Methods of using ajoene

Abstract

The progression of infection and other pathologies produced by a viral infection may be inhibited by administering an effective dosage of Ajoene. Additionally, Ajoene has anti-tumor, anti-shock, and anti-inflammation effects. In general, Ajoene may be used to treat any integrin-mediated disease or condition.

Description

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Ajoene is 4,5,9-trithiadodeca-1,6,11-triene-9-oxide, having a structural formula as follows: ##STR1##

Ajoene, and a precursor thereof, can be isolated from extracts of garlic (Allium sativum). As the garlic is crushed, alliin in the garlic comes into contact with allinase in the cell wall to form allicin. Then, in the presence of a polar molecule such as a lower alcohol or even water, allicin forms Ajoene.

Ajoene has been previously shown to inhibit platelet aggregation by inactivating allosterically the platelet integrin, GP IIb/IIIa (Apitz-Castro R. et al.: Biophys. Res. Commun., 1986, 141:145). This inhibition of integrins by Ajoene is reversible.

Also, integrin-mediated formation of cell-to-cell contacts has been shown to typically be a prerequisite for membrane fusion (Hildreth, J.E.K. and Orentas, R.J., Science, 1989, 244:1075).

DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

By this invention, safe and effective doses of Ajoene may inhibit the progression of an HIV infection in a patient. Specifically, stereoisomer mixtures of Ajoene may be used, although pure (E) and (Z) stereoisomer forms may also be used.

One of the characteristics of an HIV infection so inhibited is the formation of HIV-induced syncytia, in which HIV target cells such as lymphocytes and monocytes fuse together to form giant, multinucleate cells in HIV-infected patients. This inhibiting effect would require a sufficient dose to provide a concentration of Ajoene of at least 50 nanomoles per liter of blood plasma in the patient, and preferably at least 200 nanomoles of Ajoene per liter of plasma. Transfer of genetic material between cells will, therefore, also be inhibited by Ajoene.

Additionally, it appears that Ajoene inhibits the growth of HIV-infected cells, HIV, and other viruses, also inhibits the incorporation of HIV into CD4-negative cells. For this purpose, Ajoene is preferably administered in sufficient dose to provide a concentration of at least 5,000 nanomoles per liter of patient's blood plasma, although lesser concentrations may also be effective.

In addition to infections caused by HIV and other viruses of the Retroviridae family, Ajoene can be used to treat infections caused by Herpesviridae (e.g., herpes simplex, varicella zoster, Epstein-Barr virus, and cytomegaly virus), Hepadnaviridae (e.g., hepatitis B), Picornaviridae (e.g., hepatitis A virus and poliomyelitis virus), Orthomyxoviridae (e.g., influenza virus), Poxviridae (e.g., variola virus and vaccinia virus), Flaviviridae (e.g., yellow fever virus and hepatitis C virus), Rubiviridae (e.g., rubella virus), Paramyxoviridae (e.g., measles, parainfluenza, mumps and canine distemper viruses), Rhabdoviridae (e.g., rabies virus), Papovaviridae (e.g., papillomavirus) and Adenoviridae.

Additionally, the growth of tumors such as T-lymphomas and the development of melanoma metastasis may be inhibited by administering to the patient, human or animal, a safe and effective dosage of Ajoene, preferably to provide a concentration of Ajoene to the patient of at least 50 micromoles per liter of the patient's blood plasma, or at least in the blood adjacent the tumor, for example in cases of regional perfusion where steps are taken to minimize the concentration of Ajoene elsewhere in the body except at the tumor site.

Ajoene serves as an agent that inhibits the aggregation of blood cells, such as platelets and neutrophils. Ajoene may, therefore, exhibit benefit as an agent for the treatment of pathologies derived from aggregation of these cells, including, in part, the effects of shock. In cases of shock, platelets and neutrophils aggregate in the blood vessels of the lungs, which may be a primary cause of death in that oxygen transfer through the lungs is degraded, leading to death. Ajoene may thus counteract at least part of the effects of shock, for example in sepsis, anaphylaxis, or in blood loss. The inhibiting effect of Ajoene in this use would typically be the result of a dose to provide a concentration of Ajoene of at least 10 micromoles per liter of the patient's blood plasma.

