Patent Application
20230352195
Nuclear fusion is generally defined as the process by which lighter nuclei are merged to form heavier nuclei. For lighter nuclei the fusion process liberates energy in the form of kinetic energy in the residual particles (also called fusion products). The vast majority of past attempts at generating electrical power from fusion reactions have contemplated boiling water to drive conventional turbines (an example of a means approximated by a Carnot cycle). These past attempts have often utilized strong magnetic fields to constrain plasmas of electrons and ions until the ions collide and fuse. Such magnetic containment is prone to instabilities and particle leakage, causing inadvertent and often catastrophic loss of energy that would otherwise be needed to sustain fusion reactions.
The electrons within the plasma present their own set of difficulties. First, because electrons are much lighter than ions, electromagnetic collisions between electrons and ions tend to rob the ions of the kinetic energy needed for the fusion process. Second, these scattered electrons tend to be relativistic, emitting photonic radiation when the collide or accelerate. This photonic radiation is also a large source of energy leakage, robbing the plasma of the energy needed to sustain fusion reactions.
There is a class of fusion reactions referred to as aneutronic. In these reactions very little of the energy liberated by the reactions is in the form of kinetic energy in neutrons. Neutrons pose several problems when contemplating widespread application of fusion-based electrical power generation. First, neutrons give up kinetic energy in the form of heat passing through very thick materials, and often escape at thermal velocities. Second, thermal neutrons pose a significant radiological risk to nearby personnel and are very difficult to shield. Third, large doses of high energy neutrons in metals cause embrittlement and dimensional changes, compromising the functionality and integrity of the reactor. Fourth, neutrons activate stable isotopes and create short-lived and long-lived radioactive isotopes that inhibit facility maintenance and disposal of equipment.
The vast majority of nuclear fusion reactors utilize a fuel composed of a mixture of the hydrogen isotopes tritium and deuterium. When a tritium nucleus (called a triton) and a deuterium nucleus (called a deuteron) collide, they sometimes undergo nuclear fusion and produce a helium nucleus (called an alpha particle), a neutron, and 14.1 MeV of energy in the form of kinetic energy of these two fusion products. This type of fusion is often referred to as DT fusion.
Tritium is a radioactive isotope of hydrogen with a half-life of 12.32 years, decaying by the emission of 5.68 keV beta particles and virtually no gamma-rays. From a radiological perspective, tritium ingestion can lead to significant radiation exposure. For example, the standard smoke detector used in homes has a 0.9 microCuries Am-241 source, a level of decay activity deemed acceptable. One gram of tritium has a decay activity of approximately 10,000 Curies, 10 billion times higher than the smoke detector.
Tritium readily migrates between hydrogen-containing compounds. When tritium molecules T2 are released into the atmosphere, instead of rising indefinitely due to its low atomic mass, the molecule quickly combines with water vapor to form the molecule HTO. Consumption of tritiated water HTO is the leading mechanism for human exposure to tritium.
Fusion reactors employing DT fusion require large inventories of tritium fuel. In addition, since tritium is very rare and not found in nature, tritium fuel needs to be “bred” in blankets composed of lithium. For large reactors such as ITER in France, tritium inventories measured in kilograms are indicated. Because isotopes of hydrogen such as tritium readily diffuse through a wide range of materials include steel pipes, tritium loss rates far beyond those traditionally deemed acceptable are expected without further innovations.
Fusion reactors employing DD fusion must address the formation of tritium. As seen in
Accordingly, there is a need for improvement over such past approaches.
The disclosure below uses different prophetic embodiments to teach the broader principles with respect to articles of manufacture, apparatuses, processes for using the articles and apparatuses, processes for making the articles and apparatuses, and products produced by the process of making, along with necessary intermediates, directed to direct nuclear power conversion. This Summary is provided to introduce the idea herein that a selection of concepts is presented in a simplified form as further described below. This Summary is not intended to identify key features or essential features of subject matter, nor this Summary intended to be used to limit the scope of claimed subject matter. Additional aspects, features, and/or advantages of examples will be indicated in part in the description which follows and, in part, will be apparent from the description, or may be learned by practice of the disclosure.
References sited herein are incorporated by reference as if fully stated herein. The following description and drawings are illustrative and are not to be construed as limiting. Numerous specific details are described to provide a thorough understanding of the disclosure. However, in certain instances, well-known or conventional details are not described in order to avoid obscuring the description. References to one or an embodiment in the present disclosure can be, but not necessarily are, references to the same embodiment; and, such references mean at least one of the embodiments.
Reference in this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the disclosure. The appearances of the phrase “in one embodiment” in various places in the specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment, nor are separate or alternative embodiments mutually exclusive of other embodiments. Moreover, various features are described which may be exhibited by some embodiments and not by others. Similarly, various requirements are described which may be requirements for some embodiments but not for other embodiments.
Variation from amounts specified in this teaching can be “about” or “substantially,” so as to accommodate tolerance for such as acceptable manufacturing tolerances. Variation in shapes in this teaching can also be “about” or “substantially,” so as to accommodate unimportant variations from an idealized geometric description.
The terms used in this specification generally have their ordinary meanings in the art, within the context of the disclosure, and in the specific context where each term is used. Certain terms that are used to describe the disclosure are discussed below, or elsewhere in the specification, to provide additional guidance to the practitioner regarding the description of the disclosure. For convenience, certain terms may be highlighted, for example using italics and/or quotation marks. The use of highlighting has no influence on the scope and meaning of a term; the scope and meaning of a term is the same, in the same context, whether or not it is highlighted. It will be appreciated that same thing can be said in more than one way.
Consequently, alternative language and synonyms may be used for any one or more of the terms discussed herein, nor is any special significance to be placed upon whether or not a term is elaborated or discussed herein. Synonyms for certain terms are provided. A recital of one or more synonyms does not exclude the use of other synonyms. The use of examples anywhere in this specification including examples of any terms discussed herein is illustrative only, and is not intended to further limit the scope and meaning of the disclosure or of any exemplified term. Likewise, the disclosure is not limited to various embodiments given in this specification.
Without intent to limit the scope of the disclosure, examples of instruments, apparatus, methods and their related results according to the embodiments of the present disclosure are given below. Note that titles or subtitles may be used in the examples for convenience of a reader, which in no way should limit the scope of the disclosure. Unless otherwise defined, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure pertains. In the case of conflict, the present document, including definitions will control.
With the foregoing in mind, consider an apparatus (method of making, method of using) including a power plant [002] producing output electrical power [082] constructed so as to produce more of said output electrical power [082] than electrical power input to the apparatus. In some embodiments herein, the power plant [002]: (1) can be devoid of magnetic field(s) that constrain a plasma of said ions [028] to enable or enhance ion collisions [018]; (2) can be such that at least some of the kinetic energy of charged particles released from the fusion reaction is not converted into said output electrical power [082] by a process approximated by a Carnot cycle; (3) or can be both.
