The present disclosure relates generally to systems and methods for extracting waste radionuclides, for example, waste radionuclides generated in a medical isotope production process.
Current techniques for nuclear waste separation include solvent-based extraction, often referred to as solvent extraction or liquid-liquid extraction. Solvent extraction is a separation technique in which an extractant containing organic phase is contacted with a metal-ion containing aqueous phase. Upon mixing, the metal ion is transferred from the aqueous phase into the organic phase. Despite industry reliance, solvent extraction exhibits many drawbacks including challenges associated with phase disengagement, formation of heavy or “third” phases, and the generation of large volumes of hazardous organic waste. Process reliance on hazardous aromatic organic solvents presents a particular challenge from an environmental stewardship standpoint. Many commercial waste haulers have low tolerance for the presence of benzene or other aromatic hydrocarbons in solidified waste.
Accordingly, a need exists for improved methods and systems for nuclear waste separation, for example, in a medical isotope production process.
According to a first aspect of the present disclosure, a method of radionuclide waste extraction includes directing a waste stream from an upstream segment of a main waste pathway into a waste stream input of an anion exchange column, wherein the waste stream comprises uranium and one or more target radionuclides, the anion exchange column houses an anion exchange resin, a cation exchange column housing a cation exchange resin is fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column along the main waste pathway and positioned downstream the anion exchange column, and a sluicing preparation tank is fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column. The method further includes adsorbing uranium from the waste stream onto an anion exchange resin housed in the anion exchange column, directing the waste stream from the anion exchange column into the cation exchange column, adsorbing one or more target radionuclides onto a cation exchange resin housed in the cation exchange column, removing spent anion exchange resin from the anion exchange column, and directing fresh anion exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank into the anion exchange column.
A second aspect includes the method of the first aspect, wherein the one or more target radionuclides comprise strontium-90 and cesium-137.
A third aspect includes the method of the first aspect or the second aspect, wherein the anion exchange resin comprises an initial adsorption capacity and the spent anion exchange resin comprises an adsorption capacity of 85% or less of the initial adsorption capacity.
A fourth aspect includes the method of any of the previous aspects, further comprising directing the waste stream from the cation exchange column to a column effluent tank, wherein the waste stream entering the column effluent tank comprises less than 0.04 curies per cubic meter of strontium-90 and less than 1 curie per cubic meter of cesium-137.
A fifth aspect includes the method of any of the previous aspects, further comprising, prior to removing spent anion exchange resin, directing elution acid into the anion exchange column to desorb uranium from the anion exchange resin in a first elution acid wash, forming a uranium waste stream and after the first elution acid wash, directing the waste stream from the upstream segment of the main waste pathway into the anion exchange column and adsorbing uranium onto the anion exchange resin.
A sixth aspect includes the method of the fifth aspect, further comprising directing the uranium waste stream from the anion exchange column to a column effluent tank along a strip waste pathway, wherein the strip waste pathway extends from the anion exchange column to the column effluent tank bypassing the cation exchange column.
A seventh aspect includes the method of the fifth aspect, further comprising directing the uranium waste stream from the anion exchange column to a secondary collection tank along a strip pathway and directing the waste stream from the cation exchange column to a column effluent tank.
The eighth aspect includes the method of any of the fifth through seventh aspects, further comprising, after the first elution acid wash and prior to removing the spent anion exchange resin, directing the elution acid into the anion exchange column to desorb uranium from the anion exchange resin in a second elution acid wash and after the second elution acid wash, directing the waste stream from the upstream segment of the main waste pathway into the anion exchange column and adsorbing uranium onto the anion exchange resin.
The ninth aspect includes the method of any of the fifth through eighth aspects, further comprising, performing at least three elution acid washes prior to removing the spent anion exchange resin and directing fresh anion exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank into the anion exchange column.