Ajoene can also be administered in effective dosage to suppress many inflammation processes, for example, those inflammation processes that occur in the lungs as a consequence of severe shock. Inflammation is a typical pathological process (i.e., either inherent in or associated with a variety of distinct diseases and illnesses), defensive in nature, but potentially dangerous if uncontrolled. There are several indices of inflammation at the "whole body" level: e.g., hemodynamic disorders (e.g., hyperemia and edema), pain, temperature increment, and functional lesion. At the cellular level, inflammation is characterized by leukocyte emigration into tissues (where they phagocytose bacteria, viruses, or other invaders) and platelet aggregation (to localize the infection), which emigration and aggregation may also have a destructive effect on tissue. At the molecular level, inflammation is characterized by activation of at least three plasma defense systems (complement, kinin, and coagulation cascades), and by synthesis of cytokines and eicosanoids. When inflammation is generalized, as in the case of shock, the various indices of inflammation may become disseminated and occur throughout the entire organism.

Another inflammatory disease is arthritis. Arthritis is defined as inflammation of the joints and includes many types, such as rheumatoid arthritis and osteoarthritis. Ajoene can be used to treat arthritis.

Without wishing to be limited to any particular mechanism of operation of Ajoene, it is believed that the beneficial effects of Ajoene are achieved because Ajoene is an inactivating agent for several integrin receptors of cells. Thus, it is believed that other inactivating agents for cell integrin receptors may exhibit similar benefits as Ajoene, particularly with respect to the suppression of adhesion events mediating HIV spread in the body (e.g., adhesion-induced HIV budding, infection of CD4 cells, cell-to-cell transmission of infection by cell fusion, infection by virus having adhesion molecules captured from host cells, syncytia formation in the central nervous system). Preferred are non-antibody inactivating agents for integrins. Particularly preferred are small (low molecular weight), non-antibody inactivating agents which are not peptides corresponding to the binding portion of the normal protein ligands for integrins.

As a result of its ability to inactivate integrins, Ajoene can be used to treat any disease caused by, or involving, integrin-mediated functions. For instance, Ajoene can be used to inhibit virus-cell fusion or undesired cell-cell fusion. Undesired cell-cell fusion can include cell-cell fusion (transitory or permanent) that results in the transfer of viral genetic material.

The adhesion of blood cells (e.g., macrophages, neutrophils and lymphocytes) to the extracellular matrix (ECM) plays an important role in inflammation, and the adhesion of such cells to the ECM involves integrins. Integrins also are involved in cell-cell interactions of hematopoietic cells. Accordingly, ajoene can be used to treat diseases such as arthritis, phlebitis, ischemia reperfusion injury of the myocardium, brain intestines and other organs, and generalized ischemia reperfusion injury (e.g., a consequence of shock).

Work by others has shown that HIV-1 Tat protein stimulates the growth of AIDS-Kaposi's sarcoma (AIDS-KS) cells by interacting with the integrins .alpha..sub.5 .beta..sub.1 and .alpha..sub.v .beta..sub.3. Ajoene should, therefore, be effective in treating Kaposi's sarcoma in view of its ability to inactivate integrins.

The above disclosure and the examples below are for illustrative purposes only, and are not intended to limit the invention of this application, which is as defined in the claims below.