An ion is defined as an atom that is electrically charged. Such charging is accomplished by either adding or removing one or more electrons that orbit a previously neutrally charged atom. In the context of this instant application the term ion is generally defined as an atomic nucleus that has had all orbiting electrons removed.
Illustratively, consider the reaction of deuterium-deuterium (“DD”) fusion to teach the broader concepts of producing such output electrical power [082]. DD fusion can occur via two channels that occur with similar probabilities: (1) with the formation of ions of tritium [034] and hydrogen [036]; (2) with the formation of helium-3 ions [030] and a neutron [032]. Note that the formation of ions of tritium [034], hydrogen [036], and helium-3 [032] is of interest since these particles are charged, and thus their motion represents an electrical current. Similar to the use of electron motion in vacuum tubes to create amplifiers for early radios and televisions, the motion of these charged ions can be converted directly into electrical power without an intermediate step of creating steam and driving a turbine, as in a means for approximating a Carnot cycle. This method of output electrical power generation [082] is similar to that considering alpha particles taught in U.S. provisional patent application 62/811,485 filed on Feb. 27, 2019 and invented by the inventor of this instant application. This provisional patent has been converted into the international patent application PCT/US20/19449 filed on Feb. 24, 2020. Both provisional application 62/811,485 titled “Direct Nuclear Power Conversion” and international application PCT/US20/19449 titled “Direct Nuclear Power Conversion” are incorporated herein by reference as if fully stated herein.
Illustratively, the neutron [032] generated in conjunction with the helium-3 ion [030] can have its kinetic energy harvested [022] and multiplied by the use of an absorbing blanket [080] as taught in U.S. provisional patent application 63/036,029 filed on Jun. 8, 2020 and co-invented by the inventor of this instant application. This provisional patent has been converted into the international patent application PCT/US20/36092 filed on Jun. 7, 2021. Both provisional patent 63/036,029 titled “Sulfur Blanket” and international patent application PCT/US21/36092 titled “Sulfur Blanket” are incorporated herein by reference as if fully stated herein. As the neutron [032] passes through the blanket [080] the neutron [032] thermalizes, a process wherein most neutrons [032] lose their kinetic energy until they are in thermal equilibrium with the blanket [080] material. The neutron [032] kinetic energy is converted into heat, increasing the temperature of the blanket [080]. If the blanket [080] is thick enough and composed of atoms with sufficiently large nuclear capture cross section, additional thermal energy is created by neutron absorption into those large cross section nuclei. The absorption process converts potential energy (the total mass of the initial neutron [032] and nucleus via the equation E=mc2) into kinetic energy by forming a final state with lower mass and hence excess kinetic energy.
Industrial applicability is representatively directed to that of apparatuses and devices, articles of manufacture—particularly electrical—and processes of making and using them. Industrial applicability also includes industries engaged in the foregoing, as well as industries operating in cooperation therewith, depending on the implementation.
In the non-limiting examples of the present disclosure, please consider the following:
The following detailed description is directed to concepts and technologies for mixed nuclear power conversion into output electrical power [082] by fusion reactions, teaching by way of prophetic illustration. The disclosure includes an apparatus comprising a power plant [002] producing output electrical power [082] in a construction to bring into collision [018] one species of ions so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions and thereby produce more of said output electrical power [082] than electrical power input to the apparatus. Similarly, the following disclosure teaches a method of generating output electrical power [082], the method comprising generating more output electrical power [082] than electrical power input to an apparatus by bringing into collision [018], in said apparatus, one species of ions so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions. These are indicative of how to make such an apparatus as well as necessary intermediates produced in the methods.
In contrast to past attempts at nuclear fusion for the purposes of output electrical power [082] generation, this disclosure teaches an apparatus wherein the power plant [002] producing [058] output electrical power [082] can be devoid of a magnetic field that constrains a plasma comprised of said ions [028] brought into said collisions [018]. It also describes a method of bringing ions [028] into collision [018] in ways that can be devoid of constraining a plasma with a magnetic field.
Moreover, this disclosure describes an apparatus [002] which absorbs neutron [032] kinetic energy and then captures said neutrons [032] in order to convert potential energy stored in a blanket [080] into additional nuclear energy available for conversion into output electrical power [082]. Similarly, this disclosure describes a method wherein the generating employs a blanket [080] which absorbs neutron [032] kinetic energy and then converts potential nuclear energy stored in the blanket [080] into additional heat for conversion into output electrical power [082].
A. Deuteron-Deuteron Fusion
One teaching embodiment for teaching broader concepts is directed to deuteron [028]-deuteron [028] (“DD”) fusion, a reaction in which a low energy neutron [032] is generated approximately half of the time, and otherwise ions of hydrogen [036], tritium [034], and helium-3 [030] are produced. DD fusion is employed herein as a prophetic teaching, recognizing that materials other than deuterium ions [028] can be fused consistent with the prophetic teaching by this example.
One embodiment for net electrical power generation (defined as excess output electrical power [082] beyond the electrical power devoted to operate the power plant [002]) utilizing fusion is to induce fusion events by colliding a beam of deuterons [026] (bare deuterium nuclei [028]) with another beam of deuterons [026]. Bare nuclei are atoms that have had all of their orbiting electrons stripped away, i.e. consisting essentially of no electrons. The absence of neutrons [032] emanating from the reactions with sufficient energy to induce undesired isotopic changes in surrounding material avoids a major source of radioactivity-induced safety and material control issues.
The above limitation of “consisting essentially of no electrons” recognizes that it is possible for nuclei to be partially ionized, meaning that not all electrons have been stripped away. There are processes in which an ion can shed or accumulate orbiting electrons via collisions and other physical phenomenon. This limitation means that while the desire is to have absolutely no electrons attached to ions, there might be a small number of electrons that exist attached to some ions, though not enough to affect the operation or process of nuclear fusion and output electrical power [082] production.
Specifically, this disclosure teaches an apparatus wherein one species of ions are brought into said collision as two deuteron beams [026] both consisting essentially of no electrons. This disclosure also teaches a method wherein the bringing into collision comprises bringing into collision one species of ions as two particle beams. both deuteron beams [26] consisting essentially of no electrons.
Note that the word species is both singular and plural. In the context of this instant application “one species of ions” means that there is only one element and only one isotope of that element involved in said collisions and fusion reactions. For example, the fusion of boron-11 nuclei and hydrogen ions (protons) involves two species of ions; the boron-11 nuclei and the protons. In DD fusion the two deuteron beams [026] are composed of one species of ions; deuterons [028].
As shown in
Because the two deuterons [028] each possess an electrostatic charge of one proton, they repel each other. Therefore, the probability of inducing fusion when the two deuterons [028] are at rest is vanishingly small. In order to bring the two deuterons [028] close enough together for them to fuse, they are collided [018] with sufficient relative velocity that their separation is reduced (trading kinetic energy for electromagnetic potential energy). In physics this relative velocity is often quantified in terms of kinetic energy.