The tenth aspect includes the method of any of the previous aspects, wherein removing spent anion exchange resin from the anion exchange column comprises ceasing flow of the waste stream from the upstream segment of the main waste pathway into the waste stream input of the anion exchange column and directing spent anion exchange resin from the anion exchange column into a spent resin tank, and directing fresh anion exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank into the anion exchange column occurs while flow of the waste stream from the upstream segment of the main waste pathway is ceased and after directing fresh anion exchange re sin from the sluicing preparation tank into the anion exchange column, the method further comprises resuming flow of the waste stream from the upstream segment of the main waste pathway into the waste stream input of the anion exchange column.
The eleventh aspect includes the method of any of the previous aspects, wherein the sluicing preparation tank is fluidly coupled to the cation exchange column and the method further comprises removing spent cation exchange resin from the cation exchange column and directing fresh cation exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank into the anion exchange column.
The twelfth aspect includes the method of any of the first through tenth aspects, wherein the sluicing preparation tank is a first sluicing preparation tank, and the method further comprises removing spent cation exchange resin from the cation exchange column and directing fresh cation exchange resin from a second sluicing preparation tank into the cation exchange column.
The thirteenth aspect includes the method of any of the previous aspects, wherein the waste stream in the upstream segment of the main waste pathway comprises 1 gram/liter of uranium or greater and the waste stream in the upstream segment of the main waste pathway comprises a gram/liter level of uranium that is at least 500 times greater than a gram/liter level of both strontium-90 and cesium-137.
According to a fourteenth aspect of the present disclosure, a waste extraction system includes an anion exchange column housing an anion exchange resin and fluidly coupled to an upstream segment of a main waste pathway, a cation exchange column housing a cation exchange resin and fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column along the main waste pathway, wherein the anion exchange column is upstream the cation exchange column, a column effluent tank positioned downstream the anion exchange column and the cation exchange column, a sluicing preparation tank fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column, and a radiation shielding system positioned between the sluicing preparation tank and both the anion exchange column and the cation exchange column, wherein the radiation shielding system forms a radiation barrier between the sluicing preparation tank and both the anion exchange column and the cation exchange column.
The fifteenth aspect includes the waste extraction system of the fourteenth aspect, wherein the sluicing preparation tank is fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column by an anion exchange resin input pathway and the sluicing preparation tank is fluidly coupled to the cation exchange column by a cation exchange resin input pathway.
The sixteenth aspect includes the waste extraction system of the fourteenth aspect, wherein the sluicing preparation tank is a first sluicing preparation tank and the waste extraction system comprises a second sluicing preparation tank fluidly coupled to the cation exchange column, wherein the first sluicing preparation tank houses fresh anion exchange resin and the second sluicing preparation tank houses fresh cation exchange resin.
The seventeenth aspect includes the waste extraction system of any of the fourteenth through sixteenth aspects, further comprising an elution acid source fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column.
The eighteenth aspect includes the waste extraction system of the seventeenth aspect, wherein the anion exchange column comprises a waste stream input and an elution input each located at a first end of the anion exchange column, wherein the waste stream input is fluidly coupled to the upstream segment of the main waste pathway and the elution input is fluidly coupled to the elution acid source and a waste stream output and an elution output each located at a second end of the anion exchange column, wherein the elution output is fluidly coupled to a strip waste pathway and the waste stream output is fluidly coupled to the cation exchange column.
The nineteenth aspect includes the waste extraction system of the eighteenth aspect, wherein the strip waste pathway extends from the anion exchange column to the column effluent tank bypassing the cation exchange column.
The twentieth aspect includes the waste extraction system of the eighteenth aspect, wherein the strip waste pathway extends from the anion exchange column to a secondary collection tank.
These and additional features provided by the embodiments described herein will be more fully understood in view of the following detailed description, in conjunction with the drawings.