EXAMPLE 1

Ajoene as an Inhibitor of HIV-Mediated Syncytia Formation

Intact H9 cells and chronically infected H9:RF cells (a cloned population of H9 cells harboring HIV genome) were maintained in suspension in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10% (v/v) heat-inactivated fetal calf serum, 50 micrograms/ml gentamycin and 2 mM L-glutamine. Syncytium formation was assessed by co-cultivation of H9 cells and H9:RF cells (2:1) for 16 hrs with various concentrations of Ajoene in 96-well flat-bottomed plates, 3.times.10.sup.5 cells per well. By the end of the incubation period syncytia were counted. IC.sub.50 for Ajoene was calculated by plotting relative amount of syncytia (percent of the syncytia formed in the absence of the compound) against Ajoene concentration. If not specified otherwise, Ajoene was used as a 1:1 mixture of (E)- and (Z)-stereoisomers.

Specifically, Ajoene inhibited fusion of intact H9 cells with HIV-infected H9:RF cells (IC.sub.50 of 50 nanomoles per liter Ajoene concentration at 16 hrs incubation).

EXAMPLE 2

Ajoene as an Inactivator of Several Distinct Integrin Receptors

Platelet aggregation was measured turbidimetrically on a standard platelet aggregometer equipped with a recorder. Samples of platelet-rich plasma (PRP) were standardized with respect to the cell density (3.times.10.sup.8 per ml); maximal light transmission (LT) was calibrated with platelet-poor plasma (PPP). Aliquots of PRP (0.25 ml in glass cuvettes) were stirred in the cell of the device (1000 rpm, 37.degree. C.) with Ajoene (0-100 micromoles per liter final concentration) for 1 min., followed by addition of the stimuli. LT increments were traced for 5 min. Maximal rate of aggregation was derived from the slope of each curve; IC.sub.50 for Ajoene was determined by a method such as that described in Vrzheshch PV, Tatarintsev AV, Yershov DE et al.: Cell Response Kinetics: the Phenomenon of Supercooperativity in Aggregation of Human Platelets. Dokl. Akad. Nauk SSSR, 1989, 307:477 (in Russian). Neutrophil aggregation was assayed as described above for the platelet system, with some modifications. Freshly isolated neutrophils were finally suspended in a buffer (120 mM NaC1, 4 mM KCl, 10 mM dextrose, 2 mM CaC1.sub.2 .multidot.2H.sub.2 0, 2 mM MgC1.sub.2 .multidot.6H.sub.2 0, and 20 mM Tris; pH 7.4) to the final density of 10.sup.7 cells per ml. Aliquots of neutrophil suspension (0.25 ml in siliconized glass cuvettes; 107 cells per ml) were stirred in the cell of the aggregometer with 5 micrograms per ml cytochalasin .multidot.B (1000 rpm, 37.degree. C.) for 1 min. Ajoene (0-50 micromoles per liter) and N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine (10.sup.-7 M) were then introduced into the suspension sequentially, with an interval of 1 min. Maximum LT (100%) was calibrated with the same buffer. H9 and Jurkat cells were cultured as described above in Example 1.

Ajoene inhibited platelet aggregation in PRP with an IC.sub.50 of about 50 micromoles per liter. Ajoene blocked N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-leucyl-L-phenylalanine-stimulated neutrophil aggregation (IC.sub.100 of about 10 micromoles per liter) and caused rapid deaggregation when added to aggregated neutrophils. The clusters normally formed by H9 and Jurkat cells in culture were disrupted by Ajoene with an IC.sub.50 of about 50 nanomoles per liter.

Though the requirement of integrins for contact interactions in either of these systems has long been established, the molecular mechanisms are clearly nonidentical. It is known that in platelets the relevant integrin is GP IIb/IIIa. Neutrophils form contacts via interaction of LFA-1 and/or Mac-1 with their surface counterstructures, while cohesion of T-cells is supported by LFA-1 and by fibronectin-binding VLA integrins. Hence, Ajoene is apparently capable of inactivating integrin receptors of at least three distinct subfamilies (.beta..sub.1, .beta..sub.2 and .beta..sub.3) One probable mechanism is that the compound either binds to a region which is highly conserved within the members of the integrin superfamily, or somehow alters the microenvironment, thereby inactivating the whole receptor. At the cellular level this inactivation appears as a severe (but controllable) deficiency in the respective cell-specific integrins, i.e., inability for aggregation (platelets, neutrophils), disintegration of cell clusters (intact H9 and Jurkat cells), failure to fuse (HIV-infected cells; Example 1).

