Methods for preparing Bacillus anthracis sporulation deficient mutants and for producing recombinant Bacillus anthracis protective antigen for use in vaccines

Abstract

The invention relates to improved methods of producing and recovering sporulation-deficient B. anthracis mutant stains, and for producing and recovering recombinant B. anthracis protective antigen (PA), especially modified PA which is protease resistant, and to methods of using of these PAs or nucleic acids encoding these PAs for eliciting an immunogenic response in humans, including responses which provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, B. anthracis bacterial infections and which are useful to prevent and/or treat illnesses caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax and gastrointestinal anthrax.

Description

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0002] This invention relates to improved methods for preparing Bacillus anthracis mutants and for producing recombinant Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA) for use in vaccines.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

[0003] Anthrax, a potentially fatal disease, is caused by Bacillus anthracis. The virulence of this pathogen is mediated by a capsule of a poly-D-γ-glutamic acid and an exotoxin composed of three proteins (14, 16, 17). The three protein components are the protective antigen (PA, 82 KDa), lethal factor (LF, 90.2 KDa) and edema factor (EF, 88.8 KDa). These proteins, non-toxic by themselves, form lethal toxins when combined with an activated PA (16). The genes coding for these three protein components and the capsule are found in the endogenous plasmids pXO1 and pXO2, respectively (29).

[0004] The capsule of Bacillus anthracis, composed of poly-D-glutamic acid, serves as one of the principal virulence factors during anthrax infection. By virtue of its negative charge, the capsule is purported to inhibit host defence through inhibition of phagocytosis of the vegetative cells by macrophages. In conjunction with lethal factor (LF) and edema factor (EF), whose target cells include macrophages and neutrophils, respectively, the capsule allows virulent anthrax bacilli to grow virtually unimpeded in the infected host. Spores germinating in the presence of serum and elevated CO2 release capsule through openings on the spore surface in the form of blebs which may coalesce before sloughing of the exosporium and outgrowth of the fully encapsulated vegetative cell. It has not been established that spore encapsulation plays a role in the early events of anthrax infection. The capsule appears exterior to the S-layer of the vegetative cell and does not require the S-layer for its attachment to the cell surface.

[0005] There is only indirect evidence, albeit extensive, identifying the components of vaccin-induced immunity to anthrax and there is evidence that anti-PA neutralizing antibody titers can be a reliable surrogate marker for protective immunity (23). The protective antigen (PA), seems to be an essential component of all vaccines for anthrax (7, 18, 30): both mono and polyclonal antibodies to PA neutralize the anthrax toxin and confer immunity to B. anthracis in animal models. The US licensed vaccine for anthrax “Anthrax Vaccine Adsorbed” (AVA) is produced from the formalin-treated culture supernatant of B. anthracis Steme strain, V770-NP1-R (pXO1+, pXO2−), adsorbed onto aluminum hydroxide (22). Although AVA has been shown to be effective against cutaneous infection in animals and humans and against inhalation anthrax by rhesus monkeys (12), it has several limitations: 1) AVA elicits relatively high degree of local and systemic adverse reactions probably mediated by variable amounts of undefined bacterial products, making standardization difficult; 2) the immunization schedule requires administration of six doses within an eighteen-month period, followed by annual boosters for those at risk; and 3) there is no defined vaccine-induced protective level of serum PA to evaluate new lots of vaccines.

[0006] Development of a well-characterized, standardized, effective and safe vaccine that would require fewer doses to confer immunity to both inhalational and cutaneous anthrax is needed (9, 30). It has been suggested that a vaccine composed of modified purified recombinant PA would be effective, safer, allow precise standardization, and probably would require fewer injections (27). Such a PA can be designed to be biologically inactive, more stable, and still maintained high immunogenicity.

[0007] In the examples herein, we describe the development of a production and purification process for recombinant PA from the non-sporogenic avirulent B. anthracis BH445 (pXO1−, pXO2−) strain. Following an 18-hour fermentation and three purification steps, large quantities of protective antigen suitable for vaccine production were obtained. The purified PA was tested in mice and was able to elicit neutralizing antibodies (for related disclosure, see U.S. Provisional Application 60/344,505, filed Nov. 9, 2001, incorporated herein by reference).

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0008] This invention relates to improved methods of preparing Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA).

[0009] The invention also relates to PA and/or compositions thereof, which are useful for inducing or eliciting an immunogenic response in mammals, including responses that provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, infections caused by B. anthracis. In particular, the invention relates to methods of using PA, and/or compositions thereof, to induce or elicit serum antibodies which have neutralizing activity against B. anthracis toxin. PA and/or compositions thereof are useful as vaccines to induce serum antibodies which are useful to prevent, treat or reduce the severity of infections caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax, cutaneous anthrax and/or gastrointestinal anthrax.

[0010] The invention also relates to nucleic acids encoding PA of B. anthracis, and compositions thereof, which produce PA in sufficient amounts to be useful as pharmaceutical compositions or vaccines to induce serum antibodies for preventing and/or treating illnesses caused by B. anthracis. The invention also relates to suitable expression systems, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, and transformed host cells containing those nucleic acids.

[0011] The invention also relates to antibodies which immunoreact with the PA of B. anthracis, and/or compositions thereof. Such antibodies may be isolated, or may be provided in the form of serum containing these antibodies.

[0012] The invention also relates to pharmaceutical compositions and/or vaccines comprising at least one of the PAs, nucleic acids, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, transformed host cells or antibodies of the invention.

[0013] The invention also relates to methods for the prevention or treatment of B. anthracis infection n a mammal, by administration of pharmaceutical or vaccine compositions of the invention.

[0014] The invention also provides kits comprising one or more of the agents of the invention which are useful for vaccinating mammals for the treatment or prevention of B. anthracis infection.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0015] FIG. 1. Production and proteolytic activity of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D and PA-N657A. (a) PA production (mg/ g cells) λSNKE, ▪ N657A; proteolytic activity μSNKE, □ N657A; (b) SDS-PAGE analysis of partially purified PA-N657A and PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D.

[0016] FIG. 2. Effect of EDTA and PMSF on proteolytic activity. Supernatants from two different cultures taken after 24 hours of growth were analyzed without inhibitors (control), with 1 μg/μL PMSF, and with 15 mM EDTA. Fluorescence is proportional to proteolytic activity.

[0017] FIG. 3. Fermentation process for the production of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D from B. anthracis BH445. Acid and base values are cumulative.

[0018] FIG. 4. SDS-PAGE analysis of culture supernatants obtained throughout the fermentation. Samples were taken at 13, 14, 16, 18, 22, and 34 hours of growth. Arrow indicates the location of PA(83 KDa) in the gel.

[0019] FIG. 5. PA production and proteolytic activity of B. anthracis BH445 [pSY5:SNKE-ΔFF-E308D] in fed-batch cultures supplied with tryptone/yeast extract or glucose. λ Specific PA production in tryptone/yeast extract (mg/g cells); v Volumetric PA production in tryptone/yeast extract (mg/liter); σ Proteolytic activity in tryptone/yeast extract; μ Specific PA production in glucose (mg/g cells); □ Volumetric PA production in glucose (mg/liter); Δ Proteolytic activity in glucose.

[0020] FIG. 6. SDS-PAGE analysis of purified PA fractions. (a) PA purified by packed bed chromatography; (b) PA after hydrophobic interaction chromatography and gel filtration; (c) PA fraction shown in Lane (b) after 3 months; (d) PA after expanded bed hydrophobic interaction chromatography, anion exchange, and gel filtration. MW indicates molecular weight markers. Arrows indicate the location of PA(83 KDa) in the gel.

[0021] FIG. 7. Exemplary amino acid sequence of a double mutant rPA according to the invention. The double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Set at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop.

[0022] FIG. 8. Amino acid sequence alignment of wild-type PA protein (upper sequence) and the exemplary double mutant PA protein shown in FIG. 7 (lower sequence).

[0023] FIGS. 9A and 9B. Nucleotide sequence of an exemplary polynucleotide encoding the double mutant rPA shown in FIGS. 7 and 8.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF ILLUSTRATIVE EMBODIMENTS

[0024] It is to be understood that both the foregoing general description and the following detailed description are exemplary and explanatory only, and are not restrictive of the invention, as claimed. The accompanying drawings, which are incorporated in and constitute a part of the specification, illustrate an embodiment of the invention and, together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention.

[0025] The invention relates to methods of producing and recovering PA from a cell or organism, particularly a recombinant cell or microorganism. Exemplified herein is the production and purification of modified PA from a non-sporgenic strain of Bacillus anthracis. As discussed further herein, greater quantities of PA are obtainable from these cells or microorganisms than were obtainable by previously described methods.

[0026] The invention also relates to PA, and/or compositions thereof, which are useful for eliciting an immunogenic response in mammals, in particular humans, including responses which provide protection against, or reduce the severity of, infections caused by B. anthracis. The invention also relates to methods of using such PA, and/or compositions thereof, to induce serum antibodies against PA. PA, and/or compositions thereof, are useful as vaccines to induce serum antibodies that are useful to prevent, treat or reduce the severity of infections caused by B. anthracis, such as inhalation anthrax and/or cutaneous anthrax. The PAs of this invention are expected to induce a strong protective IgG antibody response in mammals, including humans.

[0027] The invention also relates to nucleic acids encoding PA and mutant forms of PA of this invention. Nucleic acids encoding PA, and compositions thereof, are also useful as pharmaceutical compositions or vaccines to induce serum antibodies that are useful to prevent and/or treat illnesses caused by B. anthracis.

