Patent Application
20220320358
The present disclosure relates to solar cells and the fabrication of solar cells, and more particularly to the design and specification of lattice matched multijunction solar cells adapted for space missions.
Solar power from photovoltaic cells, also called solar cells, has been predominantly provided by silicon semiconductor technology. In the past several years, however, high-volume manufacturing of III-V compound semiconductor multijunction solar cells for space applications has accelerated the development of such technology. Compared to silicon, III-V compound semiconductor multijunction devices have greater energy conversion efficiencies and generally more radiation resistance, although they tend to be more complex to properly specify and manufacture. Typical commercial III-V compound semiconductor multijunction solar cells have energy efficiencies that exceed 29.5% under one sun, air mass 0 (AM0) illumination, whereas even the most efficient silicon technologies generally reach only about 18% efficiency under comparable conditions. The higher conversion efficiency of III-V compound semiconductor solar cells compared to silicon solar cells is in part based on the ability to achieve spectral splitting of the incident radiation through the use of a plurality of photovoltaic regions with different band gap energies, and accumulating the current from each of the regions.
In satellite and other space related applications, the size, mass and cost of a satellite power system are dependent on the power and energy conversion efficiency of the solar cells used. Putting it another way, the size of the payload and the availability of on-board services are proportional to the amount of power provided. Thus, as payloads use increasing amounts of power as they become more sophisticated, and missions and applications anticipated for five, ten, twenty or more years, the power-to-weight ratio and lifetime efficiency of a solar cell becomes increasingly more important, and there is increasing interest not only the amount of power provided at initial deployment, but over the entire service life of the satellite system, or in terms of a design specification, the amount of power provided at the “end of life” (EOL) which is affected by the radiation exposure of the solar cell over time in a space environment.
Typical III-V compound semiconductor solar cells are fabricated on a semiconductor wafer in vertical, multijunction structures or stacked sequence of solar subcells, each subcell formed with appropriate semiconductor layers and including a p-n photoactive junction. Each subcell is designed to convert photons over different spectral or wavelength bands to electrical current. After the sunlight impinges on the front of the solar cell, and photons pass through the subcells, with each subcell being designed for photons in a specific wavelength band. After passing through a subcell, the photons that are not absorbed and converted to electrical energy propagate to the next subcells, where such photons are intended to be captured and converted to electrical energy.
The individual solar cells or wafers are then disposed in horizontal arrays, with the individual solar cells connected together in an electrical series and/or parallel circuit. The shape and structure of an array, as well as the number of cells it contains, are determined in part by the desired output voltage and current needed by the payload or subcomponents of the payload, the amount of electrical storage capacity (batteries) on the spacecraft, and the power demands of the payloads during different orbital configurations.
A solar cell designed for use in a space vehicle (such as a satellite, space station, or an interplanetary mission vehicle), has a sequence of subcells with compositions and band gaps which have been optimized to achieve maximum energy conversion efficiency for the AM0 solar spectrum in space. The AM0 solar spectrum in space is notably different from the AM1.5 solar spectrum at the surface of the earth, and accordingly terrestrial solar cells are designed with subcell band gaps optimized for the AM1.5 solar spectrum.
There are substantially more rigorous qualification and acceptance testing protocols used in the manufacture of space solar cells to ensure that space solar cells can operate satisfactorily at the wide range of temperatures and temperature cycles encountered in space. These testing protocols include (i) high-temperature thermal vacuum bake-out; (ii) thermal cycling in vacuum (TVAC) or ambient pressure nitrogen atmosphere (APTC); and in some applications (iii) exposure to radiation equivalent to that which would be experienced in the space mission, and measuring the current and voltage produced by the cell and deriving cell performance data.
As used in this disclosure and claims, the term “space-qualified” shall mean that the electronic component (i.e., the solar cell) provides satisfactory operation under the high temperature and thermal cycling test protocols. The exemplary conditions for vacuum bake-out testing include exposure to a temperature of +100° C. to +135° C. (e.g., about +100° C., +110° C., +120° C., +125° C., +135° C.) for 2 hours to 24 hours, 48 hours, 72 hours, or 96 hours; and exemplary conditions for TVAC and/or APTC testing that include cycling between temperature extremes of −180° C. (e.g., about −180° C., −175° C., −170° C., −165° C., −150° C., −140° C., −128° C., −110° C., −100° C., −75° C., or −70° C.) to +145° C. (e.g., about +70° C., +80° C., +90° C., +100° C., +110° C., +120° C., +130° C., +135° C., or +145° C.) for 600 to 32,000 cycles (e.g., about 600, 700, 1500, 2000, 4000, 5000, 7500, 22000, 25000, or 32000 cycles), and in some space missions up to +180° C. See, for example, Fatemi et al., “Qualification and Production of Emcore ZTJ Solar Panels for Space Missions,” Photovoltaic Specialists Conference (PVSC), 2013 IEEE 39th (DOI: 10.1109/PVSC 2013 6745052). Such rigorous testing and qualifications are not generally applicable to terrestrial solar cells and solar cell arrays.
Conventionally, such measurements are made for the AM0 spectrum for “one-sun” illumination, but for PV systems which use optical concentration elements, such measurements may be made under concentrations of 2×, 100×, or 1000× or more.
The space solar cells and arrays experience a variety of complex environments in space missions, including the vastly different illumination levels and temperatures seen during normal earth orbiting missions, as well as even more challenging environments for deep space missions, operating at different distances from the sun, such as at 0.7, 1.0 and 3.0 AU (AU meaning astronomical units). The photovoltaic arrays also endure anomalous events from space environmental conditions, and unforeseen environmental interactions during exploration missions. Hence, electron and proton radiation exposure, collisions with space debris, and/or normal aging in the photovoltaic array and other systems could cause suboptimal operating conditions that degrade the overall power system performance, and may result in failures of one or more solar cells or array strings and consequent loss of power.
A further distinctive difference between space solar cell arrays and terrestrial solar cell arrays is that a space solar cell array utilizes welding and not soldering to provide robust electrical interconnections between the solar cells, while terrestrial solar cell arrays typically utilize solder for electrical interconnections. Welding is required in space solar cell arrays to provide the very robust electrical connections that can withstand the wide temperature ranges and temperature cycles encountered in space such as from −175° C. to +180° C. In contrast, solder joints are typically sufficient to survive the rather narrow temperature ranges (e.g., about −40° C. to about +50° C.) encountered with terrestrial solar cell arrays.
A further distinctive difference between space solar cell arrays and terrestrial solar cell arrays is that a space solar cell array utilizes silver-plated metal material for interconnection members, while terrestrial solar cells typically utilize copper wire for interconnects. In some embodiments, the interconnection member can be, for example, a metal plate. Useful metals include, for example, molybdenum; a nickel-cobalt ferrous alloy material designed to be compatible with the thermal expansion characteristics of borosilicate glass such as that available under the trade designation KOVAR from Carpenter Technology Corporation; a nickel iron alloy material having a uniquely low coefficient of thermal expansion available under the trade designation Invar, FeNi36, or 64FeNi; or the like.
An additional distinctive difference between space solar cell arrays and terrestrial solar cell arrays is that space solar cell arrays typically utilize an aluminum honeycomb panel for a substrate or mounting platform. In some embodiments, the aluminum honeycomb panel may include a carbon composite face sheet adjoining the solar cell array. In some embodiments, the face sheet may have a coefficient of thermal expansion (CTE) that substantially matches the CTE of the bottom germanium (Ge) layer of the solar cell that is attached to the face sheet. Substantially matching the CTE of the face sheet with the CTE of the Ge layer of the solar cell can enable the array to withstand the wide temperature ranges encountered in space without the solar cells cracking, delaminating, or experiencing other defects. Such precautions are generally unnecessary in terrestrial applications.
Thus, a further distinctive difference of a space solar cell from a terrestrial solar cell is that the space solar cell must include a cover glass over the semiconductor device to provide radiation resistant shielding from particles in the space environment which could damage the semiconductor material. The cover glass is typically a ceria doped borosilicate glass which is typically from three to six mils in thickness and attached by a transparent adhesive to the solar cell.
In summary, it is evident that the differences in design, materials, and configurations between a space-qualified III-V compound semiconductor solar cell and subassemblies and arrays of such solar cells, on the one hand, and silicon solar cells or other photovoltaic devices used in terrestrial applications, on the other hand, are so substantial that prior teachings associated with silicon or other terrestrial photovoltaic system are simply unsuitable and have no applicability to the design configuration of space-qualified solar cells and arrays. Indeed, the design and configuration of components adapted for terrestrial use with its modest temperature ranges and cycle times often teach away from the highly demanding design requirements for space-qualified solar cells and arrays and their associated components.