EXAMPLE 3

Ajoene As An Inhibitor of HIV Replication

LAV-BRU 1 isolate of HIV-1 and RF isolate of HIV-1 were propagated in CEM and H9 cells, respectively. A 20-ml log-phase culture containing 7.times.10.sup.5 cells per ml was incubated at 37.degree. C. for 24 hrs. Cultures with less than 10% trypan blue stained cells were used as a source of virus. To harvest HIV particles, producer cells were pelleted by centrifugation (400 g, 5 min) and the supernatant containing HIV-1 particles was filtered through a 0.45 micrometer Millipore filter, aliquoted and stored at -80.degree. C. The titer of HIV-1 ranged from 1.times.10.sup.5 to 2.times.10.sup.5 CCID.sub.50 (50% cell culture infective dose). To determine whether Ajoene could also influence HIV replication, CEM13 and H9 cells were inoculated with appropriate amounts of HIV (LAV-BRU 1 and RF, respectively), to give an m.o.i. (multeity of infection) of 0.1 in either experimental setting. Ajoene (or its vehicle) was added to 107 infected cells resuspended in the growth medium and the cells were plated in 96-well flat-bottomed plates. After 72 hrs the bulk of HIV antigens was measured by solid phase immunoassay as described in Zhdanov VM, Karamov EV, Arakelov SA, et al.: An Enzyme Immunoassay for Detection of Antigen and Antibody to Human Immunodeficiency Virus and the Use Thereof For serological Survey of Different Population Groups. Vop Virusol 1988, N3:292 (in Russian). In a series of separate experiments Ajoene was introduced into plated cell cultures stepwise, i.e. in aliquots of 50 nanomoles per liter concentration per 12 hrs of incubation, the first addition coinciding with the moment of inoculation.

Replication of HIV-1 (RF) in H9 cells was inhibited with an IC.sub.50 of 25 micromoles per liter (m.o.i. 0.1; 72 hrs of incubation). Assessment of HIV-1 (LAV-BRU 1) replication in CEM13 cells under the same experimental conditions revealed a more pronounced anti-viral activity (IC.sub.50 of about 5 micromoles per liter concentration). A considerable increase in the latter became evident when the concentration of the compound was increased stepwise (50 nanomoles per liter concentration per 12 hrs of incubation; CEM13 - LAV-BRU 1 system; inhibition by 30%; total concentration 0.25 micromoles per liter; m.o.i. 0.1; 72 hrs of incubation).

EXAMPLE 4

Ajoene as a Potential Anti-Shock Agent

Neutrophil aggregation within the lung microvasculature is known to be a key event in the development of the so-called adult respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS), the main cause of death in patients suffering shock. Also, administration of neutrophil-aggregating agents (such as phorbol-myristate-acetate, complement anaphylotoxins or N-formyl-L-methionyl-L-phenylalanine, calcium ionophore A23187, arachidonic acid, platelet-activating factor) to laboratory animals results in the development of ARDS. Some inhibitors of neutrophil aggregation, such as antagonists of the platelet-activating factor, have been shown to prevent lethality in experimental septic shock, Toyofoku T. et al.: Effects of ONO-6340, a Platelet-Activating Factor Antagonist, on Endotoxin Shock in Unanesthetized Sheep. Prostaglandins, 1986, 31:271). It is believed that beneficial effects of glucocorticoids in various shock states are largely due to their ability for inhibition of neutrophil aggregation (Hammerschmidt, et al., J. Clin. Invest. 1979, 63:798; Cronstein, B.N. et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1992, 89: 9991-99).