In
In
The fusion product kinetic energies indicated in
B. Elastic Coulomb Scattering
In one embodiment the two equal kinetic energy deuteron beams [026] collide [018] head-on; that is to say that their trajectories are separated by an angle of 180 degrees. When opposing deuterons [028] fuse they generate a triton [034]/proton [036] pair of fusion product particles or a helium-3 [030]/neutron [032] pair of fusion product particles. The particles within either pair have trajectories away from each other also separated by an angle of 180 degrees. The line that these particles follow can be in any direction away from the collision point, the probability of a given direction being uniformly distributed over all angles.
A competing effect suffered by the deuterons [028] during collisions is elastic Coulomb scattering. Because each deuteron [028] is electrically charged by one proton, any two deuterons [028] approaching one another will feel a repulsive electric field. As shown in
In the embodiment of two equal kinetic energy deuterons [028] approaching each other from opposite directions, the two deuterons [028] leave the collision region with the same kinetic energy with which they approached (assuming no fusion takes place). This is a result of the physics principles of conservation of energy and conservation of momentum applied to electromagnetic interactions of particles. While their kinetic energy is preserved, their momenta (direction of travel) is modified.
It is well known in the art of particle physics that small angle deflections are much more probable than large angle deflections. The probability of two deuterons [028] suffering a deflection greater than some minimum elastic scattering angle θ is also quantified by a cross section.
This elastic Coulomb scattering cross section, at a given minimum angle, scales inversely as the square of the deuteron beam [026] kinetic energy. The higher the deuteron beam [026] kinetic energy, the smaller the cross section for suffering deflections of a given angle or larger. Previous attempts at DD fusion have occurred within plasmas that operate at a temperature below 1 billion degrees Kelvin. The deuteron [028] kinetic energy in a plasma of this temperature is typically on the order of 50 keV, a full order of magnitude lower than the collision energies in the embodiment foreseen in
C. Fusion Reactor Architecture
The central electrode [008] is reminiscent of an architecture invented by Philo T. Farnsworth, the inventor of television. In his case, a spherically converging electron beam was utilized to induce fusion events. His device, called the Fusor by those of ordinary skill in the art of fusion reactors, was the subject of U.S. Pat. No. 3,258,402 filed Jan. 11, 1962 titled “Electric Discharge Device for Producing Interactions between Nuclei” and number 3,386,883 filed Jun. 4, 1966 titled “Method and Apparatus for Producing Nuclear-Fusion Reactions”. Both of the patents are incorporated by reference as if as if fully stated herein. The Fusor belongs to a class of nuclear fusion reactors called Electrostatic Inertial Confinement (“EIC”).
In the case of the Fusor, a gas within a spherical vacuum chamber undergoes an arc discharge and emits electrons radially inward due to a positively charged anode within the spherical chamber. This spherical anode is permeable to electrons. Once electrons pass through the anode, they see the radial space charge force due to their spherically symmetric electron charge distribution. This repulsive force slows down entering electrons, decreasing their radial kinetic energy until all of the kinetic energy is converted into electromagnetic potential energy. The radius near which most of the electrons thereby stop their radial motion is called a virtual cathode. Electrons at the virtual cathode then accelerate radially outward again until they stop at some radius consistent with their outbound kinetic energy.
The Fusor prior art does not teach the instant application because of several key structural and operational differences that teach away from the instant application. First, in this instant application the inner wire-mesh electrode [008] is negatively charged in order to directly accelerate positive ions such as deuterons [028]. In the Fusor patent application 3,258,402 the anode electrode 21 is positively charged so as to ionize deuterium and tritium gas within the vacuum wall 20, said ionization caused by attracting and multiplying electrons generated via the ionization process itself (electron cascade). Second, in the Fusor the tritium and deuterium gas in the chamber defined by the vacuum wall 20 is the fuel that is fused. In the instant application the fuel is contained within the two deuteron beams [026] that are generated exclusively within deuteron sources [016]. Such ion sources are taught in U.S. provisional patent application 63/036,073 filed on Jun. 8, 2020 and invented by the inventor of this instant application. This provisional patent has been converted into the international patent application PCT/US21/36115 filed on Jun. 7, 2021. Both provisional patent 63/036,073 titled “Ion Source” and international patent application PCT/US21/36115 titled “Ion Source” are incorporated herein by reference as if fully stated herein. Third, the Fusor employs an anode electrode 21 power supply 50 that can accelerate the ionization electrons up to 100 keV. When the electrons form a virtual cathode the electrostatic charge of the electrons within the virtual cathode attracts the ionized tritium and deuterium. In the instant application the acceleration electrode [008] directly accelerates the deuteron beams [026]. In one embodiment the acceleration electrode [008] is charged up to voltages much higher than 100 kV. In addition, no virtual cathodes are formed in the technology taught in this instant application. Fourth, in the Fusor technology a spherical stream of ions penetrate anode electrode 21 in order to compress the ions at the center and induce fusion. In the instant application the deuterons [028] collide [018] in the central region [014] in the form of two beams [026] that are not spherical but have an initial maximum radius at injection within the vacuum vessel wall [004] less than the radius of the deuteron sources [016].
In one embodiment, this instant application teaches an electrical power plant [002] configured to produce [058] output electrical power [082] by bringing ions [028] into collisions [018], wherein the ions [028] are ions of one species, so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions and thereby produce [058] more of said output electrical power [082] than electrical power input to the electrical power plant [002], said electrical power plant [002] including: one or more sources [016] of said ions [028]; one or more negatively charged electrodes [008] constructed so as to; accelerate [010] said ions [028] to kinetic energies sufficient to induce said nuclear fusion reactions; focus [012] said ions [028] into said collisions [018] in a manner devoid of magnetic fields; and decelerate [020] positively charged particles formed by said nuclear fusion reactions; one or more blankets [080] constructed to: harvest [022] kinetic energy from neutrons [032] formed by said nuclear fusion reactions, said harvested kinetic energy converted into heat; produce additional nuclear energy by capturing [024] said neutrons [032]; convert said additional nuclear energy into additional heat within the blanket [080]; and accumulate [050] as yet additional heat any remaining kinetic energy of said positively charged particles after said positively charged particles are decelerated [020]; and a transformer configured to transform [052] said heat, said additional heat, and said yet additional heat within said blanket [080] into output electrical power [082]; said transformer including: a heat exchanger [076] that accepts water [070] and produces pressurized steam [071]; a turbine [072] that converts said steam [071] into rotational energy; and a generator [074] coupled [066] to said turbine [072] that converts said rotational energy into said output electrical power [082].
In one embodiment the apparatus taught in the preceding paragraph further includes: the ions [028] are brought into said collisions [018] as two particle beams [026], both said particle beams [026] consisting essentially of no electrons, both said particle beams [026] having about an equal average kinetic energy, both said particle beams [026] comprised of deuterons [028], and both said particle beams [026] colliding [018] at an angle of about 180 degrees.