The assembly of individual solar cells together with electrical interconnects and the cover glass form a so-called “CIC” (Cell-Interconnected-Cover glass) assembly, which are then typically electrically connected to form an array of series-connected solar cells. The solar cells used in many arrays often have a substantial size; for example, in the case of the single standard substantially “square” solar cell trimmed from a 100 mm wafer with cropped corners, the solar cell can have a side length of seven cm or more.
The radiation hardness of a solar cell is defined as how well the cell performs after exposure to the electron or proton particle radiation which is a characteristic of the space environment. A standard metric is the ratio of the end of life performance (or efficiency) divided by the beginning of life performance (EOL/BOL) of the solar cell. The EOL performance is the cell performance parameter after exposure of that test solar cell to a given fluence of electrons or protons (which may be different for different space missions or orbits). The BOL performance is the performance parameter prior to exposure to the particle radiation.
Charged particles in space could lead to damage to solar cell structures, and in some cases, dangerously high voltage being established across individual devices or conductors in the solar array. These large voltages can lead to catastrophic electrostatic discharging (ESD) events. Traditionally for ESD protection the backside of a solar array may be painted with a conductive coating layer to ground the array to the space plasma, or one may use a honeycomb patterned metal panel which mounts the solar cells and incidentally protects the solar cells from backside radiation.
The radiation hardness of the semiconductor material of the solar cell itself is primarily dependent on a solar cell's minority carrier diffusion length (Lmin) in the base region of the solar cell (the term “base” region referring to the p-type base semiconductor region disposed directly adjacent to an n-type “emitter” semiconductor region, the boundary of which establishes the p-n photovoltaic junction). The less degraded the parameter Lmin is after exposure to particle radiation, the less the solar cell performance will be reduced. A number of strategies have been used to either improve Lmin, or make the solar cell less sensitive to Lmin reductions. Improving Lmin has largely involved including a gradation in dopant elements in the semiconductor base layer of the subcells so as to create an electric field to direct minority carriers to the junction of the subcell, thereby effectively increasing Lmin. The effectively longer Lmin will improve the cell performance, even after the particle radiation exposure. Making the cell less sensitive to Lin reductions has involved increasing the optical absorption of the base layer such that thinner layers of the base can be used to absorb the same amount of incoming optical radiation.
Another consideration in connection with the manufacture of space solar cell arrays is that conventionally, solar cells have been arranged on a support and interconnected using a substantial amount of manual labor. For example, first individual CICs are produced with each interconnect individually welded to the solar cell, and each cover glass individually mounted. Then, these CICs are connected in series to form strings, generally in a substantially manual manner, including the welding steps from CIC to CIC. Then, these strings are applied to a panel substrate and electrically interconnected in a process that includes the application of adhesive, wiring, etc. All of this has traditionally been carried out in a manual and substantially artisanal manner.
The energy conversion efficiency of multijunction solar cells is affected by such factors as the number of subcells, the thickness of each subcell, the composition and doping of each active layer in a subcell, and the consequential band structure, electron energy levels, conduction, and absorption of each subcell, as well as the effect of its exposure to radiation in the ambient environment over time. The identification and specification of such design parameters is a non-trivial engineering undertaking, and would vary depending upon the specific space mission and customer design requirements. Since the power output is a function of both the voltage and the current produced by a subcell, a simplistic view may seek to maximize both parameters in a subcell by increasing a constituent element, or the doping level, to achieve that effect. However, in reality, changing a material parameter that increases the voltage may result in a decrease in current, and therefore a lower power output. Such material design parameters are interdependent and interact in complex and often unpredictable ways, and for that reason are not “result effective” variables that those skilled in the art confronted with complex design specifications and practical operational considerations can easily adjust to optimize performance.
Moreover, the current (or more precisely, the short circuit current density Jsc) and the voltage (or more precisely, the open circuit voltage Voc) are not the only factors that determine the power output of a solar cell. In addition to the power being a function of the short circuit density (Jsc), and the open circuit voltage (Voc), the output power is actually computed as the product of Voc and Jsc, and a Fill Factor (FF). As might be anticipated, the Fill Factor parameter is not a constant, but in fact may vary at a value between 0.5 and somewhat over 0.85 for different arrangements of elemental compositions, subcell thickness, and the dopant level and profile. Although the various electrical contributions to the Fill Factor such as series resistance, shunt resistance, and ideality (a measure of how closely the semiconductor diode follows the ideal diode equation) may be theoretically understood, from a practical perspective the actual Fill Factor of a given subcell cannot always be predicted, and the effect of making an incremental change in composition or band gap of a layer may have unanticipated consequences and effects on the solar subcell semiconductor material, and therefore an unrecognized or unappreciated effect on the Fill Factor. Stated another way, an attempt to maximize power by varying a composition of a subcell layer to increase the Voc or Jsc or both of that subcell, may in fact not result in high power, since although the product Voc and Jsc may increase, the FF may decrease and the resulting power also decrease. Thus, the Voc and Jsc parameters, either alone or in combination, are not necessarily “result effective” variables that those skilled in the art confronted with complex design specifications and practical operational considerations can easily adjust to optimize performance.
Furthermore, the fact that the short circuit current density (Jsc), the open circuit voltage (Voc), and the fill factor (FF), are affected by the slightest change in such design variables, the purity or quality of the chemical pre-cursors, or the specific process flow and fabrication equipment used, and such considerations further complicates the proper specification of design parameters and predicting the efficiency of a proposed design which may appear “on paper” to be advantageous.
It must be further emphasized that in addition to process and equipment variability, the “fine tuning” of minute changes in the composition, band gaps, thickness, and doping of every layer in the arrangement has critical effect on electrical properties such as the open circuit voltage (Voc) and ultimately on the power output and efficiency of the solar cell.
To illustrate the practical effect, consider a design change that results in a small change in the Voc of an active layer in the amount of 0.01 volts, for example changing the Voc from 2.72 to 2.73 volts. Assuming all else is equal and does not change, such a relatively small incremental increase in voltage would typically result in an increase of solar cell efficiency from 29.73% to 29.84% for a triple junction solar cell, which would be regarded as a substantial and significant improvement that would justify implementation of such design change.
For a single junction GaAs subcell in a triple junction device, a change in Voc from 1.00 to 1.01 volts (everything else being the same) would increase the efficiency of that junction from 10.29% to 10.39%, about a 1% relative increase. If it were a single junction stand-alone solar cell, the efficiency would go from 20.58% to 20.78%, still about a 1% relative improvement in efficiency.
Present day commercial production processes are able to define and establish band gap values of epitaxially deposited layers as precisely as 0.01 eV, so such “fine tuning” of compositions and consequential open circuit voltage results are well within the range of operational production specifications for commercial products.
Another important mechanical or structural consideration in the choice of semiconductor layers for a solar cell is the desirability of the adjacent layers of semiconductor materials in the solar cell, i.e. each layer of crystalline semiconductor material that is deposited and grown to form a solar subcell, have similar or substantially similar crystal lattice constants or parameters.
Here again there are trade-offs between including specific elements in the composition of a layer which may result in improved voltage associated with such subcell and therefore potentially a greater power output, and deviation from exact crystal lattice matching with adjoining layers as a consequence of including such elements in the layer which may result in a higher probability of defects, and therefore lower manufacturing yield.
In that connection, it should be noted that there is no strict definition of what is understood to mean two adjacent layers are “lattice matched” or “lattice mismatched”. For purposes in this disclosure, “lattice mismatched” refers to two adjacently disposed materials or layers (with thicknesses of greater than 100 nm) having in-plane lattice constants of the materials in their fully relaxed state differing from one another by less than 0.02% in lattice constant. (Applicant notes that this definition is considerably more stringent than that proposed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,962,993, which suggests less than 0.6% lattice constant difference as defining “lattice mismatched” layers).
In satellite and other space related applications, the size, mass and cost of a satellite power system are dependent on the power and energy conversion efficiency of the solar cells used. Putting it another way, the size of the payload and the availability of on-board services are proportional to the amount of power provided. Thus, as payloads use increasing amounts of power as they become more sophisticated, and missions and applications anticipated for five, ten, twenty or more years, the power-to-weight ratio and lifetime efficiency of a solar cell becomes increasingly more important, and there is increasing interest not only the amount of power provided at initial deployment, but over the entire service life of the satellite system, or in terms of a design specification, the amount of power provided at the “end of life” (EOL) which is affected by the radiation exposure of the solar cell over time in a space environment.
Typical III-V compound semiconductor solar cells are fabricated on a semiconductor wafer in vertical, multijunction structures or stacked sequence of solar subcells, each subcell formed with appropriate semiconductor layers and including a p-n photoactive junction. Each subcell is designed to convert photons over different spectral or wavelength bands to electrical current. After the sunlight impinges on the front of the solar cell, and photons pass through the subcells, with each subcell being designed for photons in a specific wavelength band. After passing through a subcell, the photons that are not absorbed and converted to electrical energy propagate to the next subcells, where such photons are intended to be captured and converted to electrical energy.