The antiaggregatory activity of Ajoene disclosed in Example 2 above is sufficiently high to expect that Ajoene will be effective both for the prevention and treatment of various shock states by suppressing such aggregation.

EXAMPLE 5

Ajoene as an Antineoplastic Agent

Leukemic (CEM, MT2, MT4) and lymphoid (H9, Jurkat) T-cells were cultured as described above (Example 1) with various concentrations of Ajoene, and the toxic effects were assessed by the cytocidal activity (LD.sub.100).

For T-lymphoid tumor cells, LD.sub.100 was achieved after 72 hrs of culturing in a media of about 50 micromoles of Ajoene per liter.

For Leukemia T cells LD.sub.100 was achieved after 72 hrs of culturing in a media of about 500 micromoles of Ajoene per liter.

EXAMPLE 6

Ajoene as an Antimetastatic Agent

Male C57BL/6 mice were used as experimental animals. Murine platelet aggregation was measured as described above (Example 3). To evaluate the effect of the compound on experimental metastasis, a suspension of 105 melanoma B16 cells was pretreated for 30 min with Ajoene or its vehicle, and the suspension (including Ajoene or its vehicle) was injected intravenously into mice. The mice were sacrificed 3 weeks post-injection, and their lungs subjected to microscopic examination. To evaluate the effect on tumor cell implantation, mice were inoculated subcutaneously with 10.sup.6 B16 cells (pretreated for 15 min with Ajoene or its vehicle) in their pretreatment medium, and the volume of the tumors formed was measured 14 and 21 days after the injection.

Ajoene inhibited ADP-induced aggregation of PRP with an IC.sub.100 of 200 micromoles per liter. Pretreatment of B16 cells with Ajoene (200 micromoles per liter) rendered them incapable of colonizing lungs. Subcutaneous implantation was prevented by exposing the cells to 2500 micromolar concentration of Ajoene. At 2.5 micromolar concentration of the compound, the volume of melanomas was reduced by one-half.

EXAMPLE 7

Integrin-Inactivating Properties of Ajoene are not Stereospecific

Synthetic stereoisomers of Ajoene exhibited equal antiaggregatory activity (IC.sub.50 of about 50 micromolar concentration of Ajoene for platelets, IC.sub.100 of about 10 micromolar concentration of Ajoene for neutrophils).

EXAMPLE 8

Ability Of Ajoene To Protect Cells From Infection With Cell-Free Viruses

The effect of Ajoene in protecting against HIV infection was evaluated using polymerase chain reaction (PCR) analysis which recognized amplified DNA sequences of HIV gag gene. MT-4 cells were used as target cells and strain IIIB of HIV-1 was used as inoculate. Serial dilutions of Ajoene or an equivalent volume of its vehicle were added to MT-4 cells, followed by addition of a sufficient amount of free virus (<10.sup.3 particles per cell). The protective effect of Ajoene was monitored by examining for the absence or presence of proviral HIV DNA in target cells 16 hours after the inoculation. Ajoene completely prevented HIV infection at the minimal dose of 4 .mu.g/ml (17 micromoles per liter) and had an IC.sub.50 of 5 micromoles per liter.

The effect on herpes simplex virus (HSV) infection was assessed using human embryonic lung fibroblast line WI-38 and HSV-2 strain G (derived from a human with the genital infection). Semiconfluent fibroblast monolayers grown in 96-well culture plates (10.sup.5 cells per well) were exposed to serial dilutions of Ajoene or vehicle control, followed immediately by addition of HSV-2 (5000 TCID.sub.50 per well). After 24 hours of culturing, the supernatants were examined by ELISA for the content of HSV antigens. Ajoene completely prevented HSV infection at 4 .mu.g/ml (17 micromoles per liter) and had an IC.sub.50 of 6 micromoles per liter.

Referring to FIG. 1, the effect of Ajoene on syncytia formation and HIV replication is shown.