[0028] The invention also relates to antibodies which immunoreact with the PA of B. anthracis that are induced by PAs of the invention, and/or compositions thereof. Such antibodies may be isolated, or may be provided in the form of serum containing these antibodies.

[0029] The invention also relates to a method for the prevention or treatment of B. anthracis infection in a mammal, by administration of compositions containing one or more of a PA of the invention, nucleic acids encoding a PA if the invention, antibodies and/or serum containing antibodies of the invention.

[0030] The invention also provides kits for vaccinating mammals for the treatment or prevention of B. anthracis infection in a mammal comprising one or more of the agents of the invention.

[0031] The present invention also encompasses methods of using mixtures of one or more of the PA, nucleic acids, and/or antibodies of the invention, either in a single composition or in multiple compositions containing other immunogens, to form a multivalent vaccine for broad coverage against either B. anthracis itself or a combination of B. anthracis and one or more other pathogens, which may also be administered concurrently with other vaccines, such as the DTP vaccine.

[0032] Pharmaceutical compositions of this invention are capable, upon injection into a human, of inducing serum antibodies against B. anthracis. The induced anti-PA antibodies have anthrax toxin neutralizing activity which are preferably at least comparable to those induced by the currently licensed anthrax vaccine.

[0033] The vaccines of this invention are intended for active immunization for prevention of B. anthracis infection, and for preparation of immune antibodies. The vaccines of this invention are designed to confer specific immunity against infection with B. anthracis, and to induce antibodies specific to B. anthracis PA. The B. anthracis vaccine is composed of non-toxic bacterial components, suitable for infants, children of all ages, and adults.

[0034] The methods of using the agents of this invention, and/or compositions thereof will be useful in increasing resistance to, preventing, ameliorating, and/or treating B. anthracis infection in humans.

[0035] This invention also provides compositions, including but not limited to, mammalian serum, plasma, and immunoglobulin fractions, which contain antibodies which are immunoreactive with B. anthracis PA. These antibodies and antibody compositions may be useful to prevent, treat, and/or ameliorate infection and disease caused by the microorganism. The invention also provides such antibodies in isolated form.

[0036] High titer anti-PA sera, or antibodies isolated therefrom, may be used for therapeutic treatment for patients with B. anthracis infection. Antibodies elicited by the agents of this invention may be used for the treatment of established B. anthracis infections, and may also be useful in providing passive protection to an individual exposed to B. anthracis.

[0037] The present invention also provides kits comprising vaccines for the prevention and/or treatment of B. anthracis, containing the one or more of the PAs, nucleic acids, viral particles, vectors, vector systems, or transformed host cells or antibodies of the invention and/or compositions thereof. The PAs, nucleic acids viral particles vectors, host cells and/or antibodies of the present invention may be isolated and purified by methods known in the art. Preferably, the PA of the invention is purified by one of the methods exemplified herein.

[0038] The vaccines of the invention are intended to be included in the immunization schedule of individuals at risk for B. anthracis infection. They are also planned to be used for intervention in the event of the use of B. anthracis in bioterrorism or biowarfare. For example, it is anticipated that the vaccines of the invention may be provided to the entire U.S. population. Additionally, they may be used as component(s) of a multivalent vaccine for B. anthracis and/or other pathogens.

[0039] Definitions

[0040] As used herein, unless otherwise specifically noted, “PA” refers to all forms of PA which are useful in the compositions and/or methods of the invention, including unmodified native or recombinant B. anthracis protective antigen (PA), or a modified form (variant) or fragment thereof, for use in vaccines. Variants and fragments of PA must be able to produce an immune response in a mammal to whom they are administered. The immune response is suitably protective against infection by Bacillus anthracis although the protective effect may be seen only after repeated applications, as would be determinable by methods known in the art. Modified PA variants comprise peptides and proteins which resemble PA in their ability to induce or elicit antibodies which bind to native PA, but have different amino acid sequence. For example, variants may be 60% homologous to PA protein, suitably 80% homologous and more particularly at least 90% homologous. Fragments are suitably peptides that contain at least one antigenic determinant of PA.

[0041] A modified (variant) PA of the invention includes any substituted analog or chemical derivative of PA, so long as the modified (variant) PA is capable of inducing or eliciting the production of antibodies capable of binding native (or naturally-occurring) PA. Preferably, the antibodies are neutralizing antibodies. PA can be subject to various changes that provide for certain advantages in its use. For example, PA with changes which increase in vitro and/or in vivo stability of PA, while still retaining the desired immunogenic activity, are preferred. In the modified PA used in the examples herein, two regions were altered, i.e., the furin cleavage site region (RKKR167 to SNKE167), and the chymotrypsin and thermolysin cleavage site region (two Phe at positions 313-314 were deleted and Glu acid at position 308 was substituted with Asp), resulting in a more stable PA. As used herein, the terms “immunoreact” and “immunoreactivity” refer to specific binding between an antigen or antigenic determinant-containing molecule and a molecule having an antibody combining site, such as a whole antibody molecule or a portion thereof.

[0042] As used herein, the term “antibody” refers to immunoglobulin molecules and immunologically active portions of immunoglobulin molecules. Exemplary antibody molecules are intact immunoglobulin molecules, substantially intact immunoglobulin molecules and portions of an immunoglobulin molecule, including those portions known in the art as Fab, Fab′, F(ab′)2 and F(v), as well as chimeric antibody molecules.

[0043] As used herein, the term “transduction” generally refers to the transfer of genetic material into the host via infection, e.g., in this case by the lentiviral vector. The term “transfection” generally refers to the transfer of isolated genetic material into cells via the use of specific transfection agents (e.g., calcium phosphate, DEAE Dextran, lipid formulations, gold particles, and other microparticles) that cross the cytoplasmic membrane and deliver some of the genetic material into the cell nucleus.

[0044] Monomers, Polymers and Polymeric Carriers

[0045] The present invention encompasses monomers of PA, as well as homogeneous or heterogeneous polymers of PA (e.g., concatenated, cross-linked and/or fused identical polypeptide units or concatenated, cross-linked and/or fused diverse peptide units), and mixtures of the polypeptides, polymers, and/or conjugates thereof. The present invention also encompasses PA bound to a non-toxic, preferably non-host, protein carrier to form a conjugate.

[0046] Linkers useful in the invention may, for example, be simply peptide bonds, or may comprise amino acids, including amino acids capable of forming disulfide bonds, but may also comprise other molecules such as, for example, polysaccharides or fragments thereof.

[0047] The linkers for use with this invention may be chosen so as to contribute their own immunogenic effect which may be either the same, or different, than that elicited by the consensus sequences of the invention. For example, such linkers may be bacterial antigens which also elicit the production of antibodies to infectious bacteria. In such instances, for example, the linker may be a protein or protein fragment of an infectious bacteria.

[0048] Carriers are chosen to increase the immunogenicity of the PA and/or to raise antibodies against the carrier which are medically beneficial. Carriers that fulfill these criteria are well known in the art. A polymeric carrier can be a natural or a synthetic material containing one or more functional groups, for example primary and/or secondary amino groups, azido groups, or carboxyl groups. Carriers can be water soluble or insoluble.

[0049] Methods for Attaching PA to a Protein Carrier

[0050] PA of the invention may be covalently attached to other proteins, with or without a linker, by methods known in the art, such as via their side chains or via peptide bonds in the primary chain. Cysteine molecules may provide a convenient attachment point through which to chemically conjugate other proteins or non-protein moieties to PA.

[0051] Dosage for Vaccination

[0052] The pharmaceutical compositions of this invention contain a pharmaceutically and/or therapeutically effective amount of at least one PA, nucleic acid, vector, viral particle, host cell immunogen or antibody of the invention. The effective amount of immunogen per unit dose is an amount sufficient to induce an immune response which is sufficient to prevent, treat or protect against the adverse effects of infection with B. anthracis. The effective amount of immunogen per unit dose depends, among other things, on the species of mammal inoculated, the body weight of the mammal and the chosen inoculation regimen, as is well known in the art.

[0053] In such circumstances, inocula for a human or similarly sized mammal typically contain PA concentrations of 0.5 μg to 1 mg per mammal per inoculation dose. Initial tests of the PA vaccine in humans will use approximately 10 μg or 20 μg per dose. Preferably, the route of inoculation of the peptide will be subcutaneous or intramuscular. The dose is administered at least once.

[0054] To monitor the antibody response of individuals administered the compositions of the invention, antibody levels may be determined. In most instances it will be sufficient to assess the antibody titer in serum or plasma obtained from such an individual. Decisions as to whether to administer booster inoculations or to change the amount of the composition administered to the individual may be at least partially based on the level.

[0055] The level may be based on either an immunobinding assay which measures the concentration of antibodies in the serum which bind to a specific antigen, i.e. PA. The ability to neutralize in vitro and in vivo biological effects of the B. anthracis toxins may also be assessed to determine the effectiveness of the treatment.

[0056] The term “unit dose” as it pertains to the inocula refers to physically discrete units suitable as unitary dosages for mammals, each unit containing a predetermined quantity of active material calculated to produce the desired immunogenic effect in association with the required diluent.

[0057] Inocula are typically prepared in physiologically and/or pharmaceutically tolerable (acceptable) carrier, and are preferably prepared as solutions in physiologically and/or pharmaceutically acceptable diluents such as water, saline, phosphate-buffered saline,.or the like, to form an aqueous pharmaceutical composition. Adjuvants, such as aluminum hydroxide, may also be included in the compositions.