In one embodiment this instant application teaches a process [058], the process [058] comprising: colliding [018] ions [028] of a single species so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions and thereby produce [058] more output electrical power [082] than electrical power used to cause said colliding [018]: creating said ions [028]; electrostatically accelerating [010] said ions [028] to kinetic energies sufficient to induce said nuclear fusion reactions; electrostatically focusing [012] said ions [028] into said collisions [018] in a manner devoid of magnetic fields; electrostatically recycling [054] said kinetic energies from said ions [028] that are deflected by elastic Coulomb scattering during said collisions [018]; electrostatically decelerating [020] positively charged particles formed by said nuclear fusion reactions; harvesting [022] kinetic energy from neutrons [032] formed by said nuclear fusion reactions, and converting said kinetic energy into heat; capturing [024] said neutrons [032] via additional nuclear reactions to produce excess energy, and converting the excess energy into additional heat; converting [050] remaining kinetic energy of said positively charged particles after said decelerating [020] into yet additional heat; and transforming [052] said heat, said additional heat, and said yet additional heat into output electrical power [082]; said transforming [052] comprising: heat exchanging [084] said heat into water to produce steam; spinning a turbine [086] with said steam; and turning an electrical generator [088] with said turbine. In one embodiment a product is produced by the process taught in this paragraph.
In one embodiment, this instant application also teaches a process comprising: assembling an electrical power plant [002] so that the electrical power plant [002] produces [058] output electrical power [082] by bringing ions [028] into collisions [018], wherein the ions [028] are ions of one species, so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions and thereby produce [058] more of said output electrical power [082] than electrical power input to the electrical power plant, said assembling carried out such that: there are one or more sources of said ions [028]; and one or more negatively charged electrodes [008] are located to: accelerate [010] said ions [028] to kinetic energies sufficient to induce said nuclear fusion reactions; focus [012] said ions [028] in a manner devoid of magnetic fields; and decelerate [020] positively charged particles formed by said nuclear fusion reactions; there are one or more blankets [080] constructed so as to: harvest [022] kinetic energy from neutrons [032] formed by said nuclear fusion reactions, and convert said kinetic energy into heat; produce additional nuclear energy by capturing [024] said neutrons [032], such that said additional nuclear energy is converted into additional heat within the blanket [080]; and accumulate [050] as yet additional heat any remaining kinetic energy of said positively charged particles after said positively charged particles are partially decelerated [020]; transform [052] said heat, said additional heat, and said yet additional heat within said blanket [080] into output electrical power [082], said transforming includes: a heat exchanger [076] that accepts water [070] and produces pressurized steam [071]; a turbine [072] that converts said pressurized steam [071] into rotational energy [086]; and an electrical generator [074] coupled [066] to said turbine [072] that converts said rotational energy into said output electrical power [082]. In one embodiment a product is produced by the process taught in this paragraph.
In one embodiment, this instant application also teaches a process of producing [058] output electrical power [082] comprising: colliding [018] ions [028] of one species so as to induce nuclear fusion reactions and thereby produce [058] more output electrical power [082] than electrical power used to cause said colliding [018]: creating [006] said ions [028]; electrostatically accelerating [010] said ions [028] to kinetic energies sufficient to induce said nuclear fusion reactions; electrostatically focusing [012] said ions [028] into said collisions [018] in a manner devoid of magnetic fields; electrostatically recycling [054] said kinetic energy from said ions [028] that are deflected by elastic Coulomb scattering during said collisions [018]; electrostatically decelerating [020] positively charged particles formed by said nuclear fusion reactions; harvesting [024] kinetic energy from neutrons [032] formed by said nuclear fusion reactions, converting said kinetic energy into heat; capturing [024] said neutrons [032] via additional nuclear reactions to produce excess energy, and converting the excess energy into additional heat; accumulating [050] yet additional kinetic energy of said positively charged particles that remains after said decelerating [020]; and transforming [052] said heat, said additional heat, and said yet additional heat into output electrical power [082]. In one embodiment a product is produced by the process taught in this paragraph.
In one embodiment the step of transforming [052] said heat, said additional heat, and said yet additional heat into output electrical power [082] taught in the preceding paragraph comprises: heat exchanging [084] said heat into water [070] to produce steam [071]; spinning [086] a turbine [072] with said steam [071]; and turning [088] an electrical generator [074] with said turbine [072].
D. Electrical Power Generation
One embodiment of a power plant [002] producing [058] output electrical power [082] is illustrated in
As a teaching embodiment, consider the situation where only one deuteron beam [026] is injected into the power plant [002] from one deuteron source [016]. The deuteron source [016] performs the step of creating ions [006]. With the central electrode [008] charged to a voltage of −547 kV with respect to a vacuum vessel wall [004], this deuteron beam [026] is accelerated to a kinetic energy of 547 keV by the time it reaches the central region [014]. The central electrode [008] performs the step of accelerating ions [010]. In this embodiment, the concentric spherical shapes of the central electrode [008] and vacuum vessel wall [004] form a radially symmetric electric field that simultaneously performs the step of focusing ions [012] into the central region [014]. The momentum of the deuteron beam [026] inside the central electrode [008] carries the deuteron beam [026] through the central electrode [008] to the other side where the deuteron beam [026] is again decelerated, trading kinetic energy for electrical potential energy. Therefore, the central electrode [008] also performs the step of recycling ion kinetic energy [054]. Assuming a good vacuum within the capabilities of those of ordinary skill in the art of accelerator physics, this deuteron beam [026] repeatedly undergoes the steps of accelerating [010], focusing [012], and recycling [054] as it oscillates indefinitely back and forth across the diameter of the vacuum vessel wall [004]. The step of creating [006] also involves injecting the deuteron beam [026] in such a way that the deuterons [028] within the deuteron beam [026] do not strike the deuteron source [016] as the deuterons [028] subsequently oscillates back and forth.
Note that in the above embodiment no energy was invested in the deuteron beams [026] in the form of initial kinetic energy. This is in contrast to other attempts at nuclear fusion wherein a plasma is heated, i.e. ion kinetic energy is increased. Because not all ions in the plasma undergo fusion immediately, and the plasma generally cools quickly because of electromagnetic radiation from plasma electrons and energetic charged particle loss, the energy invested in plasma heating has been greater than the fusion energy output within the plasma in past fusion attempts. The fusion architecture taught in this instant application overcomes this prior fatal flaw in nuclear fusion attempts at output electrical power [082] generation [058]. In this instant application the deuteron beams [026] maintain their kinetic energy at the central region [014] indefinitely without the investment of external power.
As a teaching embodiment, consider the situation where a second deuteron beam [026] is injected into the power plant [002] such that the first and second deuteron beams [026] oscillate in opposite direction, colliding [016] each oscillation at the central region [014]. At a kinetic energy of 547 keV within the central region [014] the two beams [026] pass through one another and continue their oscillations. At a rate dictated by the cross sections taught in
In an embodiment illustrated in
When deuterons [028] from both deuteron beams [026] undergo one or more elastic Coulomb scattering events large enough to deflect the deuteron [028] trajectories to angles sufficiently far from the line between the two deuteron sources [016], the deuterons will come into contact with the vacuum vessel wall [004]. At this point the deuterons [028] often stick onto (or near) the inside surface of the vacuum vessel wall [004]. The process of sticking, which can involve the physics processes of adsorption, absorption, or chemisorption all involve neutralizing the deuteron [028] with an electron, forming deuterium. The deuterium atom can exist either in a molecular bond with other atoms in the vacuum vessel wall [004]. Alternatively, the deuteron can form a molecule from the group HD, D2, or DT. These hydrogen isotope molecules can be attached to (or near) the vacuum vessel wall [004] inside surface. Alternatively, these hydrogen isotope molecules can leave the vacuum vessel wall [004] and enter the vacuum within the vacuum vessel wall [004].