The energy conversion efficiency of multijunction solar cells is affected by such factors as the number of subcells, the thickness of each subcell, the composition and doping of each active layer in a subcell, and the consequential band structure, electron energy levels, conduction, and absorption of each subcell, as well as the effect of its exposure to radiation in the ambient environment over time. The identification and specification of such design parameters is a non-trivial engineering undertaking, and would vary depending upon the specific space mission and customer design requirements. Since the power output is a function of both the voltage and the current produced by a subcell, a simplistic view may seek to maximize both parameters in a subcell by increasing a constituent element, or the doping level, to achieve that effect. However, in reality, changing a material parameter that increases the voltage may result in a decrease in current, and therefore a lower power output. Such material design parameters are interdependent and interact in complex and often unpredictable ways, and for that reason are not “result effective” variables that those skilled in the art confronted with complex design specifications and practical operational considerations can easily adjust to optimize performance. Electrical properties such as the short circuit current density (Jsc), the open circuit voltage (Voc), and the fill factor (FF), which determine the efficiency and power output of the solar cell, are affected by the slightest change in such design variables, and as noted above, to further complicate the calculus, such variables and resulting properties also vary, in a non-uniform manner, over time (i.e. during the operational life of the system) due to exposure to radiation during space missions.
Another important mechanical or structural consideration in the choice of semiconductor layers for a solar cell is the desirability of the adjacent layers of semiconductor materials in the solar cell, i.e. each layer of crystalline semiconductor material that is deposited and grown to form a solar subcell, have similar crystal lattice constants or parameters.
It is an object of the present disclosure to provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for space applications by implementing a shift in the location of the junction in one or more solar subcells in the solar cell.
It is another object of the present disclosure to provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for space applications by specifying the width and the location of the depletion region in one or more solar subcells in the solar cell.
It is another object of the present disclosure to provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for space applications by adjusting the doping in the base and emitter layers in one or more solar subcells in the solar cell which will define the location of the junction and the depletion region in that subcell.
It is another object of the present disclosure to provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for space applications by defining the ratio of the thickness of the emitter and base layers in one or more subcells in the solar cell.
It is another object of the present disclosure to provide increased photoconversion efficiency in a multijunction solar cell for space applications by shifting the location of the junction in one or more solar subcells in the solar cell to a depth below the surface of the emitter which is substantially below the level which is customary in standard commercial solar cells.
It is another object of the present disclosure to optimize the efficiency of a multijunction solar cell for operation in a space radiation environment over an extended period of time, often referred to as the “end of life”.
It is another object of the present disclosure to provide a multijunction solar cell in which the efficiency is optimized for operation in a 1200 km LEO satellite orbit;
It is another object of the present invention to increase the collection probability in a multijunction solar cell by a radiation environment at the end-of-life.
Some implementations of the present disclosure may incorporate or implement fewer of the aspects and features noted in the foregoing objects.
All ranges of numerical parameters set forth in this disclosure are to be understood to encompass any and all subranges or “intermediate generalizations” subsumed herein. For example, a stated range of “1.0 to 2.0 eV” for a band gap value should be considered to include any and all subranges beginning with a minimum value of 1.0 eV or more and ending with a maximum value of 2.0 eV or less, e.g., 1.0 to 2.0, or 1.3 to 1.4, or 1.5 to 1.9 eV.
Briefly, and in general terms, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell comprising a multijunction solar cell comprising: an upper first solar subcell composed of InGaP and having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a first band gap and a thickness in the range of 350-500 nm and a base layer of p conductivity type and a thickness in the range of 100-1000 nm; and a second solar subcell disposed adjacent to and below the upper first solar subcell composed of (In)GaAs having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a second band gap less than the first band gap and a thickness in the range of 350 to 500 nm and a base layer of p conductivity type and a thickness in the range of 100-2500 nm.
In some embodiments, the doping in the upper first solar subcell is graded in doping in the base layer that increases from 5×1015 free carriers per cubic centimeter adjacent the photoelectric junction to 1×1018 free carriers per cubic centimeter adjacent to an adjoining layer at the rear of the base layer, and in the emitter layer having a gradation in doping that decreases from approximately 1×1018 free carriers per cubic centimeter in the region immediately adjacent an adjoining layer at the top of the emitter layer to 1×1016 free carriers per cubic centimeter in the region adjacent to the photoelectric junction.
In some embodiments, in the upper first solar subcell the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer is in the range of 5:1 to 1:4.
In some embodiments, the upper first solar subcell is between 0.3 and 0.8 microns in thickness, and the second solar subcell is between 1.5 and 3.0 microns in thickness.
In some embodiments, the second solar subcell is a heterojunction subcell with a (In)GaAs emitter layer and a InGaP base layer.
In some embodiments, in the second solar subcell the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer is in the range of 1:2 to 1:5.
In some embodiments, the band gap in the depletion region of the upper first solar subcell is greater than that of the band gap in the emitter layer and the base layer of said subcell.
In some embodiments, the upper first solar subcell has a first band gap in the range of 2.0 to 2.2 eV; and the second solar subcell includes an emitter layer composed of indium gallium phosphide or aluminum indium gallium arsenide, and a base layer composed of aluminum indium gallium arsenide and having a second band gap in the range of approximately 1.55 to 1.8 eV and being lattice matched with the upper first solar subcell; wherein the emitter and base layers of the second solar subcell form a photoelectric junction.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell comprising: an upper first solar subcell composed of InGaP and having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a first band gap and a thickness in the range of 350-500 nm and a base layer of p conductivity type and a thickness in the range of 100-1000 nm; a second solar subcell disposed adjacent to and below the upper first solar subcell composed of (In)GaAs having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a second band gap less than the first band gap and a thickness in the range of 350 to 500 nm and a base layer of p conductivity type and a thickness in the range of 100-2500 nm; and a third solar subcell disposed adjacent to and below the second solar subcell composed of (In)GaAs having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a second band gap less than the first band gap and a thickness in the range of 350 to 500 nm and a base layer of p conductivity type and a thickness in the range of 100-2500 nm.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell wherein, in the upper first solar subcell the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer is in the range of 5:1 to 1:4, and in the second, third, and/or lower solar subcells the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer is in the range of 1:2 to 1:5.
In some embodiments, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer in the second, third, and/or lower subcells is approximately 1:2.
In another aspect, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter and base layers of the subcell are designed to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter and base layers of the subcell are designed to shift the location of the junction and/or the width of the depletion region is designed to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter and base layers of the subcell are designed to maximize the quantum efficiency of the subcell after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
Is another aspect, the location of the junction in the emitter and base layers of the subcell is designed to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the shift in the location of the junction and the width of the depletion region is designed to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the location of the junction in the emitter and base layers of the subcell is designed to maximize the quantum efficiency of the subcell after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the doping in the emitter and base layers of the subcell is designed to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the doping in the emitter and base layers of the subcell are designed to shift the location and/or the width of the depletion region to maximize the collection probability after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the doping in the emitter and base layers of the subcell is designed to maximize the quantum efficiency of the subcell after radiation exposure after a specified time period, or at the “end-of-life”.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell wherein the position of the junction in the second and/or lower subcells is selected to optimize the current production by the subcell after exposure to a predetermined amount of radiation, i.e., at a specific “end-of-life” time period by adjusting the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer in that subcell.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell wherein the position of the junction in the second and/or lower subcells is selected to optimize the collection probability at the junction by the subcell after exposure to a predetermined amount of radiation i.e. at a specific “end-of-life” time period by adjusting the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer in that subcell.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a multijunction solar cell comprising: an upper first solar subcell having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a first band gap and a base layer of p conductivity type with the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer being in the range of 5:1 to 1:4; a second solar subcell disposed adjacent to and below the upper first solar subcell having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a second band gap less than the first band gap and a base layer of p conductivity type with the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer being in the range of 1:2 to 1:5; a third solar subcell disposed adjacent to and below the second solar subcell having an emitter layer of n+ conductivity type with a third band gap less than the second band gap and the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer is in the range of 1:2 to 1:5.
In some embodiments, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer in the second solar subcell, and one or more of the subcells disposed below the second solar subcell, is in the range of 1:2 to 1:5.
In some embodiments, the solar cell is (i) an upright four junction solar cell and the average band gap of all four subcells is equal to or greater than 1.35 eV where the average band gap of the solar cell is the numerical average of the lowest band gap material used in each subcell; or (ii) an inverted metamorphic four or five junction solar cell.
In some embodiments, the upper first solar subcell has a band gap in the range of 2.0 to 2.15, the second solar subcell has a band gap in the range of 1.65 to 1.73 eV; and the third solar subcell has a band gap in the range of 1.15 to 1.2 eV.