The embodiments set forth in the drawings are illustrative and exemplary in nature and not intended to limit the subject matter defined by the claims. The following detailed description of the illustrative embodiments can be understood when read in conjunction with the following drawings, where like structure is indicated with like reference numerals and in which:
Referring generally to the figures, embodiments of the present disclosure are directed to waste extraction systems and methods for the removal of target waste radionuclides from a waste stream, for example, from a waste stream formed during a medical isotope production process, such as a molybdenum-99 (Mo-99) production process. The waste stream includes multiple radionuclides, such as uranium-235 (U-235), cesium-137 (Cs-137), and strontium-90 (Sr-90). The waste extraction system includes an anion exchange column that houses an anion exchange resin and a cation exchange column that houses a cation exchange resin. The anion and cation exchange columns are fluidly coupled to a main waste pathway such that the waste stream passes through the anion and cation exchange columns and reaches a column effluent tank for final processing.
The anion exchange column is positioned upstream the cation exchange column along the main waste pathway such that the waste stream passes through the anion exchange column before passing through the cation exchange column. The anion exchange resin housed in the anion exchange column is configured to selectively adsorb a primary radionuclide, such as uranium, and the cation exchange resin housed in the cation exchange column is configured to selectively adsorb one or more target radionuclides, such as Cs-137 and Sr-90. The anion exchange column provides a way to remove the primary radionuclide from the waste stream, such that the waste stream that passes through the cation exchange column comprises minimal primary radionuclide. This allows the one or more supporting adsorption columns to remove other target radionuclides from the waste stream, such as Cs-137 and Sr-90, which may be present in lower quantities in the initial waste stream than the primary radionuclide.
During operation, the primary radionuclide is present in higher qualities in the initial waste stream than the other target radionuclides. Thus, the anion exchange resin reaches its maximum adsorption capacity faster than the cation exchange resin. In view of this, the waste extraction system further includes a sluicing preparation tank fluidly coupled to the anion exchange column, facilitating efficient replacement of fresh anion exchange resin into the anion exchange column by sluicing. The waste extraction system also includes a radiation shielding system positioned between the sluicing preparation tank and both the anion exchange column and cation exchange column, allowing the sluicing preparation tank to be reloaded while the waste extraction system is in operation while minimizing radiation exposure at the sluicing preparation tank. Embodiments of the waste extraction system and methods of radionuclide waste extraction using the waste extraction system will now be described and, whenever possible, the same reference numerals will be used throughout the drawings to refer to the same or like parts.
Referring now to
The anion exchange column 120 and the cation exchange column 130 are positioned between and fluidly coupled to the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160 and the column effluent tank 150. In operation, a waste stream comprising radionuclide waste enters the waste extraction system 100 along the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160 (e.g., an initial waste stream). The anion exchange column 120 is fluidly coupled to the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160 and positioned upstream the cation exchange column 130 along the main waste pathway 160. In operation, the waste stream traverses the anion exchange column 120 and thereafter traverses the cation exchange column 130 along the main waste pathway 160. In operation, the anion exchange resin 112 housed in the anion exchange column 120 adsorbs a primary radionuclide, such as uranium (e.g., U-235), from the waste stream, reducing the amount of primary radionuclide in the waste stream that enters the cation exchange column 130. The cation exchange resin 116 housed in the cation exchange column 130 then adsorbs one or more target radionuclides from the waste stream, such as Cs-137 and Sr-90.
The column effluent tank 150 is fluidly coupled to the main waste pathway 160 and receives a modified waste stream from the cation exchange column 130 (i.e., a waste stream with reduced amounts of Cs-137 and Sr-90). In some embodiments, as depicted in
A waste tank 152 is fluidly coupled to the column effluent tank 150 by a waste tank segment 166 of the main waste pathway 160. Waste in the column effluent tank 150 may be directed into the waste tank 152 along the waste tank segment 166 for final treatment and removal off-site. This final treatment may comprise solidifying the resultant waste with concrete, to form solidified, final waste, which may occur in the waste tank 152. In some embodiments, the column effluent tank 150 and the waste tank 152 are the same volume, for example, a volume in a range of from 25 gallons to 75 gallons, such as 50 gallons. In other embodiments, the column effluent tank 150 and the waste tank 152 are different volumes and may comprise volumes in a range of from 25 gallons to 75 gallons. By removing target radionuclides using the waste extraction system 100, the waste received by the column effluent tank 150 and the waste tank 152 comprises lower levels of radioactivity than the initial waste stream. Indeed, the target radionuclides contribute a disproportionate amount of the total radioactivity in the initial waste stream. For example, Cs-137 is a gamma emitting nuclide and thus, it is desirable to minimize the amount of the Cs-137 in the resultant waste. Adsorbing the target radionuclides, such as Cs-137 and Sr-90, allows these target radionuclides to be disposed separately from the remainder of the waste, for example in a minimized volume that is sealed in concrete.