When the elastic Coulomb scattered deuterons [028] stick to the vacuum vessel wall [004] they have little or no kinetic energy. In an embodiment where the deuteron source [028] is electrically shorted to the vacuum vessel wall [004] (a specific form of electrical communication), no work (voltage difference times electrical charge) was performed during the life of the deuteron [028]. In other words, no power needed to be invested into the deuteron [028] to accelerate [010] it to DD fusion energies. This recovery of ion kinetic energy involving elastic Coulomb scattered deuterons [028] is another form of the step of recycling ion kinetic energy [054].
As discussed above, in prior attempts at power plants [002] designed to produce output electrical power [082] employing plasmas constrained by magnetic fields, energy was invested to heat the plasma to temperatures indicated to achieve nuclear fusion. In this instant application conservation of energy also needs to be observed, but in this case the recovery of collision kinetic energy is performed by harvesting that energy from the charged particles emanating from the fusion reaction. In other words, energy indicated to maintain power plant [002] fusion reactions is recovered for those deuterons [028] that undergo nuclear fusion, the kinetic energy of the electrically charged fusion products being harvested for that energy.
In an embodiment where the central electrode is charged to a voltage of −547 kV, the initial kinetic energies of the tritons [034]. helium-3 nuclei [030], and protons [036] inside the central electrode [008] are 1284 keV, 1094 keV, and 3843 keV respectively. The neutron [032] formed with the helium-3 nucleus [030] has a kinetic energy of 3270 keV. These values are graphed in
In the DD fusion channel forming the helium-3 nucleus [030] and a neutron [032], the helium-3 nucleus [030] reaches the vacuum vessel wall [004] with no kinetic energy, similar to the case of the elastic Coulomb scattered deuterons [028]. By similar mechanisms, the helium-3 nuclei [030] are converted into an isotope of helium gas (pick up two orbiting electrons to form neutral noble gas atoms. The amount of energy recovered by the deceleration of a helium-3 nucleus [030] is 1094 keV, which is precisely the combined kinetic energy of the two deuterons [028]. The physics principle of conservation of energy is observed. The neutron [032] kinetic energy that enters the blanket [080] is 3270 keV, which is the total energy gain from that fusion channel indicated in
In the DD fusion channel forming a triton [034] and proton [036] the total kinetic energy reduction of both particles travelling toward the vacuum vessel wall [004] is 1094 keV, which is again precisely the combined kinetic energy of the two deuterons [028]. Again, the physics principle of conservation of energy is observed. The remaining total kinetic energy of 4030 keV that this pair of charged particles possess upon striking the wall is the total energy gain from that fusion channel indicated in
The range of the 737 keV triton and 3296 keV proton penetrating the vacuum vessel wall [004] is generally shorter than the thickness of the vacuum vessel wall [004]. In such an embodiment all of their kinetic energy is converted into thermal energy (heat) in the vacuum vessel wall [004]. This is the step of converting kinetic energy into heat [050]. In an embodiment wherein the blanket [080] is in thermal communication [056] with the vacuum vessel wall [004], the heat deposited into the vacuum vessel wall [004] is communicated [056] to the blanket [080].
As taught further below, the blanket [080] harvests the kinetic energy of the neutron [032] emanating from the DD fusion reaction through collisions [018] of the neutron [032] with atoms within the blanket [080] material. This step of harvesting of neutron kinetic energy [022] occurs until the neutron [032] approaches thermal equilibrium with the blanket [080] material.
In an embodiment wherein the blanket [080] is composed of atoms that exhibit a large cross section for neutron [032] capture [024], neutron [032] capture [024] creates new isotopes within the blanket [080]. Neutron [032] capture [024] is another type of nuclear reaction in addition to those such as nuclear fission and nuclear fusion. When those new isotopes have a mass smaller than the combined mass of the initial nucleus and the neutron [032], energy is released in the form of photons or energetic particles. Absorption of these photons and accumulating [050] residual kinetic energy of the energetic particles within the blanket [080] complete the step of capturing [024] neutrons [032] to produce heat.
In one embodiment, the step of converting heat into output electrical power [052] starts with a heat exchanger [076] in thermal contact with the blanket [080]. By heating a cooling liquid [070] in the heat exchanger [076] to form a high pressure vapor [071], a converter [072] converts the mechanical potential energy of the vapor [071] into output electrical power [082] in an electrical generator [074] connected to said converter [072] by a coupler [066]. The efficiency of the step of converting heat into output electrical power [052] is enhanced by surrounding the blanket [080] with thermal insulation [068].
In one embodiment the cooling liquid [070] is water, the high pressure vapor [071] is steam, the converter [072] is a turbine, the coupler [066] is a drive shaft, and the electrical generator [074] is a standard electrical generator or alternator. In another embodiment the converter [072] is a thermoelectric element, the coupler [066] is copper wire, and the electrical generator is a DC-AC converter.
E. Vacuum Maintenance
Throughout the previous section teaching electrical power generation the elastic Coulomb scattered deuterons [028], the helium-3 nuclei [030], the tritons [034], and protons [036] are all absorbed when they come into contact with either the vacuum vessel wall [004], the central electrode [008], or any other surface. When striking such surfaces, these positively charged particles penetrate a short depth into the material. Once they stop (due to collision with electrons in the material), these charged particles each pick up electrons to become neutral atoms. In all cases these neutral atoms exist in gaseous form at or above room temperature. Eventually this gas diffuses out of the material into the vacuum within the vacuum vessel wall [004]. After bouncing around for a while, the gas is eventually pumped out of the vacuum vessel wall [004] via ports [040] connected to vacuum pumps.
One embodiment of vacuum pumps capable of pumping isotopes of hydrogen and helium are ion (or ion-sputter) pumps [044]. In standard ion pumps [044], every pumped hydrogen or helium isotope atom represents a current of one electron into 5 kV. Therefore, per fusion event, the pump will consume electrical energy of 1e×5 kV=5 keV for the helium-3 production channel (since the helium-3 gas is only singly-ionized in a ion pump [044], 2e×5 kV=10 keV for the triton production channel (since both the tritium and hydrogen gas are ionized in the ion pump [044]), and therefore an average of 7.33 keV per fusion event. As taught in the previous section the average energy gain per DD fusion event is 3620 keV. Therefore, in this embodiment the net output electrical power [082] of the power plant [002] is depressed by 7.33 keV/3620 keV or 0.2%.