In some embodiments, there further comprises a distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layer adjacent to and disposed between the third and the fourth solar subcells and arranged so that light can enter and pass through the third solar subcell and at least a portion of which can be reflected back into the third solar subcell by the DBR layer; and is composed of a plurality of alternating layers of lattice matched materials with discontinuities in their respective indices of refraction; and wherein the difference in refractive indices between alternating layers is maximized in order to minimize the number of periods required to achieve a given reflectivity, and the thickness and refractive index of each period determines the stop band and its limiting wavelength.
In some embodiments, the DBR layer includes a first DBR layer composed of a plurality of p type InzAlxGa1-x-zAs layers, and a second DBR layer disposed over the first DBR layer and composed of a plurality of p type InwAlyGa1-y-wAs layers, where 0<w<1, 0<x<1, 0<y<1, 0<z<1 and y is greater than x.
In some embodiments, the fourth solar subcell is lattice mismatched with respect to the third solar subcell.
In some embodiments, the top subcell is composed of a base layer of (InxGa1-x)1-yAlyP where x is 0.505, and y is 0.142, corresponding to a band gap of 2.10 eV, and an emitter layer of (InxGa1-x)1-yAlyP where x is 0.505, and y is 0.107, corresponding to a band gap of 2.05 eV.
In some embodiments, there further comprises a tunnel diode disposed over the fourth subcell, and intermediate layer disposed between the third subcell and the tunnel diode wherein the intermediate layer is compositionally graded to lattice match the third solar subcell on one side and the tunnel diode on the other side and is composed of any of the As, P, N, Sb based III-V compound semiconductors subject to the constraints of having the in-plane lattice parameter greater than or equal to that of the third solar subcell and different than that of the tunnel diode, and having a band gap energy greater than that of the fourth solar subcell.
In some embodiments, the efficiency of the solar cell is optimized for an operating temperature of approximately 47° C.
In another aspect, the present disclosure provides a method of manufacturing a multijunction solar cell comprising: providing a semiconductor growth substrate; and depositing a first sequence of layers of semiconductor material forming at least a first and a second solar subcell on the growth substrate; wherein the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer in at least one of the second or lower solar subcells is in the range between 1:2 and 1:5.
In some embodiments, additional layer(s) may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.
Some implementations of the present disclosure may incorporate or implement fewer of the aspects and features noted in the foregoing summaries.
Additional aspects, advantages, and novel features of the present disclosure will become apparent to those skilled in the art from this disclosure, including the following detailed description as well as by practice of the disclosure. While the disclosure is described below with reference to preferred embodiments, it should be understood that the disclosure is not limited thereto. Those of ordinary skill in the art having access to the teachings herein will recognize additional applications, modifications and embodiments in other fields, which are within the scope of the disclosure as disclosed and claimed herein and with respect to which the disclosure could be of utility.
The present disclosure will be better and more fully appreciated by reference to the following detailed description when considered in conjunction with the accompanying drawings, wherein:
“III-V compound semiconductor” refers to a compound semiconductor formed using at least one elements from group III of the periodic table and at least one element from group V of the periodic table. III-V compound semiconductors include binary, tertiary and quaternary compounds. Group III includes boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In) and thallium (T). Group V includes nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb) and bismuth (Bi).
“Band gap” refers to an energy difference (e.g., in electron volts (eV)) separating the top of the valence band and the bottom of the conduction band of a semiconductor material.
“Beginning of Life (BOL)” refers to the time at which a photovoltaic power system is initially deployed in operation.
“Bottom subcell” refers to the subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is furthest from the primary light source for the solar cell.
“Compound semiconductor” refers to a semiconductor formed using two or more chemical elements.
“Current density” refers to the short circuit current density Jsc through a solar subcell through a given planar area, or volume, of semiconductor material constituting the solar subcell.
“Deposited”, with respect to a layer of semiconductor material, refers to a layer of material which is epitaxially grown over another semiconductor layer.
“End of Life (EOL)” refers to a predetermined time or times after the Beginning of Life, during which the photovoltaic power system has been deployed and has been operational. The EOL time or times may, for example, be specified by the customer as part of the required technical performance specifications of the photovoltaic power system to allow the solar cell designer to define the solar cell subcells and sublayer compositions of the solar cell to meet the technical performance requirement at the specified time or times, in addition to other design objectives. The terminology “EOL” is not meant to suggest that the photovoltaic power system is not operational or does not produce power after the EOL time.
“Graded interlayer” (or “grading interlayer”)—see “metamorphic layer”.
“Inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cell” or “IMM solar cell” refers to a solar cell in which the subcells are deposited or grown on a substrate in a “reverse” sequence such that the higher band gap subcells, which would normally be the “top” subcells facing the solar radiation in the final deployment configuration, are deposited or grown on a growth substrate prior to depositing or growing the lower band gap subcells.
“Layer” refers to a relatively planar sheet or thickness of semiconductor or other material. The layer may be deposited or grown, e.g., by epitaxial or other techniques.
“Lattice mismatched” refers to two adjacently disposed materials or layers (with thicknesses of greater than 100 nm) having in-plane lattice constants of the materials in their fully relaxed state differing from one another by less than 0.02% in lattice constant. (Applicant expressly adopts this definition for the purpose of this disclosure, and notes that this definition is considerably more stringent than that proposed, for example, in U.S. Pat. No. 8,962,993, which suggests less than 0.6% lattice constant difference).
“Metamorphic layer” or “graded interlayer” refers to a layer that achieves a gradual transition in lattice constant generally throughout its thickness in a semiconductor structure.
“Middle subcell” refers to a subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is neither a Top Subcell (as defined herein) nor a Bottom Subcell (as defined herein).
“Short circuit current (Isc)” refers to the amount of electrical current through a solar cell or solar subcell when the voltage across the solar cell is zero volts, as represented and measured, for example, in units of milliamps.
“Short circuit current density”—see “current density”.
“Solar cell” refers to an electronic device operable to convert the energy of light directly into electricity by the photovoltaic effect.
“Solar cell assembly” refers to two or more solar cell subassemblies interconnected electrically with one another.
“Solar cell subassembly” refers to a stacked sequence of layers including one or more solar subcells.
“Solar subcell” refers to a stacked sequence of layers including a p-n photoactive junction composed of semiconductor materials. A solar subcell is designed to convert photons over different spectral or wavelength bands to electrical current.
“Substantially current matched” refers to the short circuit current through adjacent solar subcells being substantially identical (i.e. within plus or minus 1%).
“Top subcell” or “upper subcell” refers to the subcell in a multijunction solar cell which is closest to the primary light source for the solar cell.
“ZTJ” refers to the product designation of a commercially available SolAero Technologies Corp. triple junction solar cell.
Details of the present invention will now be described including exemplary aspects and embodiments thereof. Referring to the drawings and the following description, like reference numbers are used to identify like or functionally similar elements, and are intended to illustrate major features of exemplary embodiments in a highly simplified diagrammatic manner. Moreover, the drawings are not intended to depict every feature of the actual embodiment nor the relative dimensions of the depicted elements, and are not drawn to scale.
A variety of different features of multijunction solar cells (as well as inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cells) are disclosed in the related applications noted above. Some, many or all of such features may be included in the structures and processes associated with the inverted multijunction solar cells of the present disclosure.
Prior to discussing the specific embodiments of the present disclosure, a brief discussion of some of the issues associated with the design of multijunction solar cells, and the context of the composition or deposition of various specific layers in embodiments of the product as specified and defined by Applicant is in order.
There are a multitude of properties that should be considered in specifying and selecting the composition of, inter alia, a specific semiconductor layer, the back metal layer, the adhesive or bonding material, or the composition of the supporting material for mounting a solar cell thereon. For example, some of the properties that should be considered when selecting a particular layer or material are electrical properties (e.g. conductivity), optical properties (e.g., band gap, absorbance and reflectance), structural properties (e.g., thickness, strength, flexibility, Young's modulus, etc.), chemical properties (e.g., growth rates, the “sticking coefficient” or ability of one layer to adhere to another, stability of dopants and constituent materials with respect to adjacent layers and subsequent processes, etc.), thermal properties (e.g., thermal stability under temperature changes, coefficient of thermal expansion), and manufacturability (e.g., availability of materials, process complexity, process variability and tolerances, reproducibility of results over high volume, reliability and quality control issues).
In view of the trade-offs among these properties, it is not always evident that the selection of a material based on one of its characteristic properties is always or typically “the best” or “optimum” from a commercial standpoint or for Applicant's purposes. For example, theoretical studies may suggest the use of a quaternary material with a certain band gap for a particular subcell would be the optimum choice for that subcell layer based on fundamental semiconductor physics. As an example, the teachings of academic papers and related proposals for the design of very high efficiency (over 40%) solar cells may therefore suggest that a solar cell designer specify the use of a quaternary material (e.g., InGaAsP) for the active layer of a subcell. A few such devices may actually be fabricated by other researchers, efficiency measurements made, and the results published as an example of the ability of such researchers to advance the progress of science by increasing the demonstrated efficiency of a compound semiconductor multijunction solar cell. Although such experiments and publications are of “academic” interest, from the practical perspective of the Applicants in designing a compound semiconductor multijunction solar cell to be produced in high volume at reasonable cost and subject to manufacturing tolerances and variability inherent in the production processes, such an “optimum” design from an academic perspective is not necessarily the most desirable design in practice, and the teachings of such studies more likely than not point in the wrong direction and lead away from the proper design direction. Stated another way, such references may actually “teach away” from Applicant's research efforts and direction and the ultimate solar cell design proposed by the Applicants.