[0058] Depending on the intended mode of administration, the compounds of the present invention can be in various pharmaceutical compositions. The compositions will include, as noted above, an effective amount of the selected immunogen and/or antibody of the invention in combination with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and, in addition, may include other medicinal agents, pharmaceutical agents, carriers, adjuvants, diluents, etc. By “pharmaceutically acceptable” is meant a material that is not biologically or otherwise undesirable, i.e., the material may be administered to an individual along with the immunogen and/or antibody or other composition without causing any undesirable biological effects or interacting in a deleterious manner with any of the other components of the pharmaceutical composition in which it is contained.

[0059] The route of inoculation may be intramuscular, subcutaneous or the like, which results in eliciting antibodies protective against B. anthracis. In order to increase the antibody level, a second or booster dose may be administered approximately 4 to 6 weeks after the initial injection. Subsequent doses may be administered as indicated herein, or as desired by the practitioner.

[0060] Parenteral administration, if used, is generally characterized by injection. Injectables can be prepared in conventional forms, either as liquid solutions or suspensions, solid forms suitable for solution or suspension in liquid prior to injection, or as emulsions. A more recently revised approach for parenteral administration involves use of a slow release or sustained release system, such that a constant level of dosage is maintained. See, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 3,710,795, which is incorporated by reference herein.

[0061] Antibodies

[0062] An antibody of the present invention in one embodiment is characterized as comprising antibody molecules that immunoreact with B. anthracis PA.

[0063] An antibody of the present invention is typically produced by immunizing a mammal with an immunogen or vaccine containing an B. anthracis PA to induce, in the mammal, antibody molecules having immunospecificity for the immunizing PA. Antibody molecules having immunospecificity for the protein carrier will also be produced. The antibody molecules may be collected from the mammal and, optionally, isolated and purified by methods known in the art.

[0064] Human or humanized monoclonal antibodies are preferred, including those made by phage display technology, by hybridomas, or by mice with human immune systems. The antibody molecules of the present invention may be polyclonal or monoclonal. Monoclonal antibodies may be produced by methods known in the art. Portions of immunoglobulin molecules, such as Fabs, may also be produced by methods known in the art.

[0065] The antibody of the present invention may be contained in blood plasma, serum, hybridoma supernatants and the like. Alternatively, the antibodies of the present invention are isolated to the extent desired by well-known techniques such as, for example, ion exchange chromatography, sizing chromatography, or affinity chromatography. The antibodies may be purified so as to obtain specific classes or subclasses of antibody such as IgM, IgG, IgA, IgG1, IgG2, IgG3, IgG4 and the like. Antibodies of the IgG class are preferred for purposes of passive protection. The antibodies of the present invention have a number of diagnostic and therapeutic uses. The antibodies can be used as an in vitro diagnostic agent to test for the presence of B. anthracis in biological samples or in meat and meat products, in standard immunoassay protocols. Such assays include, but are not limited to, agglutination assays, radioimmunoassays, enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays, fluorescence assays, Western blots and the like. In one such assay, for example, the biological sample is contacted first with antibodies of the present invention which bind to B. anthracis PA, and then with a labeled second antibody to detect the presence of B. anthracis to which the first antibodies have bound.

[0066] Such assays may be, for example, of direct format (where the labeled first antibody is reactive with the antigen), an indirect format (where a labeled second antibody is reactive with the first antibody), a competitive format (such as the addition of a labeled antigen), or a sandwich format (where both labeled and unlabelled antibody are utilized), as well as other formats described in the art.

[0067] The antibodies of the present invention are also useful in prevention and treatment of infections and diseases caused by B. anthracis.

[0068] In providing the antibodies of the present invention to a recipient mammal, preferably a human, the dosage of administered antibodies will vary depending upon such factors as the mammal's age, weight, height, sex, general medical condition, previous medical history and the like.

[0069] In general, it is desirable to provide the recipient with a dosage of antibodies that is in the range of from about 1 mg/kg to about 10 mg/kg body weight of the mammal, although a lower or higher dose may be administered. The antibodies of the present invention are intended to be provided to the recipient subject in an amount sufficient to prevent, or lessen or attenuate the severity, extent or duration of the infection by B. anthracis. When proteins of other organisms are used as carriers, antibodies which immunoreact with those proteins are intended to be provided to the recipient subject in an amount sufficient to prevent, lessen or attenuate the severity, extent or duration of an infection by the organisms producing those proteins.

[0070] The administration of the agents of the invention may be for either “prophylactic” or “therapeutic” purpose. When provided prophylactically, the agents are provided in advance of any symptom. The prophylactic administration of the agent serves to prevent or ameliorate any subsequent infection. When provided therapeutically, the agent is provided at (or shortly after) the onset of a symptom of infection. The agent of the present invention may, thus, be provided prior to the anticipated exposure to B. anthracis, so as to attenuate the anticipated severity, duration or extent of an infection and disease symptoms, after exposure or suspected exposure to these bacteria, or after the actual initiation of an infection.

[0071] For all therapeutic, prophylactic and diagnostic uses, one or more of the PAs or other agents of this invention, as well as antibodies and other necessary reagents and appropriate devices and accessories, may be provided in kit form so as to be readily available and easily used.

[0072] Nucleic Acids, Vectors and Hosts

[0073] Nucleic acids encoding the PAs of the invention can be introduced into a vector such as a plasmid, cosmid, phage, virus, viral particle or mini-chromosome and inserted into a host cell or organism by methods well known in the art. The vectors which can be utilized to clone and/or express these nucleic acids are the vectors which are capable of replicating and/or expressing the nucleic acids in the host cell in which the nucleic acids are desired to be replicated and/or expressed. See, e.g., F. Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Associates and Wiley-Interscience (1992) and Sambrook et al. (1989) for examples of appropriate vectors for various types of host cells. Vectors and compositions for enabling production of the peptides in vivo, i.e., in the individual to be treated or immunized, are also within the scope of this invention. Strong promoters compatible with the host into which the gene is inserted may be used. These promoters may be inducible. The host cells containing these nucleic acids can be used to express large amounts of the protein useful in pharmaceuticals, diagnostic reagents, vaccines and therapeutics. Vectors include retroviral vectors and also include direct injection of DNA into muscle cells or other receptive cells, resulting in the efficient expression of the peptide, using the technology described, for example, in Wolff et al., Science 247:1465-1468 (1990), Wolff et al., Human Molecular Genetics 1(6):363-369 (1992) and Ulmer et al., Science 259:1745-1749 (1993). See also, for example, WO 96/36366 and WO 98/34640.

[0074] In general, vectors containing nucleic acids encoding PA can be utilized in any cell, either eukaryotic or prokaryotic, including mammalian cells (e.g., human (e.g., HeLa), monkey (e.g., COS), rabbit (e.g., rabbit reticulocytes), rat, hamster (e.g., CHO and baby hamster kidney cells) or mouse cells (e.g., L cells), plant cells, yeast cells, insect cells or bacterial cells (e.g., E. coli)). However, bacterial vectors and host cells are preferred in the present invention.

[0075] There are numerous E. coli expression vectors known to one of ordinary skill in the art useful for the expression of PA. Other microbial hosts suitable for use include bacilli, such as B. subtilus, and other enterobacteriaceae, such as Salmonella, Serratia, and various Pseudomonas species. In these prokaryotic hosts one can also make expression vectors, which will typically contain expression control sequences compatible with the host cell (e.g., an origin of replication). In addition, any number of a variety of well-known promoters will be present, such as the lactose promoter system, a tryptophan (Trp) promoter system, a beta-lactamase promoter system, or a promoter system from phage lambda. The promoters will typically control expression, optionally with an operator sequence, and have ribosome binding site sequences for example, for initiating and completing transcription and translation. If necessary an amino terminal methionine can be provided by insertion of a Met codon 5′ and in-frame with the antigen. Also, if desired, the carboxy-terminal or other region of the antigen can be removed using standard oligonucleotide mutagenesis procedures.

[0076] The nucleotide (DNA) sequences can be expressed in hosts after the sequences have been operably linked to, i.e., positioned to ensure the functioning of, an expression control sequence. These expression vectors are typically replicable in the host organisms either as episomes or as an integral part of the host chromosomal DNA. Commonly, expression vectors can contain selection markers, e.g., tetracycline resistance or hygromycin resistance, to permit detection and/or selection of those cells transformed with the desired DNA sequences (see, e.g., U.S. Pat. No. 4,704,362).

[0077] Host bacterial cells may be chosen that are mutated to be reduced in or free of proteases, so that the proteins produced are not degraded. For bacillus expression systems in which the proteins are secreted into the culture medium, strains are available that are deficient in secreted proteases.

[0078] Polynucleotides encoding a variant polypeptide may include sequences that facilitate transcription (expression sequences) and translation of the coding sequences such that the encoded polypeptide product is produced. Construction of such polynucleotides is well known in the art. For example, such polynucleotides can include a promoter, a transcription termination site (polyadenylation site in eukaryotic expression hosts), a ribosome binding site, and, optionally, an enhancer for use in eukaryotic expression hosts, and, optionally, sequences necessary for replication of a vector.