Hence, in one embodiment the power plant [002] includes at least one ion sputter vacuum pump [044] and a spherical vacuum vessel containing a vacuum and comprising a vacuum vessel central region [014] and a vacuum vessel wall [004]. In one embodiment of a power plant [002] said ions are brought into said collisions [018] in a vacuum maintained by one or more ion-sputter pumps [044]. Another embodiment is a method of generating electrical power, including evacuating a spherical volume [002], having a vacuum vessel wall [004], to produce a vacuum sufficient to enable storage of said ion beams, wherein said evacuating includes evacuating with an ion sputter vacuum pump [044].
Ion pumps [044] cannot pump helium and hydrogen isotopes indefinitely. Eventually they saturate the titanium getter plates within the ion pumps [044] and outgas at a rate comparable to the pumping rate. In order to overcome this limitation, each ion pump [044] is arranged to be isolated from the power plant [002] vacuum vessel by vacuum valves [046]. When these valves are closed, the Penning cell magnets around the ion pump chamber are removed and the pump [044] chamber is heated. Another valve [046] is opened which allows the outgassing helium and hydrogen isotopes to be removed by a roughing pump [048] via a vacuum line [042]. This roughing pump [048] can be a mechanical pump (such as a turbomolectular pump) or a cryogenic trap. This embodiment of the vacuum maintenance system of the power plant [002] is illustrated in
In one embodiment, the power plant [002] includes: a vacuum vessel that has a substantially spherical shape, a vessel wall [004], and a central region [014], the vacuum vessel structured to contain a vacuum; said negatively charged electrodes [008] constructed as a central, substantially spherical, electrode assembly concentric with said vacuum vessel wall [004], structured to repeatedly collide [018] said particle beams [026] with each other in said central region [014] of said vacuum vessel; an electrode charger configured to maintain the voltage of said central electrode [008]; at least one ion sputter vacuum pump [044].
F. Secondary Electron Emission
When electrons or ions of sufficient kinetic energy bombard a metallic surface, secondary electron [038] emission is observed. The ratio of observed secondary electrons [038] per incident electron or ion, termed secondary electron yield A (the Greek symbol capital delta), is a function of kinetic energy, ion charge, ion mass, and the composition of the material undergoing bombardment. In the case of hydrogen ions on a variety of metal surfaces,
Hydrogen ions (protons [036], tritons [034], and elastic Coulomb scattered deuterons [028]) and helium ions (helium-3 nuclei [030]) are the two species of ions that will bombard the central electrode [008] and the vacuum vessel wall [004] in
In one embodiment, the vacuum vessel wall [004] of the power plant [002] is comprised, or is consisting essentially, of stainless steel. In another embodiment, the vacuum vessel wall [004] is comprised, or is consisting essentially, of titanium. In yet another embodiment, the vacuum vessel wall [004] is comprised, or is consisting essentially, of aluminum.
In one embodiment a coating is placed on the inside surface of the vacuum vessel wall [004] and/or the central electrode [008] to inhibit secondary electrons [038], secondary ions, or both. In another embodiment a coating is placed on the inside surface of the vacuum vessel wall [004] to inhibit desorption of gas, inhibit outgassing due to ion bombardment, and/or to improve vacuum by providing a getter surface.
When helium-3 nuclei [030] strike the central electrode [008] and/or the vacuum vessel wall [004], secondary electrons [038] are generated as expected given the data in
The apparatus illustrated in
The data graphed in
The geometry of the power plant [002] of this instant application is functionally analogous to the apparatus in
When isotopes of hydrogen and helium strike the central electrode [008], the secondary electrons [038] see an accelerating radial electric field toward the vacuum vessel wall [004]. Even secondary electrons [038] which are created with a kinetic energy infinitesimally small are accelerated to 574 keV by the time the secondary electrons [038] bombard the vacuum vessel wall [004].
The data in
On the other hand, these secondary electrons emanating from the central electrode [008] and transported to the vacuum vessel wall [004] represent an electrical power drain, or partial short circuit. As taught in
Methods of secondary electron [038] emission suppression include increased surface roughness, locally-shaped electric fields, imposition of magnetic fields, and coatings. For coatings, surface coatings such as carbon and titanium nitride are specifically indicated.
In one embodiment metal wires forming the central electrode [008] are coated with a carbon coating, the carbon being in the form a diamond, graphite, carbon nitride, or some other carbon-containing compound. Carbon can be used to suppress secondary electron emission yield by a factor of five. In another embodiment the wires forming the central electrode [008] are comprised of carbon fibers bound together into a composite structure. In another embodiment the wires forming the central electrode [008] have a surface which has been roughened or structured in such a way to minimize secondary electron [038] emission. In another embodiment the wire forming the central electrode [008] is shaped in order to minimize secondary electron emission [038]. In another embodiment the wire forming the central electrode [008] has a permanent magnetization of sufficient shape and magnitude to minimize secondary electron emission [038] yield. In another embodiment a magnetic field is generated in close proximity of the central electrode [008] surfaces by running electrical current through said wires. In another embodiment a plurality of surface roughness, coatings, locally-shaped electric fields, and magnetic fields are used together to minimize secondary electron [038] yield.
G. Central Electrode Power Supply
As taught earlier, in one embodiment the consumption of electrical power in ion pumps [044] is indicated in order to maintain the vacuum within the vacuum vessel walls [004], hence maintaining power plant [002] production of output electrical power [082]. Another function within said power plant [002] where the consumption of electrical power is indicated in order to maintain production of output electrical power [082] is the ionization of deuterium gas within the deuterium sources [016] when creating [006] deuteron beams [026].
In one embodiment the process of deuterium ionization is performed via the bombardment of low-pressure deuterium gas with energetic electrons. Creating [006] ions in this manner is taught in U.S. provisional patent application 63/036,073 filed on Jun. 8, 2020 and invented by the inventor of this instant application. This provisional patent has been converted into the international patent application PCT/US21/36115 filed on Jun. 7, 2021. Both provisional patent 63/036,073 titled “Ion Source” and international patent application PCT/US21/36115 titled “Ion Source” are incorporated herein by reference as if fully stated herein.
A third function within said power plant [002] where the consumption of electrical power is indicated in order to maintain production of output electrical power [082] is the regulation of the electrical charge on the central electrode [008]. As taught earlier in this instant application, charged particles can strike the central electrode [008], causing the emission of secondary electrons [038]. These secondary electrons [038] are accelerated toward the vacuum vessel wall [004] by the electric field associated with the negative voltage of the central electrode [008]. One or more power supplies [078] feeding replacement electrons into the central electrode [008] are indicated.
When secondary electrons [038] are ejected from the central electrode [008] set at a voltage of −574 kV with respect to the vacuum chamber wall [004], those secondary electrons [038] each deposit 574 keV of thermal energy into the vacuum chamber wall [002]. That thermal energy is then transported [056] to the blanket [080]. In one embodiment the thermal energy is subsequently transport to the heat exchanger [076] before being converted [052] into output electrical power [082]. The electron charging accelerators [064] siphon electrical power from the output electrical power [082] to power the electron accelerator [064], transforming that siphoned power into electron beam [060] kinetic energy. If the conversion efficiency of the steps of converting [052] and transforming electrical power into electron beam [060] kinetic energy were each 100%, then no reduction in output electrical power [082] would be suffered by the power plant [002]. In reality neither of these efficiencies are 100%, so for a reasonable efficiency of 40% in some embodiments a small amount of output electrical power [082] reduction is to be expected due to secondary electron [038] emission from the central electrode [008].