In view of the foregoing, it is further evident that the identification of one particular constituent element (e.g. indium, or aluminum) in a particular subcell, or the thickness, band gap, doping, or other characteristic of the incorporation of that material in a particular subcell, is not a single “result effective variable” that one skilled in the art can simply specify and incrementally adjust to a particular level and thereby increase the power output and efficiency of a solar cell.
Even when it is known that particular variables have an impact on electrical, optical, chemical, thermal or other characteristics, the nature of the impact often cannot be predicted with much accuracy, particularly when the variables interact in complex ways, leading to unexpected results and unintended consequences. Thus, significant trial and error, which may include the fabrication and evaluative testing of many prototype devices, often over a period of time of months if not years, is required to determine whether a proposed structure with layers of particular compositions, actually will operate as intended, let alone whether it can be fabricated in a reproducible high volume manner within the manufacturing tolerances and variability inherent in the production process, and necessary for the design of a commercially viable device.
Furthermore, as in the case here, where multiple variables interact in unpredictable ways, the proper choice of the combination of variables can produce new and unexpected results, and constitute an “inventive step”.
The efficiency of a solar cell is not a simple linear algebraic equation as a function of the amount of gallium or aluminum or other element in a particular layer. The growth of each of the epitaxial layers of a solar cell in a reactor is a non-equilibrium thermodynamic process with dynamically changing spatial and temporal boundary conditions that is not readily or predictably modeled. The formulation and solution of the relevant simultaneous partial differential equations covering such processes are not within the ambit of those of ordinary skill in the art in the field of solar cell design.
More specifically, the present disclosure intends to provide a relatively simple and reproducible technique that is suitable for use in a high volume production environment in which various semiconductor layers are grown on a growth substrate in an MOCVD reactor, and subsequent processing steps are defined and selected to minimize any physical damage to the quality of the deposited layers, thereby ensuring a relatively high yield of operable solar cells meeting specifications at the conclusion of the fabrication processes.
The lattice constants and electrical properties of the layers in the semiconductor structure are preferably controlled by specification of appropriate reactor growth temperatures and times, and by use of appropriate chemical composition and dopants. The use of a deposition method, such as Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE), Organo Metallic Vapor Phase Epitaxy (OMVPE), Metal Organic Chemical Vapor Deposition (MOCVD), or other vapor deposition methods for the growth may enable the layers in the monolithic semiconductor structure forming the cell to be grown with the required thickness, elemental composition, dopant concentration and grading and conductivity type, and are within the scope of the present disclosure.
The present disclosure is in one embodiment directed to a growth process using a metal organic chemical vapor deposition (MOCVD) process in a standard, commercially available reactor suitable for high volume production. Other embodiments may use other growth technique, such as MBE. More particularly, regardless of the growth technique, the present disclosure is directed to the materials and fabrication steps that are particularly suitable for producing commercially viable multijunction solar cells or inverted metamorphic multijunction solar cells using commercially available equipment and established high-volume fabrication processes, as contrasted with merely academic expositions of laboratory or experimental results.
Some comments about MOCVD processes used in one embodiment are in order here.
It should be noted that the layers of a certain target composition in a semiconductor structure grown in an MOCVD process are inherently physically different than the layers of an identical target composition grown by another process, e.g. Molecular Beam Epitaxy (MBE). The material quality (i.e., morphology, stoichiometry, number and location of lattice traps, impurities, and other lattice defects) of an epitaxial layer in a semiconductor structure is different depending upon the process used to grow the layer, as well as the process parameters associated with the growth. MOCVD is inherently a chemical reaction process, while MBE is a physical deposition process. The chemicals used in the MOCVD process are present in the MOCVD reactor and interact with the wafers in the reactor, and affect the composition, doping, and other physical, optical and electrical characteristics of the material. For example, the precursor gases used in an MOCVD reactor (e.g. hydrogen) are incorporated into the resulting processed wafer material, and have certain identifiable electro-optical consequences which are more advantageous in certain specific applications of the semiconductor structure, such as in photoelectric conversion in structures designed as solar cells. Such high order effects of processing technology do result in relatively minute but actually observable differences in the material quality grown or deposited according to one process technique compared to another. Thus, devices fabricated at least in part using an MOCVD reactor or using a MOCVD process have inherent different physical material characteristics, which may have an advantageous effect over the identical target material deposited using alternative processes.
Reference throughout this specification to “one embodiment” or “an embodiment” means that a particular feature, structure, or characteristic described in connection with the embodiment is included in at least one embodiment of the present invention. Thus, the appearances of the phrases “in one embodiment” or “in an embodiment” in various places throughout this specification are not necessarily all referring to the same embodiment. Furthermore, the particular features, structures, or characteristics may be combined in any suitable manner in one or more embodiments.
The present disclosure is directed to improving the efficiency at the “end of life” of a mutijunction solar cell which has been exposed to a radiation environment that is typical of certain earth orbits or other space missions. In particular, the present disclosure proposes a design methodology that is related to positioning the location and characteristics of the junction and its associated depletion region in certain of the subcells of the multijunction solar cell to optimize the collection probability in that subcell after radiation exposure, as opposed to optimization at the beginning of life.
Such design methodology is concerned with a synergistic interplay of a number of factors, including the thickness of the subcell, the ratio of the thickness of the emitter layer to the thickness of the base layer, the band gap of the deletion region compared to the band gap of the emitter and base layers, the level of doping in the emitter and base layers, and the characteristics of the subcell relative to the subcell directly above it.
Thus, in one aspect the present disclosure is directed to a method of fabricating a multijunction solar cell for deployment in space in AM0 spectra in a specific earth orbit characterized by a predetermined temperature and radiation environment comprising: providing a predetermined time and temperature range (in the range of 400 to 1000 Centigrade) after initial deployment, such time being at least one year and in the range of one to twenty-five years; determining the amount of radiation experienced by the solar cell after deployment at the predetermined time in the specific earth orbit after deployment; simulating the effect of such radiation and temperature on a plurality of upper first, second and third solar subcell candidates for implementation by a computer program; and identifying the composition, thickness, and band gaps of at least the upper first, second and third subcells, and the location and band gap of the depletion layer within such subcells, and the doping within such subcells, that maximizes the collection probability and thereby the efficiency of the solar cell at that predetermined time.
In another aspect the present disclosure is directed to a multijunction solar cell with a specified composition, thickness, and band gaps of at least the upper first, second and third subcells, the location and band gap of the depletion layer within such subcells, and the doping within such subcells, that maximizes the collection probability and thereby the efficiency of the solar cell at that predetermined end of life time.
The following
As shown in the illustrated example of
The left hand side of the Figure depicts a first graph depicting the band gap of the layers of the solar cell 100, a second graph depicting the level of doping (measured in free carriers per cubic centimeter, ranging from 1×1016 to 1×1018) in each layer, and a third graph depicting the lattice constant (i.e. being approximately identical for each layer).
On the right hand side of the Figure, the thickness of the emitter layer 102 of subcell A is designated with letter E, and the thickness of the base layer 104 of subcell A is designated with letter F.
In a solar cell of the prior art, the ratio E:F may be in the range of 1:4 to 1:10, depending upon the configuration of the solar cell. A more common or typical range may be 1:8 for a triple junction solar cell.
On the right hand side of the Figure, the thickness of the emitter layer 108 of subcell B is designated with letter G, and the thickness of the base layer 110 of subcell B is designated with letter H.
In a solar cell of the prior art, the ratio G:H may be in the range of 1:15 to 1:40 depending upon the configuration of the solar cell. A more common or typical range may be 1:20.
As shown in the illustrated example of
The left hand side of the Figure depicts a first graph depicting the band gap of the layers of the solar cell 200, a second graph depicting the level of doping (measured in free carriers per cubic centimeter, ranging from 5×1015 to 1×1020) in each layer, and a third graph depicting the lattice constant (i.e. being approximately identical for each layer).
On the right hand side of the Figure, the thickness of the emitter layer 202 of subcell C is designated with letter I, and the thickness of the base layer 204 of subcell C is designated with letter J.
In a solar cell of the present disclosure, the ratio I:J may be in the range of 5:1 to 1:4. A more common or typical range may be 2:1 to 1:2.
On the right hand side of the Figure, the thickness of the emitter layer 208 of subcell D is designated with letter K, and the thickness of the base layer 210 of subcell D is designated with letter L.