[0079] Fermentation and Purification Procedures

[0080] This invention relates to improved methods of preparing B. anthracis PA for use in vaccines. Procedures are exemplified herein for purifying modified PA from a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis. However, it is expected that these procedures will be useful for growing and purifying PA, including natural or recombinant PA, as well as various modified or truncated forms of PA, from other microorganisms, particularly other Bacillus species and strains. Bacillus strains and/or expression systems which are expected to be suitable include, for example, the B. anthracis strain described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,840,312 (Nov. 24, 1998) and the B. subtilis strain and PA expression system described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,267,966 (Jul. 31, 2001).

[0081] In one aspect of the invention, the culture is preferably maintained at about pH 7 to about pH 8, most preferably about pH 7.5, substantially throughout the fermentation process. It has also been found to be advantageous to add EDTA before separating the culture supernatant from the cells, preferably at or near the end of fermentation, since if it is added during the fermentation stage, it may interfere somewhat with the growth of the cells.

[0082] The purification procedure of the invention is preferably essentially a three-step procedure, including (1) hydrophobic interaction chromatography, (2) ion exchange chromatography and (3) gel filtration. While ion exchange chromatography may precede hydrophobic interaction chromatography in the purification process, and still permit obtaining a good yield of PA, it is a less efficient process. Therefore, in view of this, it is preferred that hydrophobic interaction chromatography precede ion exchange chromatography in the purification process. Alternatively, this three-step procedure need not be used and an alternative purification scheme may be used.

[0083] In addition, the resins used in the exemplified purification procedure can be substituted. For example, in the hydrophobic interaction chromatography step, phenyl sepharose (Pharmacia) is used as the resin in the example, but any other hydrophobic resin can be used. Likewise, in the ion exchange chromatography step, Q sepharose (Pharmacia) is used as the resin in the example, but any other anion exchanger can be used. Likewise, for the gel filtration step, Superdex (Pharmacia) is the residue used in the example, but it can be replaced by other gel filtration resins. Furthermore, with respect to the fermentation conditions, similar compounds can replace the tryptone and the yeast extract that are obtained from Difco.

[0084] In other detailed aspects of the invention, novel methods and materials are provided for producing and selecting genetically defined, non-reverting sporulation-deficient mutants of a sporulating bacterium. Exemplary bacteria for which these methods are well suited include Bacillus anthracis, B. thuringiensis, and B. cereus. The sporulation deficient mutants obtained according to the methods of the invention are useful, for example, as hosts for expressing recombinant proteins, including recombinant PA, lethal factor, edema factor, and mutant versions of these proteins, contemplated as components of improved anthrax vaccines.

[0085] Bacillus anthracis efficiently secretes anthrax toxin proteins, and this feature has been employed herein to develop systems for expressing large amounts of recombinant anthrax toxin proteins, for example up to 100 mg per liter of culture. One disadvantage of B. anthracis strains, even those which are avirulent due to removal of the two large virulence plasmids, pXO1 and pXO2, is the formation of very stable spores. This presents certain challenges to the use of these strains for commercial vaccine production.

[0086] Development of the BH445 sporulation-deficient strain, as described above, ameliorates this problem. However, there remains a need for yet additional modified strains to further enhance stability of by minimizing the potential for reversion to a sporulation-competent parental phenotype. This may occur, for example, if the selective antibiotic chloramphenicol is not present at effective concentrations.

[0087] As used herein, “sporulation-deficient” refers to a mutant bacterial strain that exhibits a significant reduction in sporulation potential as compared to the fully sporulation competent, wild type (wt) counterpart strain. The term sporulation-deficient thus refers to sporulation-incompetent mutants, as well as substantially sporulation-impaired mutants.

[0088] The current invention provides for the generation and selection of sporulation-deficient mutants of sporulating bacterial based on growth behavior and morphological appearance. In exemplary embodiments, B. anthracis is plated on a suitable, solid growth medium, for example LB agar in plates. Following plating the bacteria are allowed to grow for a suitable period to yield moderate to thick growth on the solid medium. Typically, the growth period is between about 24 hours and 72 hours, more typically between about 36 hours and 48 hours.

[0089] In areas of thick growth, parental bacteria are induced by nutrient deprivation to initiate sporulation and cease normal growth. This is because moderate to heavy growth is attended by progressive nutrient depletion in the culture. Nutrient deprivation stress in turn stimulates sporulation in the culture by sporulation-competent bacteria, which cease normal growth.

[0090] Within the methods of the invention, sporulation-deficient mutants are isolated within such nutrient-stressed cultures. Within areas of thick growth, rare, spontaneous sporulation-deficient mutants emerge. These are selected based on one or more selection criteria. In particular, the mutants may be isolated by picking from a central area of the culture colonies where nutrient deprivation is increased. Alternatively, the mutants can be selected by picking so-called “cancerous tumors” within in the colonies identified as nodules of protruding bacterial growth on a relatively smooth growth background. In addition, or alternatively, sporulation-incompetent and sporulation-impaired mutants can be selected based on other morphological characteristics exhibited by the mutants under nutrient-stress conditions, for example color and “wetness.” Sporulation-deficient mutants of B. anthracis are generally whiter in appearance and less “wet” (i.e., glossy or reflective) in comparison to wt.

[0091] To further enrich for sporulation mutants according to the foregoing method, bacteria selected as above (e.g., picked from central areas of thick growth) can be grown up in an optional, liquid culture step and re-plated for single colonies. As noted in the examples below, this enrichment yields a large number of candidate mutants. In more detailed embodiments, the methods of the invention can produce plates on which between from 1-10%, 10-25%, 30-50% or more of the colonies exhibit distinct morphology from that of the parental strain.

[0092] Unlike previous reports, the current mutant selection procedure does not require the incorporation of dyes (e.g., Congo Red, Aram Cresol Green, and Evans Blue) in the solid culture medium to identify sporulation-deficient variants. Although these dyes may facilitate selection in certain embodiments, the methods of the invention can be practice using a dye-free culture medium. As used herein, “dye free” means that the culture medium is substantially free of any added indicator dyes such that differential staining of mutant and wild type colonies by the indicator dye cannot be visually detected.

[0093] The methods of the invention yield sporulation-deficient variants of B. anthracis and other sporulating species and strains of bacteria, which are often sporulation-incompetent. Typically, the subject mutants are highly stable by virtue of having deletions in genes required for the production of spores. Strains in which these genes have partial or complete deletions will not revert to sporulation-competence forms at a detectable frequency, and are therefore highly desired for use in vaccine production.

[0094] Within exemplary embodiments of the foregoing methods, sporulation-deficient mutants were obtained from three different parental strains of B. anthracis: Ames plasmid-free, UM44-1C9, and BH441. These sporulation-deficient strains are useful for the expression of proteins, including recombinant PA, lethal factor, edema factor, and mutant versions of these proteins, contemplated as components of improved anthrax vaccines within the methods and compositions of the invention. Useful candidate strains mutated in particular genes required for sporulation will support higher levels of protein expression, for example from the pYS5-type plasmids typically used for expression.

[0095] Within additional aspects of the invention, the expression and stability of two recombinant PA variants, PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D and PA-N657A, were studied. Related methods are provided for producing and recovering native PA; PA wherein the receptor-binding domain has been altered; PA which cannot be cleaved at the chymotrypsin cleavage site; PA which cannot be cleaved at the furin cleavage site; other PA which cannot be cleaved at either the chymotrypsin or the furin cleavage site in addition to the one exemplified herein (see, e.g., those described in (22)); PA fragments (e.g., a PA fragment having aa 175-764 (36)); PA mutants having a strong dominant-negative effect (e.g., PA double mutants K397D and D425K) (37), and PA mutants with substitutions in domain 2 (37)).

[0096] Considering the nature of the current anthrax (AVA) vaccine and the adverse events that have been associated with its administration, there is an urgent need for new, recombinant PA (rPA) molecules for use in second generation vaccine development. PA is an essential component of an effective anthrax vaccine. One problem with producing a rPA for vaccine use is that PA is sensitive to proteolytic cleavage at two locations. One target location for cleavage is the furin-cleavage loop, which contains the sequence ArgLysLysArg (residues 164-167 of the mature protein). Cleavage at this site activates PA, exposing the surface at which the two other toxin components bind. Removal of the furin loop will prevent intoxication mediated by the other toxin components. The second cleavage loop (residues 304-319) contains the sequence PhePheAsp (residues 313-315), making PA sensitive to cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin.

[0097] One strategy for removing this cleavage site involves deleting Phe313 and Phe314. While deletion of these two Phe residues prevents cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin, preparations of this form of rPA still exhibit degradation products indicative of cleavage in the loop, presumably by a different protease.

[0098] In related aspects of the invention, one or more contiguous amino acid residues are deleted or substituted in a “flexible”, exposed, or loop segment of a recombinant PA protein. Flexible, exposed, and loop segments of PA are identified by X-ray crystallography and other structural analytic methods known in the art. In this context, target segments of PA for mutagenesis include residues not seen in the crystall structure of PA, including cleavage loop segments identified as residues 162-174, residues 304-319, and other exposed or flexible segments including residues 1-13, 99-102, and 512-515 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). All of these segments are useful targets for mutation within the invention to yield a rPA having improved characteristics for vaccine development, including enhanced resistance to protolytic degradation.

[0099] Within the foregoing targeted segments of PA, one or more amino acids will be deleted or modified (e.g., by chemical modification or substitution with another amino acid), and typically the deletion or modification will reduce succeptibility of the rPA to proteolytic degradation (e.g., by removing a cleavage target site or altering an amino acid side chain to interfere with a cleavage interaction that would target the native PA protein). Typically, 1-15 amino acids will be deleted, often in combination with substitution of one or more amino acid(s) within the targeted PA segment. In other embodiments, the number of contiguous amino acids deleted from the target segment encompasses 3-12, 4-10, 5-8, or 6-7 residues.