For curve 1, the effect of Ajoene on the infusion of cultured, intact H9 cells with HIV infected H9:RF cells is disclosed. For this curve, the vertical graph axis pertains to the maximum amount of syncytia formed in the absence of Ajoene (100 percent), while the points on line 1 represent percentages of such an amount of syncytia formed in the presence of varying concentrations of Ajoene (micromoles per liter). The IC.sub.50 of syncytia formation was found at a concentration of 0.045 micromole of Ajoene per liter. Essentially no syncytia were found at a concentration of 50 micromoles of Ajoene per liter.

Referring to curve 2, the antiviral activity of Ajoene is shown, as assessed by the inhibition of HIV-1 (Lav - BRU 1) replication in cultured CEM13 cells. Here, the vertical axis represents the percentage of HIV antigens detected by solid phase immunoassay (previously mentioned) in the absence of Ajoene.

The IC.sub.50 was achieved under these conditions at about a 5 micromolar concentration of Ajoene.

Thus, Ajoene exhibits significant potential as an effective anti-HIV drug to reduce or eliminate the course of the disease while exhibiting relatively low toxic effects. Ajoene is also effective against other viruses, many tumor cells and tumor metastasis. In addition, Ajoene exhibits significant potential as an effective drug to block cell aggregation and fusion, for example in various shock states. Finally, Ajoene may be used to treat inflammation. In general, Ajoene may be used to treat any disease or condition caused by, or involving, integrin-mediated cellular functions.

To treat one of these conditions, an effective amount of Ajoene is administered. Effective dosage forms, modes of administration and dosage amounts, may be determined empirically, and making such determinations is within the skill of the art. It is understood by those skilled in the art that the dosage amount will vary with the intended use, the severity of a disease or other condition, the route of administration, the rate of excretion, the duration of the treatment, the identity of any other drugs being administered, the age, size and species of the animal, and like factors well known in the medical and veterinary arts. In general, a suitable daily dose of Ajoene will be that amount of the compound which is the lowest dose effective to produce a therapeutic effect. However, the total daily dosage will be determined by an attending physician or veterinarian within the scope of sound medical judgment. If desired, the effective daily dose of Ajoene may be administered as two, three, four, five, six or more sub-doses, administered separately at appropriate intervals throughout the day.

Ajoene may be administered in any desired and effective manner: as a pharmaceutical preparation for oral ingestion, or for parenteral or other administration in any appropriate manner such as intraperitoneal, subcutaneous, topical, inhalation, intrapulmonary, rectal, vaginal, sublingual, intramuscular, intravenous, intraarterial, intrathecal, or intralymphatic. For instance, the topical application of Ajoene to mucous membranes (in the form of creams, gels, suppositories and other known means of topical administration) can be used to prevent HIV infection of mucosal cells, an important route of HIV transmission. In addition, intralymphatic administration of Ajoene may be advantageous in preventing the spread of HIV within the body. Further, Ajoene may be administered in conjunction with other anti-viral drugs, other chemotherapy agents for tumor or metastasis treatment, and other anti-shock or anti-inflammation drugs or treatments. The Ajoene may be encapsulated or otherwise protected against gastric or other secretions, if desired. Ajoene is desirably incorporated into liposomes or time-release formulations for administration.

As noted above, other inactivating agents for cell integrin receptors may be used in place of Ajoene. These agents may be used in a manner similar to the manner in which Ajoene is used, and suitable doses may be determined as described above.

The above description has been offered for illustrative purposes only and is not intended to limit the scope of the invention of this application, which is as described in the claims below.

Claims

1. A method of treating arthritis comprising administering to an animal suffering from arthritis an effective amount of an agent which is an integrin inhibitor.

2. The method of claim 1 wherein the agent is ajoene.

3. The method of claim 1 wherein the agent is administered topically.

4. The method of claim 2 wherein the agent is administered topically.