By removing the primary radionuclide from the waste stream at the anion exchange column 120, the cation exchange column 130 may adsorb other target radionuclides more efficiently and effectively. Without intending to be limited by theory, the primary radionuclide (e.g., uranium) present in the initial waste stream would be adsorbed by the cation exchange resins 116 in the cation exchange column (together with the one or more target radionuclides) and the large relative amount of target radionuclide could cause the cation exchange resin 116 to reach its adsorption limit before removing the desired amounts of the target radionuclides. For example, the initial waste stream may comprise a gram/liter level of uranium that is at least 500 times greater than a gram/liter level of both strontium-90 and cesium-137, for example, at least 750 times greater, at least 1000 times greater, at least 1250 times greater, at least 1500 times greater, at least 2000 times greater, or a multiplier in a range having any two of these values as endpoints. In some embodiments, the initial waste stream may comprise a gram/liter level of uranium that is at least 500 times greater than a gram/liter level of any individual of the following radionuclides, barium, cerium, lanthanum, molybdenum, neodymium, palladium, praseodymium, rubidium, rhodium, ruthenium, samarium, yttrium, and zirconium, for example, at least 750 times greater, at least 1000 times greater, at least 1250 times greater, at least 1500 times greater, at least 2000 times greater, or a multiplier in a range having any two of these values as endpoints. Moreover, uranium may comprise from 40% to 60% of the total radionuclides in the initial waste stream by mass.
In some embodiments, the initial waste stream comprises 1 gram/liter of uranium or greater, such as 1.5 gram/liter, 2 gram/liter or greater, 2.5 gram/liter or greater 3 gram/liter or greater, and values in a range having two of these values as endpoints. While Cs-137 and Sr-90 are referred to as the target radionuclides in the embodiments described herein, other target radionuclides may be present in the waste stream and adsorbed by the cation exchange resin 116. For example, other target radionuclides that may be present in the waste stream and may be adsorbed by the cation exchange resin 116 comprise barium, cerium, cesium, lanthanum, molybdenum, sodium, neodymium, palladium, plutonium, praseodymium, rubidium, rhodium, ruthenium, samarium, strontium, yttrium, zirconium, protactinium, or a combination thereof. Moreover, it should be understood that embodiments are contemplated in which other radionuclides besides uranium are the primary radionuclide.
Referring still to
The cation exchange column 130 comprises a waste stream input 134 and a waste stream output 135. The waste stream input 134 is located at the first end 131 of the cation exchange column 130 and the waste stream output 135 is located at the second end 132 of the cation exchange column 130. Moreover, in some embodiments, the first end 131 of the cation exchange column 130 is opposite the second end 132, and the first end 131 of the cation exchange column 130 is above the second end 132. This orientation facilitates gravity assisted flow of the waste stream through the cation exchange column 130. Gravity assisted flow may reduce the pumping pressure and pumping power needed to flow the waste stream through the cation exchange column 130. Gravity assisted flow may also maximize contact between the cation exchange resin 116 and the waste stream, maximizing target radionuclide adsorption. While a single cation exchange column 130 is depicted, it should be understood that additional cation exchange columns could be included to adsorb additional amounts of target radionuclides. For example, while not depicted, a second cation exchange column that is positioned along the main waste pathway 160 between the cation exchange column 130 and the column effluent tank 150 and fluidly coupled to the cation exchange column 130 and the column effluent tank 150 by additional inter-column segments 165 and pumps 180 is contemplated.