[0100] In one exemplary embodiment, the invention provides a stable, recombinant PA molecule having a deletion of exemplary segments from both the chymotrypsin-sensitive loop and the furin-cleavage loop. This novel rPA double deletion mutant described here has both cleavage-sensitive loops removed to create a more stable, inactive, PA mutant protein suitable for vaccine production. This double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Set at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop (FIG. 8). This and other mutant rPAs produced according to the invention exhibit significantly increased stability compared to wt PA. In particular, the stability of selected mutant rPAs according to the invention to proteolytic degradation will be increased by at least 15%, often 20-30%, 50%, 75%, up to 100%, 200% or more compared to stability of wt PA under comparable conditions.

[0101] In a related aspect of the invention, polynucleotides and expression vectors encoding a double deletion mutant form of rPA are provided. One such exemplary polynucleotide is shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B. Also provided are host cells incorporating an expression vector operable to direct expression of a mutant rPA of the invention within the host cell.

[0102] In additional aspects of the invention, the methods herein are useful for producing and recovering PA in which the chymotrypsin site, FF, is replaced by a furin site. This may be a suicide protein, getting easily cleaved by furin after binding to receptor. Cleavage at that site inactivates PA.

[0103] The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering PA with a protease cleavage site (thrombin, Factor IV, etc.) at approximately residue 605. PA made in large amounts in the expression system could be cleaved to produce a soluble domain 4, which would compete with PA for receptor, and could be a therapeutic agent.

[0104] The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering PA with matrix metalloprotease or plasminogen activator sites replacing the furin site (38, 39).

[0105] The methods of the invention are also useful for producing and recovering other proteins, such as LF. See, e.g., (21), wherein expression system is the same, except the structural gene for PA is replaced by the LF gene. This can be generalized to include LF mutants altered in the catalytic site residues: HEFGH, 686-690. The system may also have utility with EF.

[0106] The following examples are provided by way of illustration, not limitation.

EXAMPLE 1

[0107] In this example, the expression and the stability of two recombinant PA variants, PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D and PA-N657A, were studied. These proteins were expressed in the non-sporogenic avirulent strain BH445. Initial results indicated that PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D, which lacks two proteolysis-sensitive sites, is more stable than PA-N657A. Process development was conducted to establish an efficient production and purification process for PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D. Various parameters such as pH, media composition, growth strategy, and protease inhibitors composition were analyzed. The production process chosen was based on batch growth of B. anthracis using tryptone and yeast extract as the only sources of carbon, pH control at 7.5, and antifoam 289. Optimal harvest time was found to be 14-18 hours after inoculation, and EDTA (5 mM) was added upon harvesting for proteolysis control. In one of the processes described herein, recovery of the PA was performed by expanded bed adsorption (EBA) on a hydrophobic interaction resin, eliminating the need for centrifugation, microfiltration, and diafiltration. The EBA step was followed by ion exchange and gel filtration. PA yields before and after purification were 130 mg/L and 90 mg/L, respectively.

[0108] Materials and Methods

[0109] Strains and Plasmids

[0110] The non-sporogenic, protease deficient, avirulent strain B. anthracis BH445 (pXO1−, pXO2−, cmr) was used (17). The Bacillus-E. coli shuttle vector pYS5 (ampr, kanr) (26) was used to clone two recombinant forms of the protective antigen: N657A and SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (28). In the N657A mutant, the receptor-binding domain of PA was altered by substitution of Asp with Ala at position 657 (domain 4). In the SNKE-ΔFF-E308D mutant two regions were altered, the furin site (RKKR167 to SNKE167) and the chymotrypsin site (two Phe at positions 313-314 were deleted and Glu acid at position 308 was substituted with Asp). Both PA constructs contain the DNA sequence encoding the signal peptide of PA.

[0111] Culture and Expression Conditions

[0112] Modified FA medium (21) containing (per liter) 35 g tryptone (Difco Laboratories, Detroit, Mich.), 5 g yeast extract (Difco Laboratories), and 100 mL of 10× salts was used in all experiments. The 10× salt solution (per liter) consisted of 60 g Na2 HPO4.7H2O, 10 g KH2PO4, 55 g NaCl, 0.4 g L-tryptophan, 0.4 g L-methionine, 0.05 g thiamine, and 0.25 g uracil. It was filter-sterilized and added to the fermentor after cooling. The pH of the medium was adjusted to 7.5; 100 μg/mL kanamycin and 20 μg/mL chloramphenicol were added. Fermentation experiments were performed by inoculating a 12-14 hour-old starter culture grown from a frozen stock. The medium in the fermentor was supplemented with 0.2 mL/L of antifoam 289 (Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). Three- to ten-liter fermentations were done using B. Braun Biostat MD DCU (Melsungen, Germany), controlling dissolved oxygen (DO) at 30% saturation, temperature at 37° C., and pH at 7.5 with HCl and NH4OH. At harvest time, 5 mM EDTA and 10 μg/mL PMSF (phenylmethyl sulfonyl fluoride) (in one of the experiments described herein) were added to the culture. Shake flask experiments (100 mL) utilizing modified FA medium were supplemented with glucose, lactose, glycerol, and casitone at a concentration of 10 g/L.

[0113] Analytical Methods

[0114] Optical density (OD) was measured at 600 nm. Protease analysis was done on supernatant samples collected during growth and stored frozen at −20° C. EDTA was added to supernatant samples used for SDS-PAGE and radial immunodiffusion to a final concentration of 10 mM.

[0115] Extracellular protease activity was detected using the EnzChek green fluorescence assay kit (Molecular Probes, Eugene, Oreg.). Fluorescence was measured with a LS50B luminescence spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer, Boston, Mass.). This assay was conducted at pH of 7.5 or 6.0 depending on the experiment. Proteolytic activity is reported as fluorescence change per unit sample.

[0116] Protein was determined using BCA assay (Pierce, Rockford, Ill.). PA expression was quantified by SDS-PAGE (Invitrogen/Novex, Carlsbad, Calif.) gel analysis and by the Mancini immunodiffusion assay (19) using agarose plates containing polyclonal PA antibody. Pure PA was used as the standard, both polycolonal PA antibodies and pure PA were supplied by Dr. Stephen Leppla.

[0117] Purification

[0118] a. Packed Bed Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography

[0119] The cell suspension containing 5 mM EDTA was centrifuged and the supernatant passed through a 0.2 μm hollow fiber filter (AGT, Needham, Mass.). The filtered broth was then concentrated 20× using a 10K membrane in a Pellicon-2 (Millipore, Bedford, Mass.). 200 g (NH4)2SO4 per liter (1.5 M) were added to the concentrated supernatant. The small amount of precipitate produced after addition of (NH4)2SO4 was eliminated with centrifugation and filtration. Phenyl Sepharose Fast Flow (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was equilibrated with buffer containing 1.5 M (NH4)2SO4/10 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA pH=7.0 (equilibration buffer) at a flow rate of 15 cm/h. After sample loading, the column was washed with 10 column volumes (CV) of equilibration buffer and PA was eluted with a 30 CV linear gradient from 1.5 M to 0 M (NH4)2SO4 in 10 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA; pH=7.0. Fractions were analyzed by SDS-PAGE and the PA-containing samples were pooled for further purification.

[0120] b. Expanded Bed Hydrophobic Interaction Chromatography

[0121] The cell suspension containing 5 mM EDTA was diluted 1:1 with buffer containing 3.0 M (NH4)2SO4/20 mM HEPES/5 mM EDTA and 0.005% Pluronic F-68 (Life Technologies, Inc. Gaithersburg, Md.). STREAMLINE Phenyl, (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) was expanded in a streamline column in equilibration buffer. The diluted cell suspension was loaded upward at 300 cm/h. The column was washed in expanded mode (2) with 10 CV of equilibration buffer containing 0.005% pluronic F-68. Elution was performed in packed bed mode with 8 CV of elution buffer at 100 cm/h. The eluent was analyzed by SDS-PAGE and radial immunodifussion.

[0122] c. Anion Exchange Chromatography

[0123] Fractions from HIC were dialyzed against 20 mM Tris pH=8.9 and loaded on a Q Sepharose Fast Flow (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) column equilibrated with 20 mM Tris pH=8.9 at 15 cm/h. The protein was eluted using a 20 CV linear gradient from 0 to 0.5 M NaCl in the same buffer. PA containing fractions were concentrated and dialyzed against PBS.

[0124] d. Gel Filtration

[0125] The pooled PA was further purified using a Superdex 75 column (Amersham Pharmacia Biotech) in PBS/5 mM EDTA pH=7.4 at 12 cm/h.

[0126] Results and Discussion

[0127] a. Expression of Two Recombinant PAs: PA-N657A and PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D

[0128] The expression of two recombinant versions of PA and the extracellular proteolytic activity of the culture were analyzed (FIG. 1). Production of PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D, the protein lacking the furin and chymotrypsin cleavage sites, was nearly 60 % higher than that of PA-N657A, the protein containing a mutation in the receptor-binding domain (FIG. 1a). The extracellular proteolytic activity (fluorescence/OD) of both cultures was similar. SDS-PAGE analysis of partially purified PA recovered from these cultures shows higher concentration of smaller fragments in the sample from PA-N657A compared to the sample from PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D (FIG. 1b). Western blot analysis with polyclonal PA antibody confirmed that the smaller fragments were reactive against PA (data not shown). As indicated in FIG. 1a, the proteolytic activity was similar in both strains. Therefore, it was apparent that PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D is a better candidate, due to its stability, and it was selected for further studies.