In a solar cell of the prior art, the ratio K:L may be in the range of 1:2 to 1:5. A more common or typical range may be 1:3 to 1:4.
As shown in the illustrated example of
A first alpha layer 405, preferably composed of n-type InGaP or other suitable material, is deposited over the tunnel diode 403/404, to a thickness of between 0.25 and 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the bottom subcell D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell C, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).
As shown in the illustrated example of
A first alpha layer 405, preferably composed of n-type InGaP or other suitable material, is deposited over the tunnel diode 403/404, to a thickness of between 0.25 and 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the bottom subcell D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell C, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).
A metamorphic layer (or graded interlayer) 406 is deposited over the alpha layer 405 using a surfactant. Layer 406 is preferably a compositionally step-graded series of InGaAlAs layers, preferably with monotonically changing lattice constant, so as to achieve a gradual transition in lattice constant in the semiconductor structure from subcell D to subcell C while minimizing threading dislocations from occurring. The band gap of layer 406 is constant throughout its thickness, in the range of 1.22 to 1.54 eV, or otherwise consistent with a value slightly greater than the band gap of the middle subcell C. One embodiment of the graded interlayer may also be expressed as being composed of InxGa1-xAs, 0<x<1, 0<y<1, with x and y selected such that the band gap of the interlayer remains constant at approximately 1.22 to 1.54 eV or other appropriate band gap.
In the surfactant assisted growth of the metamorphic layer 406, a suitable chemical element is introduced into the reactor during the growth of layer 406 to improve the surface characteristics of the layer. In one embodiment, such element may be a dopant or donor atom such as selenium (Se) or tellurium (Te). Small amounts of Se or Te are therefore incorporated in the metamorphic layer 406, and remain in the finished solar cell. Although Se or Te are the preferred n-type dopant atoms, other non-isoelectronic surfactants may be used as well.
Surfactant assisted growth results in a much smoother or planarized surface. Since the surface topography affects the bulk properties of the semiconductor material as it grows and the layer becomes thicker, the use of the surfactants minimizes threading dislocations in the active regions, and therefore improves overall solar cell efficiency.
As an alternative to the use of non-isoelectronic one may use an isoelectronic surfactant. The term “isoelectronic” refers to surfactants such as antimony (Sb) or bismuth (Bi), since such elements have the same number of valence electrons as the P atom of InGaP, or the As atom in InGaAlAs, in the metamorphic buffer layer. Such Sb or Bi surfactants will not typically be incorporated into the metamorphic layer 406.
In one embodiment of the present disclosure, the layer 406 is composed of a plurality of layers of InGaAs, with monotonically changing lattice constant, each layer having the same band gap, approximately in the range of 1.22 to 1.54 eV. In some embodiments, the constant band gap is in the range of 1.27 to 1.31 eV. In some embodiments, the constant band gap is in the range of 1.28 to 1.29 eV.
The advantage of utilizing a constant bandgap material such as InGaAs is that arsenide-based semiconductor material is much easier to process in standard commercial MOCVD reactors.
Although one embodiment of the present disclosure utilizes a plurality of layers of InGaAs for the metamorphic layer 406 for reasons of manufacturability and radiation transparency, other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize different material systems to achieve a change in lattice constant from subcell C to subcell D. Other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize continuously graded, as opposed to step graded, materials. More generally, the graded interlayer may be composed of any of the As, P, N, Sb based III-V compound semiconductors subject to the constraints of having the in-plane lattice parameter greater than or equal to that of the bottom solar cell and less than or equal to that of the third solar cell, and having a bandgap energy greater than that of the third solar cell.
A second alpha layer 407, preferably composed of n+ type InGaP with a different composition than the first alpha layer 405, is deposited over metamorphic buffer layer 406, to a thickness from 0.25 to 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the subcell D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell C, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).
Distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 408 are then grown adjacent to and between the second alpha layer 407 and the third solar subcell C. The DBR layers 408 are arranged so that light can enter and pass through the third solar subcell C and at least a portion of which can be reflected back into the third solar subcell C by the DBR layers 408. In the embodiment depicted in
For some embodiments, distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 408 can be composed of a plurality of alternating layers 408a through 408z of lattice matched materials with discontinuities in their respective indices of refraction. For certain embodiments, the difference in refractive indices between alternating layers is maximized in order to minimize the number of periods required to achieve a given reflectivity, and the thickness and refractive index of each period determines the stop band and its limiting wavelength.
For some embodiments, distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers 408a through 408z includes a first DBR layer composed of a plurality of n type or p type AlxGa1-xAs layers, and a second DBR layer disposed over the first DBR layer and composed of a plurality of n type or p type AlyGa1-yAs layers, where 0<x<1, 0<y<1, and y is greater than x.
In the illustrated example of
The window layer 412 is deposited on the emitter layer 411 of the subcell C. The window layer 412 in the subcell C also helps reduce the recombination loss and improves passivation of the cell surface of the underlying junctions. Before depositing the layers of the subcell B, heavily doped n-type InGaP and p-type AlGaAs (or other suitable compositions) tunneling junction layers 413, 414 may be deposited over the subcell C.
The middle subcell B includes a highly doped p-type aluminum gallium arsenide (“AlGaAs”) back surface field (“BSF”) layer 415, a p-type AlGaAs base layer 416, a highly doped n-type indium gallium phosphide (“InGaP2”) or AlGaAs layer 417 and a highly doped n-type indium gallium aluminum phosphide (“AlGaAlP”) window layer 418. The InGaP emitter layer 417 of the subcell B can include, for example, approximately 50% In. Other compositions may be used as well.
Before depositing the layers of the top cell A, heavily doped n-type InGaP and p-type AlGaAs tunneling junction layers 419, 420 may be deposited over the subcell B.
In the illustrated example, the top subcell A includes a highly doped p-type indium aluminum phosphide (“InAlP”) BSF layer 421, a p-type InGaAlP base layer 422, a highly doped n-type InGaAlP emitter layer 423 and a highly doped n-type InAlP2 window layer 424. The base layer 422 of the top subcell A is deposited over the BSF layer 421 after the BSF layer 421 is formed over the tunneling junction layers 419, 420 of the subcell B. The window layer 424 is deposited over the emitter layer 423 of the top subcell A after the emitter layer 423 is formed over the base layer 422.
A cap or contact layer 425 may be deposited and patterned into separate contact regions over the window layer 424 of the top subcell A. The cap or contact layer 425 serves as an electrical contact from the top subcell A to metal grid layer (not shown). The doped cap or contact layer 425 can be a semiconductor layer such as, for example, a GaAs or InGaAs layer.
After the cap or contact layer 425 is deposited, the grid lines (not shown) are formed via evaporation and lithographically patterned and deposited over the cap or contact layer 425.
In the case of a Ge substrate, a nucleation layer (not shown) is deposited directly on the substrate 601. On the substrate, or over the nucleation layer (in the case of a Ge substrate), a buffer layer 602 and an etch stop layer 603 are further deposited. In the case of GaAs substrate, the buffer layer 602 is preferably GaAs. In the case of Ge substrate, the buffer layer 602 is preferably InGaAs. A contact layer 604 of GaAs is then deposited on layer 603, and a window layer 605 of AlInP is deposited on the contact layer. The subcell A, consisting of an n+ emitter layer 606 and a p-type base layer 607, is then epitaxially deposited on the window layer 605. The subcell A is generally latticed matched to the growth substrate 601.
It should be noted that the multijunction solar cell structure could be formed by any suitable combination of group III to V elements listed in the periodic table subject to lattice constant and bandgap requirements, wherein the group III includes boron (B), aluminum (Al), gallium (Ga), indium (In), and thallium (T). The group IV includes carbon (C), silicon (Si), germanium (Ge), and tin (Sn). The group V includes nitrogen (N), phosphorous (P), arsenic (As), antimony (Sb), and bismuth (Bi).
In one embodiment, the emitter layer 606 is composed of InGa(Al)P2 and the base layer 107 is composed of InGa(Al)P2. The aluminum or Al term in parenthesis in the preceding formula means that Al is an optional constituent, and in this instance may be used in an amount ranging from 0% to 40%.
Subcell A will ultimately become the “top” subcell of the inverted metamorphic structure after completion of the process steps according to the present disclosure to be described hereinafter.
On top of the base layer 607 aback surface field (“BSF”) layer 608 preferably p+AlGaInP is deposited and used to reduce recombination loss.
The BSF layer 608 drives minority carriers from the region near the base/BSF interface surface to minimize the effect of recombination loss. In other words, a BSF layer 608 reduces recombination loss at the backside of the solar subcell A and thereby reduces the recombination in the base.
On top of the BSF layer 608 is deposited a sequence of heavily doped p-type and n-type layers 609a and 609b that forms a tunnel diode, i.e., an ohmic circuit element that connects subcell A to subcell B. Layer 609a is preferably composed of p++AlGaAs, and layer 609b is preferably composed of n++InGaP.
