivalent structures. It is the express intention of the applicant not to invoke 35 U.S.C. §112, paragraph 6 for any limitations of any of the claims herein, except for those in which the claim expressly uses the words ‘means for’ together with an associated function.

Claims

1. A method for determining a perforation orientation for hydraulic fracturing in an anisotropic earth formation comprising: determining anisotropic rock properties;determining far-field stresses in the anisotropic earth formation;determining borehole stresses in the anisotropic earth formation; anddetermining an optimum perforation orientation and optimum wellbore fluid initiation pressure based upon the determining anisotropic rock properties, far-field stresses and the borehole stresses, and wherein the determining an optimum perforation orientation uses a difference between isotropic stress concentration and anisotropic stress concentrations.

2. The method according to claim 1 further comprising perforating a well in the determined optimum perforation orientation.

3. The method according to claim 1 wherein the determining anisotropic rock properties further comprises: acquisition of a sonic log with a 3D deviation survey;data processing to characterize borehole sonic anisotropy.

4. The method according to claim 3 wherein the acquisition of the sonic log uses a monopole mode.

5. The method according to claim 3 wherein the acquisition of the sonic log uses a dipole mode.

6. The method according to claim 3 wherein the acquisition of the sonic log uses a monopole mode, a dipole mode or a Stoneley mode, or any combination of.

7. The method according to claim 2 wherein the well is a deviated well.

8. The method according to claim 2 wherein the well is a horizontal well.

9. The method according to claim 2 wherein the well is a vertical well.

10. The method according to claim 2 wherein the perforating the well in the optimum perforation orientation is performed with at a shaped charge.

11. A method for perforating a well traversing a subterranean area including one or more transversely isotropic formations with a tilted axis of symmetry comprising: determining formation properties;determining far-field stresses in the formation;determining borehole stresses in the formation;determining an optimum perforation orientation and optimum wellbore fluid initiation pressure based upon the determining formation properties, far-field stresses and borehole stresses, and wherein the determining an optimum perforation orientation uses a difference between isotropic stress concentration and anisotropic stress concentrations; andperforating the well in the determined optimum perforation orientation.

12. The method according to claim 11 wherein the well comprises one or more portions of a group consisting of a deviated portion, a horizontal portion, or a vertical portion.

13. The method according to claim 11 wherein the perforating of the well is done with one or more shaped charges.

14. The method according to claim 11 further comprising: determination of borehole stresses in the well at different depths;positioning perforation clusters at one or more depth points with borehole stresses similar to a previous perforation depth; andperforating the well at the one or more depth points for placement of hydraulic fracturing stages along the well.

15. A method for hydraulic fracturing in an anisotropic earth formation comprising: determining anisotropic rock properties;determining far-field stresses in the anisotropic earth formation;determining borehole stresses in the anisotropic earth formation;determining an optimum perforation orientation and optimum wellbore fluid initiation pressure based upon the determining formation properties, far-field stresses and borehole stresses, and wherein the determining an optimum perforation orientation uses a difference between isotropic stress concentration and anisotropic stress concentrations;perforating a well in the determined optimum perforation orientation; andhydraulic fracturing the well at a pressure at least at the optimum wellbore fluid initiation pressure.

16. The method according to claim 15 wherein the well comprises one or more portions of a group consisting of a deviated portion, a horizontal portion, or a vertical portion.

17. The method of claim 15 in which the determining anisotropic rock properties comprises acquisition of wireline sonic logs with all modes with a 3D deviation survey.

18. The method of claim 15 in which the determining anisotropic rock properties comprises acquisition of logging while drilling sonic logs with all modes with a 3D deviation survey.

19. The method of claim 15 in which the perforating of the well comprises one or more shape charges.

20. The method according to claim 17 wherein the acquisition of the sonic log uses a monopole mode, a dipole mode or a Stoneley mode, or any combination of.