[0129] b. pH Effect

[0130] Based on previous information (5, 21), initial production studies with PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D were done by controlling pH with NH4OH only, which resulted in pH 8.7 at the end of the fermentation. When pH was controlled at 7.4 during the entire fermentation, the PA production was 30 mg per g cell and the proteolytic activity per OD unit was 8, compared to values of 20 mg PA per g cells and proteolytic activity per OD of 30 when the pH control was done only by NH4OH. When the process was performed at a lower pH, both PA production and protease activity were lower. At pH 6.1 production declined nearly six times and protease activity two times compared to what was found at pH 7.4. Possibly, intracellular expression is lower or secretion is inhibited at low pH. From the above information it is obvious that pH significantly affects the proteolytic activity and the PA expression. Controlling pH throughout the fermentation process resulted in a 30% increase in PA yield, compared to previously reported strategies.

[0131] c. Effect of Various Carbon Sources and Protease Inhibitors

[0132] Attempts to increase PA expression by supplementing the basic growth medium with different carbon sources is summarized in Table 1.

TABLE 1
Effect of various carbon sources on PA production.
	PA production
	Medium	mg PA/g cell	mg PA/L culture
	Basic medium	31.3	129.5
	Glycerol + basic medium	23.7	117.3
	Glucose + basic medium	25.3	113.3
	Lactose + basic medium	33.9	116.0
	Casitone + basic medium	28.3	135.1

[0133] Neither the volumetric production nor the production per gram cells could be enhanced with the addition of various carbon sources. The effect of PMSF and EDTA on extracellular proteolysis was also examined. As shown in FIG. 2, addition of EDTA (15 mM) significantly reduced proteolytic activity whereas the proteolytic activity of the PMSF-containing fraction (1 g/mL) was similar to that of the control. Based on this information, EDTA was added at the end of the fermentation, before the protein was processed.

[0134] d. Growth and Production Conditions

[0135] Based on the parameters determined previously, a production process for the recombinant PA-SNKE-ΔFF-E308D from B. anthracis BH445 was established. The process is based on growth in a batch fermentation controlled at pH 7.5 with NH4OH/HCl and at 30% dissolved oxygen saturation for a period of 18 hours. A typical fermentation is seen in FIG. 3.

[0136] In general, the final OD600values fluctuated between 16 to 20. During the first five hours, growth was exponential and the pH was controlled by base addition. Later in the fermentation the pH was controlled by acid addition. Accumulation of PA occurred mostly during the stationary phase and reached a final concentration of 160 mg per liter. The results shown in FIG. 4 indicate that PA degraded if the fermentation was extended for more than 18 hours, therefore, a harvest time between 14 and 18 hours was selected.

[0137] Attempts to increase the PA production by implementing a fed-batch growth strategy were conducted. The addition of 10× tryptone/yeast extract/salts or 50% glucose/10× salts resulted in a 50% increase in cell density but not an increase in protein production (FIG. 5). The observations that PA production was not improved by the implementation of a fed batch growth strategy or by the addition of various carbon sources such as casein, glucose, glycerol or lactose is an indication that perhaps a specific nutritional factor is missing. It is also important to mention that the specific proteolytic activity was almost five times lower when glucose was added to the tryptone/yeast extract media (FIG. 6). This was expected since glucose is known to be a repressor of proteases in Bacillus (10, 25).

[0138] e. Purification

[0139] The purification protocol developed for PA (Materials and Methods) consisted of hydrophobic interaction chromatography (Phenyl Sepharose) followed by anion exchange (Q Sepharose) and gel filtration (Superdex 75).

[0140] Replacing the initial capturing step with expanded bed chromatography (2) can simplify and shorten the recovery process since it eliminates the clarification steps. Therefore, the use of expanded bed adsorption (EBA) was investigated by substituting the traditional packed-bed resin (Phenyl Sepharose) with the expanded bed hydrophobic resin STREAMLINE™ Phenyl. The static binding capacity for STREAMLINE™ Phenyl was approximately 15 mg protein/mL of resin, which is comparable to the capacity of Phenyl Sepharose. Optimal binding of PA to STREAMLINE™ Phenyl occurred at 1.5 M (NH4)2SO4.

[0141] Preliminary experiments performed with cell-containing broth in expanded mode resulted in the formation of aggregates and eventual collapse of the bed. It was possible to stabilize the expanded column only after the addition of a detergent which probably altered some of the hydrophobic interactions but did not prevent PA from binding. Pluronic F-68 was chosen due its non-toxicity in humans. The static binding capacities of STREAMLINE™ Phenyl were 15, 11, and 5 mg protein/mL resin with 0%, 0.005%, and 0.01% pluronic F-68, respectively. Successful operation of the HIC EBA column occurred when using a load concentration of 15 g wet cells/L, 0.8 mL resin/g wet cells, and 0.005% pluronic F-68 in the load as well as the wash buffer. Under these conditions some signs of aggregation appeared at the end of the loading phase but cell debris was eliminated in the washing phase. A 70% recovery was obtained.

[0142] PA purity after hydrophobic interaction chromatography was higher than 80 %. Further purification was achieved by adding gel filtration step (FIG. 6, Lane b). However, this material was not stable when stored at 4° C. for three months (FIG. 6, Lane c). In contrast, pure and stable PA was obtained after hydrophobic interaction chromatography on expanded bed, followed by anion exchange and gel filtration (FIG. 6, Lane d). Similar results to the expanded bed process were obtained when packed bed hydrophobic interaction chromatography was followed by ion exchange and gel filtration (FIG. 6, Lane a).

[0143] Replacing the packed-bed capturing step with expanded bed adsorption proved to be more efficient since it eliminated the centrifugation and filtration steps, however, twenty times more (NH4)2SO4 and three times more resin were required to process the same amount of culture (Table 2).

TABLE 2
Comparison of packed bed and expanded
bed absorption as capturing processes for PA
Packed Bed	Expanded Bed Adsorption
1.	Total processing time 15.5 h	1.	Total processing time: 8 h
	a) downstream processing: 6 h		a) downstream processing: 1 h
	(4 unit operations)		(1 unit operation)
	b) loading: 2 h		b) loading: 4 h
	c) column wash: 3.5 h		c) column wash: 1.5 h
	d) elution: 4 h		d) elution: 1.5 h
2.	400 g (NH4)2SO4 needed	2.	8000 g (NH4)2SO4 needed
3.	100 mL resin needed	3.	300 mL resin needed
4.	Load/wash steps require little	4.	Load/wash steps cannot be left
	attention		unattended
5.	82% recovery	5.	70% recovery

[0144] Initial work with hydrophobic interaction chromatography using expanded bed ad sorption to capture PA resulted in bed collapse. This was avoided after the addition of a surfactant (pluronic F-68). These results suggest that the characteristics of the cell membrane were most likely the cause of cell aggregation. Since no polyglutamic acid capsule is present in the recombinant strain, the two hydrophobic membrane proteins forming the S-layer (4, 6) may be responsible for associating with neighboring cell membranes and the resin. After evaluating the possible interactions affecting the system, it was found that successful operation of the expanded bed was possible by carefully adjusting the cell concentration of the load, increasing the adsorbent-to-cell ratio, and choosing the appropriate detergent type and concentration. The expanded bed approach was more efficient in spite of the slightly lower yield (70% vs. 82%) and the higher amount of (NH4)2SO4 and resin needed since it eliminated the need for centrifugation and filtration. To obtain stable and highly purified protein, anion exchange and gel filtration steps were added.

[0145] Conclusions

[0146] Once the gene encoding PA (pagA) was cloned (31) and sequenced (32), several researchers have reported on the expression of PA in hosts like B. subtilis (1, 13, 20, 26), E. coli (8, 24, 31), Salmonella typhimurium (3), viruses (11), and avirulant B. anthracis (5, 15). From these reports, the highest PA yield achieved has been in the order of 50 mg/L in B. anthracis (15). In this work, a scalable fermentation and purification process suitable for vaccine development which produced almost three times more product than what has been reported earlier, is presented. This was accomplished by using a biologically inactive protease-resistant PA variant in a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis.

EXAMPLE 2

Composition of the Vaccines

[0147] Four combinations of the recombinant (modified) protective antigen (“rPA”) were made: (1) rPA in PBS (“phosphate buffered saline”), (2) rPA in formalin, (3) rPA in aluminum hydroxide and (4) rPA in formalin and aluminum hydroxide. Another formulation of succinylated rPA was prepared and tested (data not shown).

EXAMPLE 3

Immunogenicity in Mice

[0148] The four formulations described above were immunogenic in mice, and induced antibody levels comparable to those induced by the currently licensed anthrax vaccine. The induced antibodies had anthrax toxin neutralizing activity. It is planned to evaluate these formulations in humans, and to choose the best one for use as a vaccine.