In some embodiments, the cation exchange column 130 further comprises a resin input 137 and a resin output 138. The resin input 137 is fluidly coupled to a sluicing preparation tank (for example, the sluicing preparation tank 140 of
The spent resin tank 156 may also be fluidly coupled to the waste tank 152 by a resin waste pathway 190, such that spent resin removed from the anion exchange column 120 and cation exchange column 130 may be directed into the waste tank 152, for example, by using a sluice pump 182. The spent resin may be directed into the waste tank 152 along the resin waste pathway 190 for final treatment and removal off-site. This final treatment may comprise solidifying the spent resin separate from or together with the resultant waste with concrete, to form solidified, final waste, which may occur in the waste tank 152.
Referring still to
In
Referring again to
In some embodiments, as depicted in
In other embodiments, as depicted in
Referring again to
Referring still to
Referring now to
In some embodiments, the anion exchange resin 112 and the cation exchange resin 116 are each polymer based. The anion exchange resin 112 may comprise a weak base anion exchange resin or a strong base anion exchange resin. The cation exchange resin 116 may comprise a strong acid cation exchange resin. The anion exchange resin 112 and the cation exchange resin 116 have a combination of porosity, which contributes to the adsorption capacity, and chemical functionality, which contributes to selectivity. Moreover, the cation exchange resin 116 has a preference for adsorption of Cs-137 and Sr-90 compared to uranium and thus the cation exchange resin 116 is effective in the cation exchange column 130, while the anion exchange resin 112 has a preference for adsorption of uranium compared to Cs-137 and Sr-90 and thus the anion exchange resin 112 is effective in the anion exchange column 120. Example anion exchange resins 112 include Amberlite™ resin and DIAON™ resin. Example cation exchange resins 116 include SACMP (Strong Acid Cation Macroporous Polystyrene) resin (such as ResinTech® SACMP, manufactured by ResinTech Inc.) and AMP-PAN (Ammonium Molybophosphate Polyacrylonitrile) resin.
In some embodiments, the cation exchange resin 116 comprises an adsorption capacity of Cs-137 in a range of from 100 mg of Cs-137 per gram of the cation exchange resin 116 (i.e., 100 mg/g) to 200 mg/g, such as from 125 mg/g to 175 mg/g, for example, 105 mg/g, 110 mg/g, 115 mg/g, 120 mg/g, 125 mg/g, 130 mg/g, 135 mg/g, 140 mg/g, 145 mg/g, 150 mg/g, 153 mg/g, 155 mg/g, 157 mg/g, 160 mg/g, 165 mg/g, 170 mg/g, 175 mg/g, 180 mg/g, 185 mg/g, 190 mg/g, 195 mg/g, 200 mg/g, or a value in a range having any two of these numbers as endpoints. In some embodiments, the cation exchange resin 116 comprises an adsorption capacity of Sr-90 in a range of from 0.1 mg of Sr-90 per gram of the cation exchange resin 116 (i.e., 0.1 mg/g) to 1 mg/g, such as from 0.15 mg/g to 0.5 mg/g, for example 0.15 mg/g, 0.2 mg/g, 0.25 mg/g, 0.3 mg/g, 0.35 mg/g, 0.4 mg/g, 0.45 mg/g, 0.5 mg/g, 0.55 mg/g, 0.6 mg/g, 0.65 mg/g, 0.7 mg/g, 0.75 mg/g, 0.8 mg/g, 0.85 mg/g, 0.9 mg/g, 0.95 mg/g, 1 mg/g, or a value in a range having any two of these numbers as endpoints. Furthermore, in some embodiments, the anion exchange resin 112 comprises an adsorption capacity of uranium (e.g., U-235) in a range of from 85 mg of U per gram of the anion exchange resin 112 (i.e., 85 mg/g) to 165 mg/g, such as from 115 mg/g to 140 mg/g, for example, 85 mg/g, 90 mg/g, 95 mg/g, 100 mg/g, 105 mg/g, 110 mg/g, 115 mg/g, 120 mg/g, 125 mg/g, 130 mg/g, 135 mg/g, 140 mg/g, 145 mg/g, 150 mg/g, 155 mg/g, 160 mg/g, 165 mg/g, or a value in a range having any two of these numbers as endpoints.