H. Sulfur Blanket
One teaching embodiment for teaching broader concepts is directed to a method of harvesting energy from neutrons [032] with a sulfur blanket [104] surrounding a region in which neutrons [032] created, sometimes in conjunction with the creation of positively charged particles [106] and electromagnetic radiation [008]. Electromagnetic radiation [108] is generally defined as electrons [154], positrons [156], and gamma-rays [158] across the entire electromagnetic spectrum. The process of creating neutrons [032] and the subsequent method of harvesting [022] energy from said neutrons [032], positively charged particles [106], and electromagnetic radiation [108] is illustrated in
Upon striking the vacuum vessel wall [004] the neutrons [032] generally undergo a process of moderating [022] wherein the kinetic energy carried by the neutrons [032] is reduced. The lost kinetic energy is generally converted into heat [116] and subsequent heat transmission [114]. The vast majority of neutrons [032] undergo the process of moderating [022] before they undergo a subsequent process of capturing [024], wherein a neutron [032] is absorbed by an atom via nucleon exchange reactions such as neutron [032] capture [024] with a subsequent emission of a gamma-ray [158] (referred to as a (n,g) reaction. Other relevant neutron [032] capture [024] channels are neutron-proton (n,p) and neutron-alpha (n,a) exchanges (alpha particles are helium-4 nuclei). It is sometime possible for the capturing [024] process by an atom to be immediately preceded by transfer of neutron [032] kinetic energy to that same atom, also deemed moderating [022]. The process of capturing [024] generates more heat and subsequent heat transmission [114] and additional electromagnetic radiation [108].
In parallel, the process of nuclear reactions [102] may also generate positively charged particles [106]. These positively charged particles will generally undergo the process of stopping [050], wherein the kinetic energy lost by the positively charged particles is also converted into heat and subsequent heat transmission [114]. The heat transmission [114] and electromagnetic radiation [108] are all then subjected to the process of heat exchanging [084] with a heat exchanger [076].
In one embodiment, a prophetic teaching, sulfur atoms [116] are used for the step of capturing [024] neutrons [032].
The thermal neutron cross sections specified in
The prophetic embodiment wherein sulfur atoms [116] are involved in capturing [024] neutrons [032] is of interest because of the large energy release that occurs. As illustrated in
Because isotopic separation or isotopic enrichment is typically an expensive process, an embodiment is to perform the step of capturing [024] with naturally occurring sulfur atoms [116]. In this case capturing [024] is performed with sulfur atoms [116] consisting of (or in some cases, having or consisting essentially of) the isotopes sulfur-32 [132], sulfur-33 [133], sulfur-34 [134], and sulfur-36 [136]. Because of its simplicity, an embodiment is to perform the step of moderating [022] also with sulfur atoms [116].
The moderating [022] of neutrons [032] removes kinetic energy from the neutrons [032] imparted by the DD fusion process. This lost kinetic energy is converted into heat and subsequent heat transmission [114]. The electromagnetic radiation [108] from DD fusion and the capturing [024] step is completely or partially absorbed by the sulfur atoms [116], converting the electromagnetic radiation [108] into heat and subsequent heat transmission [114]. The stopping [050] of positively charged particles emitted by DD fusion converts the residual positively charged particle kinetic energy into heat and subsequent heat transmission [114]. Some or all of this heat transmission [114] and remaining (unconverted) electromagnetic radiation [108] is accumulated in a heat exchanging [084] process in a heat exchanger [076].
In one embodiment illustrated in
In a prophetic teaching, the utility of a sulfur blanket [104] is demonstrated by considering DD fusion as the nuclear reaction [102]. DD fusion has two approximately equal probability channels shown in
Table 1 contains the input and calculated parameters that determine the energy release per captured [024] neutron [032] in a sulfur blanket [104]. The four columns of values contain the calculations parameters associated with the sulfur atoms [116] illustrated in
I. Electrical Energy Storage
There is enough sunlight and wind power on the planet to supply all of the energy needs of the world. The problem is that the availability of harvested power does not necessarily coincide with the instantaneous energy demands of consumers. An inexpensive and compact means of storing electrical power is one of the greatest challenges facing humanity.
Commercial nuclear fission reactors are capable of generating a steady electrical power level, but are not capable of tracking the minute-by-minute demand changes exhibited on electrical grids. A means of steadily charging and then quickly discharging stored energy as demand requires would also provide significant advantages.
An electrical power plant [002] based on DD nuclear fusion utilizing a sulfur blanket [104] can provide steady output electrical power [082] similar to that of a commercial nuclear fission reactor. The apparatus in
One embodiment is to place an electrical battery between the electrical power plant [002] and an electrical load in order to provide such surge capacity. Another utility of this embodiment is to store electrical power from external power sources such as wind turbines and solar arrays.
One type of electrical battery under study for many decades is the sulfur-sodium battery [120]. In an embodiment, the sulfur containment vessel [118] in
A reservoir of molten sodium atoms [130] is separated from a molten sulfur-sodium mixture [140] by a solid electrolyte [146]. In an embodiment this solid electrolyte [146] is composed of the ceramic b″-alumina (BASE). The molten sodium atoms [130] serves as the anode [142] and the molten sulfur-sodium mixture [140] serves as the cathode [144]. The negative terminal [143] of this sulfur-sodium battery [156] is in electrical contact with the molten sodium [130] while the positive terminal [145] of the sulfur-sodium battery [120] is in electrical communication with the molten sulfur-sodium mixture [140]. In this scenario the sulfur containment vessel [118] walls are not in electrical communication with either the molten sodium [130], or sulfur-sodium mixture [140], or both. The negative terminal [143] and positive terminal [145] pass through the sulfur containment vessel [118] wall utilizing electrical insulators [148]. There can be more than one reservoir of sodium atoms [130], solid electrolyte [146], negative terminal [143], and/or positive terminal [145].
This embodiment can, in some cases, be advantageous over past embodiments of a sulfur-sodium battery [120] because of the elevated temperature required to operate such a battery [120] and the additional cost and complexity of providing the required heat and thermal insulation [138] as compared to other battery technologies. Because of the existence of the sulfur blanket [104] as a means of increasing the output electrical power [082] of a nuclear fusion electrical power plant [002], all of these additional costs and complexities already existed.