A window layer 610 is deposited on top of the tunnel diode layers 609a/609b, and is preferably n+InGaP. The advantage of utilizing InGaP as the material constituent of the window layer 610 is that it has an index of refraction that closely matches the adjacent emitter layer 611, as more fully described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0272430 A1 (Cornfeld et al.). The window layer 610 used in the subcell B also operates to reduce the interface recombination loss. It should be apparent to one skilled in the art, that additional layer(s) may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.
On top of the window layer 610 the layers of subcell B are deposited: the n-type emitter layer 611 and the p-type base layer 612. These layers are preferably composed of InGaP and AlInGaAs respectively (for a Ge substrate or growth template), or InGaP and AlGaAs respectively (for a GaAs substrate), although any other suitable materials consistent with lattice constant and bandgap requirements may be used as well. Thus, subcell B may be composed of a GaAs, InGaP, AlGaInAs, AlGaAsSb, GaInAsP, or AlGaInAsP, emitter region and a GaAs, InGaP, AlGaInAs, AlGaAsSb, GaInAsP, or AlGaInAsP base region.
In previously disclosed implementations of an inverted metamorphic solar cell, the second subcell or subcell B or was a homostructure. In the present disclosure, similarly to the structure disclosed in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078310 A1 (Stan et al.), the second subcell or subcell B becomes a heterostructure with an InGaP emitter and its window is converted from InAlP to AlInGaP. This modification reduces the refractive index discontinuity at the window/emitter interface of the second subcell, as more fully described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0272430 A1 (Cornfeld et al.). Moreover, the window layer 610 is preferably is doped three times that of the emitter 611 to move the Fermi level up closer to the conduction band and therefore create band bending at the window/emitter interface which results in constraining the minority carriers to the emitter layer.
On top of the cell B is deposited a BSF layer 613 which performs the same function as the BSF layer 609. The p++/n++ tunnel diode layers 614a and 614b respectively are deposited over the BSF layer 613, similar to the layers 609a and 609b, forming an ohmic circuit element to connect subcell B to subcell C. The layer 114a is preferably composed of p++AlGaAs, and layer 614b is preferably composed of n++InGaP.
A window layer 618 preferably composed of n+ type GaInP is then deposited over the tunnel diode layer 614. This window layer operates to reduce the recombination loss in subcell “C”. It should be apparent to one skilled in the art that additional layers may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.
On top of the window layer 618, the layers of cell C are deposited: the n+ emitter layer 619, and the p-type base layer 620. These layers are preferably composed of n+ type GaAs and n+ type GaAs respectively, or n+ type InGaP and p type GaAs for a heterojunction subcell, although another suitable materials consistent with lattice constant and bandgap requirements may be used as well.
In some embodiments, subcell C may be (In)GaAs with a band gap between 1.40 eV and 1.42 eV. Grown in this manner, the cell has the same lattice constant as GaAs but has a low percentage of Indium 0%<In<1% to slightly lower the band gap of the subcell without causing it to relax and create dislocations. In this case, the subcell remains lattice matched, albeit strained, and has a lower band gap than GaAs. This helps improve the subcell short circuit current slightly and improve the efficiency of the overall solar cell.
In some embodiments, the third subcell or subcell C may have quantum wells or quantum dots that effectively lower the band gap of the subcell to approximately 1.3 eV. All other band gap ranges of the other subcells described above remain the same. In such embodiment, the third subcell is still lattice matched to the GaAs substrate. Quantum wells are typically “strain balanced” by incorporating lower band gap or larger lattice constant InGaAs (e.g. a band gap of ˜1.3 eV) and higher band gap or smaller lattice constant GaAsP. The larger/smaller atomic lattices/layers of epitaxy balance the strain and keep the material lattice matched.
A BSF layer 621, preferably composed of InGaAlAs, is then deposited on top of the cell C, the BSF layer performing the same function as the BSF layers 608 and 613.
The p++/n++ tunnel diode layers 622a and 622b respectively are deposited over the BSF layer 621, similar to the layers 614a and 614b, forming an ohmic circuit element to connect subcell C to subcell D. The layer 622a is preferably composed of p++GaAs, and layer 622b is preferably composed of n++GaAs.
An alpha layer 623, preferably composed of n-type GaInP, is deposited over the tunnel diode 622a/622b, to a thickness of about 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the top and middle subcells A, B and C, or in the direction of growth into the subcell D, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).
A metamorphic layer (or graded interlayer) 624 is deposited over the alpha layer 623 using a surfactant. Layer 624 is preferably a compositionally step-graded series of InGaAlAs layers, preferably with monotonically changing lattice constant, so as to achieve a gradual transition in lattice constant in the semiconductor structure from subcell C to subcell D while minimizing threading dislocations from occurring. The band gap of layer 624 is constant throughout its thickness, preferably approximately equal to 1.5 to 1.6 eV, or otherwise consistent with a value slightly greater than the band gap of the middle subcell C. One embodiment of the graded interlayer may also be expressed as being composed of (InxGa1-x)y Al1-yAs, with x and y selected such that the band gap of the interlayer remains constant at approximately 1.5 to 1.6 eV or other appropriate band gap.
In the surfactant assisted growth of the metamorphic layer 624, a suitable chemical element is introduced into the reactor during the growth of layer 624 to improve the surface characteristics of the layer. In the preferred embodiment, such element may be a dopant or donor atom such as selenium (Se) or tellurium (Te). Small amounts of Se or Te are therefore incorporated in the metamorphic layer 124, and remain in the finished solar cell. Although Se or Te are the preferred n-type dopant atoms, other non-isoelectronic surfactants may be used as well.
Surfactant assisted growth results in a much smoother or planarized surface. Since the surface topography affects the bulk properties of the semiconductor material as it grows and the layer becomes thicker, the use of the surfactants minimizes threading dislocations in the active regions, and therefore improves overall solar cell efficiency.
As an alternative to the use of non-isoelectronic one may use an isoelectronic surfactant. The term “isoelectronic” refers to surfactants such as antimony (Sb) or bismuth (Bi), since such elements have the same number of valence electrons as the P atom of InGaP, or the As atom in InGaAlAs, in the metamorphic buffer layer. Such Sb or Bi surfactants will not typically be incorporated into the metamorphic layer 624.
In the inverted metamorphic structure described in the Wanlass et al. paper cited above, the metamorphic layer consists of nine compositionally graded InGaP steps, with each step layer having a thickness of 0.25 micron. As a result, each layer of Wanlass et al. has a different bandgap. In one of the embodiments of the present disclosure, the layer 624 is composed of a plurality of layers of InGaAlAs, with monotonically changing lattice constant, each layer having the same band gap, approximately in the range of 1.5 to 1.6 eV.
The advantage of utilizing a constant bandgap material such as InGaAlAs is that arsenide-based semiconductor material is much easier to process in standard commercial MOCVD reactors, while the small amount of aluminum assures radiation transparency of the metamorphic layers.
Although the preferred embodiment of the present disclosure utilizes a plurality of layers of InGaAlAs for the metamorphic layer 624 for reasons of manufacturability and radiation transparency, other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize different material systems to achieve a change in lattice constant from subcell C to subcell D. Thus, the system of Wanlass using compositionally graded InGaP is a second embodiment of the present disclosure. Other embodiments of the present disclosure may utilize continuously graded, as opposed to step graded, materials. More generally, the graded interlayer may be composed of any of the As, P, N, Sb based III-V compound semiconductors subject to the constraints of having the in-plane lattice parameter greater than or equal to that of the second solar cell and less than or equal to that of the third solar cell, and having a bandgap energy greater than that of the second solar cell.
An alpha layer 625, preferably composed of n+ type AlGaInAsP, is deposited over metamorphic buffer layer 624, to a thickness of about 1.0 micron. Such an alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the top and middle subcells A, B and C, or in the direction of growth into the subcell D, and is more particularly described in U.S. Patent Application Pub. No. 2009/0078309 A1 (Cornfeld et al.).
A window layer 626 preferably composed of n+ type InGaAlAs is then deposited over alpha layer 625. This window layer operates to reduce the recombination loss in the fourth subcell “D”. It should be apparent to one skilled in the art that additional layers may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure.
On top of the window layer 626, the layers of cell D are deposited: the n+ emitter layer 627, and the p-type base layer 628. These layers are preferably composed of n+ type InGaAs and p type InGaAs respectively, or n+ type InGaP and p type InGaAs for a heterojunction subcell, although another suitable materials consistent with lattice constant and bandgap requirements may be used as well.
A BSF layer 629, preferably composed of p+ type InGaAlAs, is then deposited on top of the cell D, the BSF layer performing the same function as the BSF layers 608, 613 and 621.
The p++/n++ tunnel diode layers 630a and 630b respectively are deposited over the BSF layer 629, similar to the layers 622a/622b and 609a/609b, forming an ohmic circuit element to connect subcell D to subcell E. The layer 630a is preferably composed of p++AlGaInAs, and layer 630b is preferably composed of n++GaInP.