Referring again to
Next, the method comprises directing the waste stream (e.g., the modified waste stream) from the anion exchange column 120 into the cation exchange column 130 for example, along an inter-column segment 165. In operation, the waste stream (e.g., the modified waste stream) enters the cation exchange column 130 through the waste stream input 134, and the cation exchange resin 116 housed in the cation exchange column 130 adsorbs target radionuclides, such as Sr-90 and Cs-137, present in the modified waste stream. In embodiments comprising more than one cation exchange column 130, the modified waste stream is next directed into an additional cation exchange column. In operation, the cation exchange resin 116 housed in the cation exchange column 130 (and any additional cation exchange columns) adsorbs 85% or more of the one or more target radionuclides initially present in the waste stream (e.g., present in the waste stream in the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160), for example, 85% or more of the strontium-90 and cesium-137 present in the modified waste stream, such as 90% or more, 92% or more, 94% or more, 95% or more, 96% or more, 97% or more, 98% or more, 99% or more, 99.5% or more, 99.9% or more, or a value in a range having any two of these numbers as endpoints.
The modified waste stream then exits the cation exchange column 130 though the waste stream output 135 into an inter-column segment 165 of the main waste pathway 160. After exiting the cation exchange column 130, the waste stream may be directed to either a second cation exchange column (e.g., in embodiments comprising two or more cation exchange columns) or the column effluent tank 150 (e.g., in embodiments comprising a single cation exchange column 130, as depicted in
Referring still to
After this first elution acid wash, the method next comprising resuming directing the waste stream from the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160 into the anion exchange column 120 and thereafter the cation exchange column 130 to adsorb additional primary radionuclide in the anion exchange column 120 and additional target radionuclide in the cation exchange column 130. Next a second elution acid wash may be performed to remove the adsorbed primary radionuclide from the anion exchange column 120 and the removed primary radionuclide may be directed to the column effluent tank 150 or the secondary collection tank 154. Additional rounds of adsorbing primary radionuclides in the anion exchange column 120 and target radionuclides the cation exchange column 130 followed by elution acid washes may be performed until the anion exchange resin 112 becomes spent resin. As used here, “spent resin” refers to ion exchange resin (e.g., anion exchange resin or cation exchange resin) that has an adsorption capacity at or below a threshold percentage of its initial adsorption capacity. Spent resin may comprise an adsorption capacity that is 90% or less of its initial adsorption capacity, for example, 85% or less, 80% or less, 75% or less, 70% or less, 65% or less, 60% or less, or a value in a range having any two of these numbers as endpoints. It should be understood that the threshold percentage for spent resin may change depending on the target radionuclides and the overall composition of the waste stream.
The method next comprises removing spent anion exchange resin from the anion exchange column 120 and directing fresh anion exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank 140 (e.g., the sluicing preparation tank 140 of
In some embodiments, the method also comprises removing spent cation exchange resin from the cation exchange column 130 and directing fresh cation exchange resin from the sluicing preparation tank 140 (e.g., the sluicing preparation tank 140 of
In the embodiments of
For example, the resultant waste may comprise less than 0.25 curies per cubic meter of Sr-90, for example, less than 0.2 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.15 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.1 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.08 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.06 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.05 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.04 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.03 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.02 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.01 curies per cubic meter, or any value in a range having any two of these values as endpoints. The resultant waste may also comprise less than 10 curies per cubic meter of Cs-137, for example, less than 8 curies per cubic meter, less than 6 curies per cubic meter, less than 5 curies per cubic meter, less than 4 curies per cubic meter, less than 2 curies per cubic meter, less than 1 curie per cubic meter, less than 0.75 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.5 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.25 curies per cubic meter, less than 0.1 curies per cubic meter, or any value in a range having any two of these values as endpoints. In some embodiments, the resultant waste comprises less than 0.04 curies per cubic meter of Sr-90 and less than 1 curie per cubic meter of Cs-137. In some embodiments, the final, densified waste comprises less than 0.04 curies per cubic meter of Sr-90 and less than 1 curie per cubic meter of Cs-137.