When the sulfur-sodium battery [120] is fully charged, substantially all of the sodium atoms [130] are in the sodium reservoir. As plotted in
J. Proton Conductors
There is a category of materials that are electrical insulators (do not conduct electrons) but instead conduct ions. In material science this category of materials is called ionic conductors. In applications such as fuel cells and batteries, these materials often play the role of an electrolyte. In the case of the sulfur-sodium battery [120], the ion being conducted in said solid electrolyte [146] illustrated in
As illustrated in
The use of ion pumps [044] as illustrated in
Under traditional usage of proton conductors in a fuel cell, hydrogen gas is on one side of the proton conductor while oxygen gas is flowed on the opposite side. Platinum-based catalysts and other less expensive substitute materials cause the hydrogen molecules to give up their electrons and conduct bare protons through the proton conductor. On the oxygen side catalysts are used to readily react the protons with oxygen molecules to form water molecules. The resulting water molecules are pumped away, maintaining a hydrogen population imbalance across the proton conductor. This imbalance, in conjunction with an operating temperature above 400 degrees Celsius, allows the protons to flow from one catalyst to the other, resulting in an electric current that can be used to power an electrical load or charge a battery.
In the embodiment illustrated in
A conductive inner coating [096] on the radial inside of the barrier [090] can be added in one embodiment in order to remove secondary electrons [038] emanating from the central electrode [008]. To remove secondary electrons [038], the thickness of this inner coating [096] can be as thin as 100 nanometers, or 0.1 microns. In one embodiment, this inner coating [096] is comprised of stainless steel. In another embodiment, this inner coating [096] can be comprised of titanium. In one embodiment, this instant application teaches a conductive inner coating [096] on a radial inside surface of said barrier [090]. In one embodiment, this instant application teaches an inner coating [096] comprised of at least one member of a group comprising carbon, chromium, manganese, copper, zinc, zirconium, niobium, molybdenum, palladium, silver, hafnium, tantalum, tungsten, rhenium, platinum, and gold.
In an embodiment where the voltage of the outer coating [098] is equal to the ion source [006] voltage, the kinetic energy of positively charged particles generated by DD fusion are plotted in
In the case of helium-3 nuclei [030], their range into an inner coating [096] comprised of titanium or stainless steel is plotted in
In the case of tritons [034], the expected kinetic energy into the barrier [090] is high enough the superior penetration ability of hydrogen ions indicate that their penetration ability will be far deeper.
The case of protons [036] is illustrated in
While the electrical power plant [002] is producing [058] output electrical power [082], the combination of heat from the DD fusion reactions and the secondary nuclear reactions in the sulfur blanket [104] cause the temperature of the electrical power plant [002] to increase. In one embodiment, the boiling of water [070] in a heat exchanger [076] to produce steam [071] maintains a constant sulfur blanket [104] temperature of greater than or equal to 400 degrees Celsius. In one embodiment the vacuum vessel wall [004] is in thermal communication with the sulfur blanket [104], indicating that said vessel wall [004] is at a temperature above 400 degrees Celsius while said electrical power plant [002] is generating [058] output electrical power [082]. At a minimum, the barrier [090] within the vacuum vessel wall [004] is in thermal communication with the vacuum vessel wall [004] via blackbody radiation. In one embodiment, this instant application teaches a barrier [090] at a temperature above 400 degrees Celsius while said electrical power plant [002] is generating [058] output electrical power [082].
In an embodiment wherein the ion beam sources [006] are the same voltage as the outer coating [098] of the barrier [090], deuterons [028] from the colliding [018] ion beams [026] that undergo Coulomb scattering reach the barrier [090] with zero kinetic energy. In this case the deuteron range is less than the thickness of the inner coating [096]. In an embodiment where 100 deuterons [028] undergo large Coulomb scattering deflections for every DD fusion event, the deuterium gas load caused by D2 molecule formation on the inner coating [096] would dominate the inner vacuum [092] pressure. There are several techniques for avoiding this situation. In one embodiment, the voltage of the ion sources [006] is biased negatively by enough voltage to cause said Coulomb scattered deuterons [028] to penetrate the inner coating [096] and stop within the proton conductor [100]. In this embodiment the barrier [090] conducts said deuterons [028] from said inner vacuum [092] to said outer vacuum [094] while said electrical power plant [002] is generating output electrical power [082].
At a temperature of 400 degrees Celsius, proton conductors [100] readily conduct all isotopes of hydrogen, although the speed of migration through the proton conductor [100] is slower for higher mass isotopes. Due to the radial electric field generated by the voltage difference between the central electrode [008] and the outer coating [098], the protons [036], deuterons [028], and tritons [034] eventually reach the outer coating [098]. In an embodiment where the outer coating [098] is conductive, these nuclei will pick up electrons and become neutral atoms. Once the population density of neutral atoms is sufficiently high, these neutral atoms will form the hydrogen gas molecules H2, D2, T2, HD, HT, and DT.
In an embodiment where the outer coating [098] is at a temperature greater than or equal to 400 degrees Celsius, these molecules will diffuse through the coating a preferentially desorb into the outer vacuum [094]. The H2 diffusion coefficient through stainless steel is plotted in
K. Statement of Scope
In sum, it is important to recognize that this disclosure has been written as a thorough teaching rather than as a narrow dictate or disclaimer. Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment”, “an embodiment”, or “a specific embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment and not necessarily in all embodiments. Thus, respective appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment”, “in an embodiment”, or “in a specific embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics of any specific embodiment may be combined in any suitable manner with one or more other embodiments. It is to be understood that other variations and modifications of the embodiments described and illustrated herein are possible in light of the teachings herein and are to be considered as part of the spirit and scope of the present subject matter.
It will also be appreciated that one or more of the elements depicted in the drawings/figures can also be implemented in a more separated or integrated manner, or even removed or rendered as inoperable in certain cases, as is useful in accordance with a particular application. Additionally, any signal arrows in the drawings/Figures should be considered only as exemplary, and not limiting, unless otherwise specifically noted. Furthermore, the term “or” as used herein is generally intended to mean “and/or” unless otherwise indicated. Combinations of components or steps will also be considered as being noted, where terminology is foreseen as rendering the ability to separate or combine is unclear.
As used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, “a”, “an”, and “the” includes plural references unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Also, as used in the description herein and throughout the claims that follow, the meaning of “in” includes “in” and “on” unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Variation from amounts specified in this teaching can be “about” or “substantially,” so as to accommodate tolerance for such as acceptable manufacturing tolerances.
The foregoing description of illustrated embodiments, including what is described in the Abstract and the Modes, and all disclosure and the implicated industrial applicability, are not intended to be exhaustive or to limit the subject matter to the precise forms disclosed herein. While specific embodiments of, and examples for, the subject matter are described herein for teaching-by-illustration purposes only, various equivalent modifications are possible within the spirit and scope of the present subject matter, as those skilled in the relevant art will recognize and appreciate. As indicated, these modifications may be made in light of the foregoing description of illustrated embodiments and are to be included, again, within the true spirit and scope of the subject matter disclosed herein.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/070,587, Titled: “Mixed Nuclear Power Conversion,” filed Aug. 26, 2020. This U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 63/070,587 is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety as if fully restated herein.
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/US21/47625 | 8/25/2021 | WO |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 63070587 | Aug 2020 | US |