[0149] The data from the mice experiments are set forth in the tables 3 to 5 below:

TABLE 3
Number of Mice and Immunogen
Group Number	Number of Mice	Immunogen
1056	11	PA (2.5 μg) − Untreated
1057	11	PA (12.5 μg) − Untreated
1058	11	PA (2.5 μg) + Alum
1059	10	PA SUCC 10: 1.25 (2.5 μg)
1060	10	PA SUCC 10: 1.25 (12.5 μg)
1061	10	PA SUCC 10: 3 (2.5 μg)
1062	10	PA SUCC 10: 3 (12.5 μg)
1063	10	PA-Formalin 0.3 (2.5 μg)
1064	10	PA-Formalin 0.3 (12.5 μg)
1065	10	PA-Formalin 3.0 (2.5 μg)
1066	10	PA-Formalin 3.0 (12.5 μg)
1067	10	PA-Formalin 7.12 (2.5 μg)
1068	10	PA-Formalin 7.12 (12.5 μg)
1069	11	Anthrax Vaccine 0.1 ml
1070	10	Control

[0150]

TABLE 4
Antibody Levels and Neutralization Titers
	Mice	μg/ml	Neutral, Titer
	1056A	130.64	4000
	1056B	11.24	200
	1056K	21.3	1000
	1057A	146.65	3000
	1057I	490.14	7000
	1058A	725.31	8000
	E	710.46	7000
	J	513.46	4000
	1059A	53.89	1500
	1060A	125.92	850
	1061A	97.1	1500
	C	21.2	200
	E	54.22	700
	1062A	24.9	1500
	J	14.35	2000
	1063A	68.31	1500
	C	179.16	2000
	H	564.94	2000
	1064A	581.34	10,000
	1064D	204.56	8000
	E	742.21	11,000
	F	418.95	7000
	G	814.91	10,000
	1065A	77.73	1250
	E	214.37	5000
	1066C	65.47	4000
	D	513.32	10,000
	E	248.91	4000
	F	260.36	8000
	J	1041.65	10,000
	1067A	261.54	3000
	G	415	5000
	1068A	512.99	10,000
	I	414.82	5000
	1069A	339.18	3000
	1069J	879.65	3000
	1070E	<.05	20

[0151] 5-6 weeks old female general purpose mice were injected subcutaneously with 0.1 mL of the immunogens depicted in Table 3, 2 or 3 times 2 weeks apart. The mice were exsanguinated one week after the last injection and their sera assayed for IgG anti PA and anthrax toxin neutralization. Antibodies measured by Elisa were related to a standard containing 1.8 mg/ml of anti-PA monoclonal antibody.

TABLE 5
IgG anti PA levels induced in mice by various rPA formulations
		dose × number
PA lot	formulation	of injections	μg/ml
0	PA	2.5 μ × 2	1.3
0	PA	2.5 μ × 3	109.1
2	PA	2.5 μ × 3	24.9
2	PA	12.5 μ × 3	226
0	PA/Al (OH)3	2.5 μ × 2	86.1
0	PA/Al (OH)3	2.5 μ × 3	312.
2	PA/Al (OH)3	2.5 μ × 3	435.
2	PA formalin 0.3	2.5 μ × 3	182
2	PA formalin 0.3	12.5 μ × 3	350.
0	PA formalin 3.0	2.5 μ × 2	2.79
0	PA formalin 3.0	2.5 μ × 3	136.4
0	PA formalin 3.0	5.0 μ × 2	1.98
2	PA formalin 3.0	2.5 μ × 3	220
2	PA formalin 3.0	12.5 μ × 3	270
0	PA formalin 7.12	2.5 μ × 3	266
0	PA formalin 7.12	12.5 μ × 3	229
Anthrax Vaccine	1/10 human dose × 2	43.15
	1/10 human dose × 3	297
PBS control	×2	<.05
	×3	<.05
5-6 weeks old female mice, 10 per group, were injected subcutaneously with the listed formulations, 2 or 3 times, two weeks apart and exsanguinated one week after the last injection. Antibodies were measured by Elisa, calculated relative to a standard containing 1.8 mg/ml of anti-PA monoclonal antibody, and expressed as geometric means of the groups.

EXAMPLE 4

[0152] The present example describes novel methods and materials for of genetically defined, non-reverting sporulation-deficient mutants of Bacillus for use as a host for expression of recombinant proteins. Through analysis of the growth behavior and morphological appearance of B. anthracis growing on certain solid media (e.g., LB agarplates), it was discovered that in areas of thick growth, parental bacteria are induced by nutrient deprivation to initiate sporulation and cease normal growth.

[0153] Briefly, inocula of B. anthracis were plated on LB agar plates and cultured for approximately 36-48 hrs to yield moderate to heavy growth. In areas of thick growth rare, spontaneous sporulation-deficient mutants emerged that were then identified and isolated. The sporulation-deficient mutants were successfully isolated by picking from central portions of the culture colonies where nutrient deprivation is presumptively increased. Additional mutant isolates were obtained by picking cancerous tumors that appeared as nodules of protruding bacterial growth on a relatively smooth growth background. Mutant selection was also achieved by observation of alternative morphological characteristics exhibited by sporulation-incompetent and sporulation-impaired mutants, including increased whiteness of color and decreased wetness compared to wt.

[0154] To further enrich for sporulation mutants, bacteria selected as above were grown up in liquid culture and re-plated for single colonies. This enrichment routinely produced plates on which 1-50% of the colonies exhibit distinct morphology from that of the parental strain. The morphological variants, when purified and tested, were almost always found to be unable to produce spores. Analysis of many such mutants by PCR demonstrates that the subject mutants have deletions in genes known to be required for the production of spores. Strains in which these genes have deletions will not revert to sporulation-competence forms at a detectable frequency, and are therefore highly desired for use in vaccine production.

[0155] To illustrate the broad applicability of the foregoing mutant selection protocols, sporulation-deficient mutants were obtained from three different parental strains: Ames plasmid-free, UM44-1C9, and BH441. Accordingly, a large collection of mutant strains can be generated and selected following the disclosure herein.

EXAMPLE 5

[0156] The present example describes the creation of a novel, stable, recombinant PA molecule by deletion of exemplary segments of both the chymotrypsin-sensitive loop and the furin-cleavage loop. Considering the nature of the current anthrax (AVA) vaccine and the adverse events that have been associated with its administration, second generation vaccines there is an urgent need for new, recombinant PA (rPA) molecules for use in vaccine development. PA is an essential component of an effective anthrax vaccine. One problem with producing a rPA for vaccine use is that PA is sensitive to proteolytic cleavage at two locations. One target location for cleavage is the furin-cleavage loop, which contains the sequence ArgLysLysArg (residues 164-167 of the mature protein). Cleavage at this site activates PA, exposing the surface at which the two other toxin components bind. Removal of the furin loop will prevent intoxication mediated by the other toxin components. The second cleavage loop (residues 304-319) contains the sequence PhePheAsp (residues 313-315), making PA sensitive to cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin. As described above, one strategy for removing this cleavage site involves deleting Phe313 and Phe314. While deletion of these two Phe residues prevents cleavage by chymotrypsin and thermolysin, preparations of this form of rPA still exhibit degradation products indicative of cleavage in the loop, presumably by a different protease.

[0157] The novel rPA described in the present example has both cleavage-sensitive loops removed to create a more stable, inactive, PA mutant protein suitable for vaccine production. This double mutant modification was accomplished by: (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Set at residue 319 (see FIGS. 7 and 8). The changes made in (a) remove the furin-cleavage loop, while the changes in (b) substitute two Gly residues for the entire chymotrypsin-cleavage loop (FIG. 8). An exemplary polynucleotide encoding this rPA is shown in FIGS. 9A and 9B.

[0158] Expression of the double mutant and comparative expression of wt PA was achieved using a sporulation-incompetent (spo-) anthrax strain as previously described. Supernatant protein samples from the resulting cultures were analyzed on non-reducing polyacrylamide gel electrophoresis (non-reducing PAGE). The bands corresponding to the rPA and wt PA were compared to estimate degradation in the compared samples. In this context, expression levels and secretion efficiency are expected to be similar for the rPA and wt PA samples. The results of this study showed that the double mutant rPA was significantly more stable to enzymatic degradation than the wild-type (wt) PA.

[0159] In further detailed studies, both avirulent BH441 and UM44-1C9 parents were plated at high cell density and putative sporulation-deficient mutants selected based on growth retardation and colony morphology as above. A panel of sub-clones from each parent tested was cultured as described above in the absence of selection and using the 48 hr passage interval, designed to enrich for spores. Following heat treatment and plating on agar in the absence of selection, all sub-clones were completely asporogenic with no germination detected. The newly identified BH441 and UM44-1C9 sub-clones are stable in the absence of selection and show no signs of reversion to the wild-type phenotype under growth limiting conditions designed to enrich for revertants. No antibiotic is required to maintain this phenotype.

[0160] Although the foregoing invention has been described in detail by way of example for purposes of clarity of understanding, it will be apparent to the artisan that certain changes and modifications may be practiced within the scope of the appended claims which are presented by way of illustration not limitation. In this context, various publications and other references have been cited within the foregoing disclosure for economy of description. Each of these references is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.

Claims

1. A method of producing of B. anthracis protective antigen comprising culturing a cell or microorganism comprising a nucleotide sequence encoding said B. anthracis protective antigen in a manner to cause expression of said protective antigen wherein the culture medium is maintained at about pH 7 to about pH 8 substantially throughout the fermentation process.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising recovering said protective antigen.

3. The method of claim 2 wherein said recovering step further comprises using hydrophobic interaction chromatography, ion exchange chromatography and gel filtration.