Moreover, the above values of curies per cubic meter in the resultant waste may be achieved using the waste extraction system 100 described herein in embodiments in which the initial waste stream (that is, the waste stream traversing the upstream segment 162 of the main waste pathway 160) comprises greater than 150 curies per cubic meter of Sr-90, for example, greater than 200 curies per cubic meter, greater than 300 curies per cubic meter, greater than 300 curies per cubic meter, greater than 300 curies per cubic meter, greater than 500 curies per cubic meter, greater than 1000 curies per cubic meter, greater than 2500 curies per cubic meter, greater than 5000 curies per cubic meter, or any value in a range having any two of these values as endpoints, and comprises greater than 44 curies per cubic meter of Cs-137, for example, greater than 50 curies per cubic meter, greater than 100 curies per cubic meter, greater than 250 curies per cubic meter, greater than 500 curies per cubic meter, greater than 800 curies per cubic meter, greater than 1000 curies per cubic meter, greater than 1500 curies per cubic meter, greater than 2000 curies per cubic meter, greater than 3500 curies per cubic meter, or any value in a range having any two of these values as endpoints.
As utilized herein, the terms “approximately,” “about,” “substantially”, and similar terms are intended to have a broad meaning in harmony with the common and accepted usage by those of ordinary skill in the art to which the subject matter of this disclosure pertains. It should be understood by those of skill in the art who review this disclosure that these terms are intended to allow a description of certain features described and claimed without restricting the scope of these features to the precise numerical values or idealized geometric forms provided. Accordingly, these terms should be interpreted as indicating that insubstantial or inconsequential modifications or alterations of the subject matter described and claimed are considered to be within the scope of the disclosure as recited in the appended claims.
The term “coupled” and variations thereof, as used herein, means the joining of two members directly or indirectly to one another. Such joining may be stationary (e.g., permanent or fixed) or moveable (e.g., removable or releasable). Such joining may be achieved with the two members coupled directly to each other, with the two members coupled to each other using a separate intervening member and any additional intermediate members coupled with one another, or with the two members coupled to each other using an intervening member that is integrally formed as a single unitary body with one of the two members. If “coupled” or variations thereof are modified by an additional term (e.g., directly coupled), the generic definition of “coupled” provided above is modified by the plain language meaning of the additional term (e.g., “directly coupled” means the joining of two members without any separate intervening member), resulting in a narrower definition than the generic definition of “coupled” provided above. Such coupling may be mechanical, electrical, optical, or fluidic.
References herein to the positions of elements (e.g., “top,” “bottom,” “above,” “below”) are merely used to describe the orientation of various elements in the FIGURES. It should be noted that the orientation of various elements may differ according to other exemplary embodiments, and that such variations are intended to be encompassed by the present disclosure.
Although the figures and description may illustrate a specific order of method steps, the order of such steps may differ from what is depicted and described, unless specified differently above. Also, two or more steps may be performed concurrently or with partial concurrence, unless specified differently above. Such variation may depend, for example, on the software and hardware systems chosen and on designer choice. All such variations are within the scope of the disclosure. Likewise, software implementations of the described methods could be accomplished with standard programming techniques with rule-based logic and other logic to accomplish the various connection steps, processing steps, comparison steps, and decision steps.
While particular embodiments have been illustrated and described herein, it should be understood that various other changes and modifications may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the claimed subject matter. Moreover, although various aspects of the claimed subject matter have been described herein, such aspects need not be utilized in combination. It is therefore intended that the appended claims cover all such changes and modifications that are within the scope of the claimed subject matter.
The present disclosure was developed with Government support under Contract No. DE-NA0004010 awarded by the United States Department of Energy. The Government has certain rights in the present disclosure.