In some embodiments an alpha layer 631, preferably composed of n-type GaInP, is deposited over the tunnel diode 630a/630b, to a thickness of about 0.5 micron. Such alpha layer is intended to prevent threading dislocations from propagating, either opposite to the direction of growth into the middle subcells C and D, or in the direction of growth into the subcell E, and is more particularly described in copending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 11/860,183, filed Sep. 24, 2007.
A second metamorphic layer (or graded interlayer) 632 is deposited over the barrier layer 631. Layer 632 is preferably a compositionally step-graded series of AlGaInAs layers, preferably with monotonically changing lattice constant, so as to achieve a gradual transition in lattice constant in the semiconductor structure from subcell D to subcell E while minimizing threading dislocations from occurring. In some embodiments the band gap of layer 632 is constant throughout its thickness, preferably approximately equal to 1.1 eV, or otherwise consistent with a value slightly greater than the band gap of the middle subcell D. One embodiment of the graded interlayer may also be expressed as being composed of (InxGa1-x)y Al1-yAs, with 0<x<1, 0<y<1, and x and y selected such that the band gap of the interlayer remains constant at approximately 1.1 eV or other appropriate band gap.
In one embodiment of the present disclosure, an optional second barrier layer 633 may be deposited over the AlGaInAs metamorphic layer 632. The second barrier layer 633 performs essentially the same function as the first barrier layer 631 of preventing threading dislocations from propagating. In one embodiment, barrier layer 633 has not the same composition than that of barrier layer 631, i.e. n+ type GaInP.
A window layer 634 preferably composed of n+ type GaInP is then deposited over the barrier layer 633. This window layer operates to reduce the recombination loss in the fifth subcell “E”. It should be apparent to one skilled in the art that additional layers may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present invention.
On top of the window layer 634, the layers of cell E are deposited: the n+ emitter layer 635, and the p-type base layer 636. These layers are preferably composed of n+ type GaInAs and p type GaInAs respectively, although other suitable materials consistent with lattice constant and band gap requirements may be used as well.
A BSF layer 637, preferably composed of p+ type AlGaInAs, is then deposited on top of the cell E, the BSF layer performing the same function as the BSF layers 608, 613, 621, and 629.
Finally a high band gap contact layer 638, preferably composed of p++ type AlGaInAs, is deposited on the BSF layer 637.
The composition of this contact layer 638 located at the bottom (non-illuminated) side of the lowest band gap photovoltaic cell (i.e., subcell “E” in the depicted embodiment) in a multijunction photovoltaic cell, can be formulated to reduce absorption of the light that passes through the cell, so that (i) the backside ohmic metal contact layer below it (on the non-illuminated side) will also act as a mirror layer, and (ii) the contact layer doesn't have to be selectively etched off, to prevent absorption.
It should be apparent to one skilled in the art, that additional layer(s) may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present invention.
A metal contact layer 639 is deposited over the p semiconductor contact layer 638. The metal is the sequence of metal layers Ti/Au/Ag/Au in some embodiments.
The metal contact scheme chosen is one that has a planar interface with the semiconductor, after heat treatment to activate the ohmic contact. This is done so that (1) a dielectric layer separating the metal from the semiconductor doesn't have to be deposited and selectively etched in the metal contact areas; and (2) the contact layer is specularly reflective over the wavelength range of interest.
Optionally, an adhesive layer (e.g., Wafer Bond, manufactured by Brewer Science, Inc. of Rolla, Mo.) can be deposited over the metal layer 631, and a surrogate substrate can be attached. In some embodiments, the surrogate substrate may be sapphire. In other embodiments, the surrogate substrate may be GaAs, Ge or Si, or other suitable material. The surrogate substrate can be about 40 mils in thickness, and can be perforated with holes about 1 mm in diameter, spaced 4 mm apart, to aid in subsequent removal of the adhesive and the substrate. As an alternative to using an adhesive layer, a suitable substrate (e.g., GaAs) may be eutectically or permanently bonded to the metal layer 631.
Optionally, the original substrate can be removed by a sequence of lapping and/or etching steps in which the substrate 601, and the buffer layer 602 are removed. The choice of a particular etchant is growth substrate dependent.
It should be apparent to one skilled in the art, that additional layer(s) may be added or deleted in the cell structure without departing from the scope of the present disclosure. For example, one or more distributed Bragg reflector (DBR) layers can be added for various embodiments of the present invention.
It will be understood that each of the elements described above, or two or more together, also may find a useful application in other types of structures or constructions differing from the types of structures or constructions described above.
Although described embodiments of the present disclosure utilizes a vertical stack of three subcells, various aspects and features of the present disclosure can apply to stacks with fewer or greater number of subcells, i.e. two junction cells, three junction cells, five, six, seven junction cells, etc.
In addition, although the disclosed embodiments are configured with top and bottom electrical contacts, the subcells may alternatively be contacted by means of metal contacts to laterally conductive semiconductor layers between the subcells. Such arrangements may be used to form 3-terminal, 4-terminal, and in general, n-terminal devices. The subcells can be interconnected in circuits using these additional terminals such that most of the available photogenerated current density in each subcell can be used effectively, leading to high efficiency for the multijunction cell, notwithstanding that the photogenerated current densities are typically different in the various subcells.
As noted above, the solar cell described in the present disclosure may utilize an arrangement of one or more, or all, homojunction cells or subcells, i.e., a cell or subcell in which the p-n junction is formed between a p-type semiconductor and an n-type semiconductor both of which have the same chemical composition and the same band gap, differing only in the dopant species and types, and one or more heterojunction cells or subcells. Subcell 309, with p-type and n-type InGaP is one example of a homojunction subcell.
In some cells, a thin so-called “intrinsic layer” may be placed between the emitter layer and base layer, with the same or different composition from either the emitter or the base layer. The intrinsic layer may function to suppress minority-carrier recombination in the space-charge region. Similarly, either the base layer or the emitter layer may also be intrinsic or not-intentionally-doped (“NID”) over part or all of its thickness.
The composition of the window or BSF layers may utilize other semiconductor compounds, subject to lattice constant and band gap requirements, and may include AlInP, AlAs, AlP, AlGaInP, AlGaAsP, AlGaInAs, AlGaInPAs, GaInP, GaInAs, GaInPAs, AlGaAs, AlInAs, AlInPAs, GaAsSb, AlAsSb, GaAlAsSb, AlInSb, GaInSb, AlGaInSb, AIN, GaN, InN, GaInN, AlGaInN, GaInNAs, AlGaInNAs, ZnSSe, CdSSe, and similar materials, and still fall within the spirit of the present invention.
While the solar cell described in the present disclosure has been illustrated and described as embodied in a conventional multijunction solar cell, it is not intended to be limited to the details shown, since it is also applicable to inverted metamorphic solar cells, and various modifications and structural changes may be made without departing in any way from the spirit of the present invention.
Thus, while the description of the semiconductor device described in the present disclosure has focused primarily on solar cells or photovoltaic devices, persons skilled in the art know that other optoelectronic devices, such as thermophotovoltaic (TPV) cells, photodetectors and light-emitting diodes (LEDS), are very similar in structure, physics, and materials to photovoltaic devices with some minor variations in doping and the minority carrier lifetime. For example, photodetectors can be the same materials and structures as the photovoltaic devices described above, but perhaps more lightly-doped for sensitivity rather than power production. On the other hand LEDs can also be made with similar structures and materials, but perhaps more heavily-doped to shorten recombination time, thus radiative lifetime to produce light instead of power. Therefore, this invention also applies to photodetectors and LEDs with structures, compositions of matter, articles of manufacture, and improvements as described above for photovoltaic cells.
Without further analysis, from the foregoing others can, by applying current knowledge, readily adapt the present invention for various applications. Such adaptations should and are intended to be comprehended within the meaning and range of equivalence of the following claims.
This present application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/203,975 filed Jul. 7, 2016, and U.S. patent application Ser. No. 15/210,532 filed Jul. 14, 2016. This application is related to U.S. patent application Ser. No. 14/660,092 filed Mar. 17, 2015, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/716,814 filed Mar. 3, 2010, now U.S. Pat. No. 9,018,521; which was a continuation in part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/337,043 filed Dec. 17, 2008. This application is also related to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. No. 16/667,687 filed Oct. 29, 2019, which is a division of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 13/872,663 filed Apr. 29, 2012 now U.S. Pat. No. 10,541,349, which was in turn a continuation-in-part of application Ser. No. 12/337,043, filed Dec. 17, 2008. This application is also related to co-pending U.S. patent application Ser. Nos. 14/828,197 and 14/828,206 filed Aug. 17, 2015. All of the above related applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entirety.
This invention was made with government support under Contracts No. FA 9453 19-C-1001 awarded by the U.S. Air Force. The Government has certain rights in the invention.