4. The method of claim 1 or 2 wherein the microorganism is a Bacillus.

5. The method of claim 1 or 2 wherein the cell or microorganism is a protease-deficient nonsporogenic avirulent strain of B. anthracis.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein the B. anthracis protective antigen is a modified B. anthracis protective antigen wherein the receptor-binding domain has been altered.

7. The method of claim 6 wherein Asp has been substituted for Ala at residue 657.

8. The method of claim 1 wherein the B. anthracis protective antigen is a modified B. anthracis protective antigen which cannot be cleaved at the chymotrypsin cleavage site.

9. The method of claim 8 wherein the protective antigen is altered at one or more of residues 313 to 315.

10. The method of claim 9 wherein Ala has been substituted for Asp at residue 315.

11. The method of claim 9 wherein Ala has been substituted for both Phe at residue 313 and Phe at residue 314.

12. The method of claim 9 wherein Cys has been substituted for Phe313.

13. The method of claim 1 wherein the B. anthracis protective antigen is a modified B. anthracis protective antigen which cannot be cleaved at the furin cleavage site.

14. The method of claim 13 wherein the amino acid sequence RKKR167 has been changed to SNKE167.

15. The method of claim 1 wherein the B. anthracis protective antigen is a modified B. anthracis protective antigen which cannot be cleaved at either the chymotrypsin or furin cleavage site.

16. The method of claim 15 wherein the amino acid sequence RKKR167 has been changed-to SNKE167, the two phenylalanines at positions 313-314 are deleted and the glutamic acid at position 308 is substituted with aspartic acid.

17. The method of claim 2 wherein EDTA is added to the culture medium prior to the recovery step.

18. A B. anthracis protective antigen wherein the amino acid sequence RKKR167 has been changed to SNKE167, the two phenylalanines at positions 313-314 are deleted and the glutamic acid at position 308 is substituted with aspartic acid.

19. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the B. anthracis protective antigen of claim 18 and a physiologically acceptable carrier.

20. A method for inducing serum antibodies that have neutralizing activity for B. anthracis toxin comprising administering to a mammal a pharmaceutical composition of claim 19 comprising an amount of B. anthracis protective antigen sufficient to elicit production of said antibodies.

21. The method of claim 20 wherein the antibodies protect the mammal against infection by B. anthracis.

22. A vaccine composition comprising the B. anthracis protective antigen of claim 18 comprising a therapeutically effective amount of said protective antigen and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

23. A method for vaccinating a human against B. anthracis infection, comprising administering to the human an immunizing amount of a composition comprising B. anthracis PA of claim 18 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

24. An artificial nucleic acid construct encoding a B. anthracis PA wherein the amino acid sequence RKKR167 has been changed to SNKE167, the two phenylalanines at positions 313-314 are deleted and the glutamic acid at position 308 is substituted with aspartic acid.

25. A vector comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 24.

26. A transformed host cell comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 24.

27. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 24 and a physiologically acceptable carrier.

28. A method for inducing serum antibodies that have neutralizing activity for B. anthracis toxin comprising administering to a mammal a pharmaceutical composition of claim 27 capable of producing an amount of B. anthracis protective antigen sufficient to elicit production of said antibodies in vivo.

29. The method of claim 28 wherein the antibodies protect the mammal against infection by B. anthracis.

30. The method of claim 28 wherein the mammal is a human.

31. A vaccine composition comprising the artificial nucleic acid construct of claim 24 in an amount capable of producing a therapeutically effective amount of said protective antigen in vivo and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

32. An antibody made by the method of any one of claims 20 or 28.

33. A composition comprising an antibody of claim 32.

34. The composition of claim 33, wherein the composition is chosen from the group consisting of plasma, serum, and gamma globulin fraction.

35. A method of passively immunizing a mammal against the toxic effects of B. anthracis, comprising administering to said mammal an immunologically sufficient amount of a composition according to claim 33.

36. A method for generating and isolating a sporulation-deficient bacterial mutant from a population of bacteria comprising the steps of: plating said bacteria on a solid culture medium suitable for promoting growth of said bacteria in a culture; allowing said bacteria in said culture to grow for a suitable growth period to yield moderate to thick bacterial growth on the solid medium attended by nutrient depletion in the culture medium that induces sporulation of bacteria in said culture attended by emergence of one or more colonies of sporulation-deficient mutant(s) of said bacteria; picking a sporulation-deficient mutant from said culture identified by i) location of said sporulation-deficient mutant in a central portion of the culture characterized by increased nutrient depletion; ii) a phenotype of said sporulation-deficient mutant in a colony appearing as a cancerous tumor characterized as a nodule of protruding bacterial growth on a relatively smooth culture background; or iii) a morphological characteristic of said sporulation-deficient mutant in a colony marked by increased whiteness of color and/or decreased wetness of appearance relative to a wild type or non-sporulation deficient bacterial colony.

37. The method of claim 36, wherein said population of bacteria comprises Bacillus anthracis.

38. The method of claim 36, wherein said population of bacteria comprises a strain of Bacillus anthracis selected from strains Ames plasmid-free, UM44-1C9, and BH441.

39. The method of claim 36, wherein said sporulation-deficient mutant has a mutation in a genes required for sporulation and can support higher levels of protein expression compared to a wild type bacterium of the same species.

40. The method of claim 36, further comprising the step of culturing said sporulation-deficient mutant to express a recombinant bacterial protective antigen (PA), lethal factor, or edema factor.

41. The method of claim 36, wherein said sporulation-deficient mutant has a partial or complete gene deletion that renders the mutant stable to reversion.

42. The method of claim 36, further comprising the step of growing a picked mutant in a second culture and re-plated from said second culture to yield single colonies enriched for said sporulation-deficient mutant.

43. The method of claim 42, which yields at least 10% of colonies in said second culture having a mutation that confers sporulation deficiency.

44. The method of claim 36, wherein said growth medium and culture are substantially free of added indicator dyes.

45. A recombinant Bacillus anthrax protective antigen (PA) protein modified to incorporate one or more mutations comprising an amino acid deletion or substitution in a flexible, exposed, or loop segment of said PA protein selected from residues 162-174, 304-319, 1-13, 99-162, and 512-515 shown in FIGS. 7 and 8, said one or more mutations conferring enhanced resistance to protolytic degradation compared to wild type PA.

46. The recombinant PA protein of claim 45, wherein four or more contiguous amino acid residues are deleted from said flexible, exposed, or loop segment.

47. The recombinant PA protein of claim 45, wherein five or more contiguous amino acid residues are deleted from said flexible, exposed, or loop segment.

48. The recombinant PA protein of claim 45, wherein fourteen or more contiguous amino acid residues are deleted from said flexible, exposed, or loop segment.

49. The recombinant PA protein of claim 45, wherein said flexible, exposed, or loop segment comprises a furin-cleavage loop including residues 164-167 of the mature, wild type protein shown in FIG. 8, and/or a second cleavage loop including residues 313-315 of the mature, wild type protein shown in FIG. 8.

50. The recombinant PA protein of claim 49, which incorporates a plurality of mutations including one or more amino acid deletion(s) or substitution(s) in each of said furin-cleavage loop and second cleavage loop.

51. The recombinant PA protein of claim 50 which incorporates a plurality of mutations including amino acid deletions in each of said furin-cleavage loop and second cleavage loop.

52. The recombinant PA protein of claim 51 which incorporates (a) deletion of residues 162 through 167 and the substitution of Ile for Ser at residue 168; and (b) the deletion of residues 304-317 and the substitution of Gly for Set at residue.

53. The recombinant PA protein of claim 45, which exhibits enhanced stability to proteolytic degradation that is increased by at least 25% compared to proteolytic stability of wt PA under comparable conditions.

54. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the recombinant Bacillus anthrax PA protein of claim 45 and a physiologically acceptable carrier.

55. A method for inducing serum antibodies that have neutralizing activity for B. anthracis toxin comprising administering to a mammal a pharmaceutical composition of claim 54 comprising an amount of said recombinant Bacillus anthracis PA protein sufficient to elicit production of said antibodies.

56. The method of claim 55 wherein the antibodies protect the mammal against infection by Bacillus anthracis.

57. A vaccine composition comprising the recombinant Bacillus anthracis PA protein of claim 45 comprising a therapeutically effective amount of said recombinant protective antigen and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

58. A method for vaccinating a human against B. anthracis infection, comprising administering to the human an immunizing amount of a composition comprising the recombinant Bacillus anthracis PA of claim 45 in a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

59. An artificial nucleic acid construct encoding a recombinant Bacillus anthracis PA protein according to claim 52.

60. An expression vector comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 59 operable to direct expression of said recombinant Bacillus anthracis PA protein in a suitable host cell or organism.

61. A transformed host cell comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 59.

62. A pharmaceutical composition comprising the nucleic acid construct of claim 59 and a physiologically acceptable carrier.

63. A method for inducing serum antibodies that have neutralizing activity for Bacillus anthracis toxin comprising administering to a mammal a pharmaceutical composition of claim 62 capable of producing an amount of Bacillus anthracis protective antigen (PA) protein sufficient to elicit production of said antibodies in vivo.

64. The method of claim 63 wherein the antibodies protect the mammal against infection by Bacillus anthracis.

65. The method of claim 64 wherein the mammal is a human.

66. A vaccine composition comprising the artificial nucleic acid construct of claim 59 in an amount capable of yielding expression of a therapeutically effective amount of said protective antigen in vivo and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier.

67. An antibody made by the method of any one of claims 20, 28, 55, or 63.