Patent Grant
8591918
The “.txt” Sequence Listing filed by EFS, which is entitled 96700—1551.ST25, is 7 kilobytes in size and which was created on Dec. 13, 2011, is hereby incorporated by reference.
(1) Field of the Invention
The present invention generally relates to recombinant mycobacteria. More specifically, the invention is directed to mycobacteria that elicit IL-12 production in infected macrophages.
(2) Description of the Related Art
Tuberculosis (TB) is currently the second leading cause of death from a single infectious disease worldwide (Frieden et al., 2003; Onyebujoh and Rook, 2004). It is well established that Mycobacterium tuberculosis possesses a variety of mechanisms that promote enable evasion of innate immunity and permit latent infection in the presence of host adaptive immune responses (Flynn and Chan, 2003; Glickman and Jacobs, 2001; Flynn and Chan, 2001). This latent reservoir of M. tuberculosis can eventually develop into active disease when an individual's immune system is compromised due to aging, chemotherapy, or infection with HIV (Stead and Dutt, 1991; Kim et al., 2005; Ito et al., 2005; Campos et al., 2003). Currently, the attenuated M. bovis strain BCG is the only vaccine available for routine human immunization. It has had little if any impact on the increasing global prevalence of TB, in spite of having been administered to more than a billion people (Behr and Small, 1997). Thus, work on developing new and more immunogenic vaccine candidates is crucial and requires advances in our understanding of the host-pathogen interaction.
Cytokines play an important role in controlling intracellular infection, and the cytokine profile produced within the first days or weeks following infection can define the type of host immunity induced and, thereby, the outcome of the disease. A critical cytokine in the control of intracellular infections is interleukin-12 (IL-12), which is produced mainly by macrophages and dendritic cells (DCs) (Manetti et al., 1993; Trinchieri, 2003). IL-12 activates both early nonspecific innate immune resistance and subsequent antigen-specific adaptive immune responses. IL-12 is a growth factor for activated NK cells and induces them to produce IFNγ, a potent activator of macrophage bactericidal activity, while also inducing their cytotoxic activity. IL-12 also stimulates naïve T-cells, a component of adaptive immunity, to differentiate into IFN-γ producing T helper type 1 (Th1) cells.
IL-12p70, a dimer of IL-12p35 and IL-12p40, was originally thought to be the only bioactive form of IL-12 that activates both NK and T-cells to produce IFN-γ. It is now clear that other forms of IL-12 also have important immunoregulatory functions. Dimerization of IL-12p40 with the p19 subunit forms IL-23, which has IFN-γ inducing activity. The IL-12p40 subunit can also homodimerize, and recent studies indicate that the IL-12p40 homodimer is required for initiating adaptive immunity before IL-12p70 or IL-23 are produced (Khader et al., 2006). Thus, full activation of Th1 immunity is regulated by multiple cytokines containing the IL-12p40 subunit. The expression of the IL-12p40 subunit is regulated in infected myeloid cells, such as macrophages (Trinchieri, 2003), and it is known that mice and humans with mutations in the IL-12p40 gene or its cognate receptor are highly susceptible to mycobacterial infection (Altare et al., 2001; Altare et al., 1998; Jouanguy et al., 1999; de Jong et al., 1998; Cooper et al., 2002; Cooper et al., 1997; Cooper et al., 1995). However, other IL-12p40-related cytokines, such as IL-23 and their receptors, may be dispensable, since the survival rate of mice lacking these cytokines is comparable to that in wildtype mice following M. tuberculosis infection (Khader et al., 2005).
In the mouse model of infection, M. tuberculosis persists in macrophages even though induction of Th1 immunity is observed around 4 weeks post-infection (Flynn, 2004). Although bacterial growth slows and bacterial load eventually reaches a stable plateau as a result of adaptive immunity, the pathogen is not eliminated. Moreover, bacterial burden remains 2 to 3 orders of magnitude above that of attenuated strains of M. tuberculosis, such as H37Ra (Jung et al., 2002). Among other complications, the high bacterial burden and progressive chronic inflammation associated with it contribute to the death of the animal. While an effective Th1-mediated immune response generally develops following infection with intracellular pathogens such as Salmonella or Toxoplasma gondii, M. tuberculosis appears to evade eradication, in part by preventing the development of an effective Th1 response (Jung et al., 2002; Mastroeni, 2002; Gazzinelli et al., 1994). Studies of the mechanisms of immune evasion by M. tuberculosis have revealed that one of the strategies used by the tubercle bacillus is to repress macrophage production of IL-12p40 (Hickman et al., 2002; Nau et al., 2002). This parallels the paradigm proposed for Leishmania infection, in which repression of IL-12 production has been established as a key immune evasion strategy of the parasite (Reiner et al., 1994; McDowell and Sacks, 1999). Taken together, these findings suggest that during M. tuberculosis infection the host mounts a limited Th1 immune response that is insufficient to completely eliminate the tubercle bacterium, because specific determinants produced by M. tuberculosis modulate the host immune response.
ESAT-6 gene clusters. The primary attenuating mutation of bacillus Calmette-Guerin (BCG) was found to be a deletion (namely RD1), which was shown to encode two secreted proteins and their specific secretion system. These secreted proteins, ESAT-6 and Cfp-10, were first identified in culture filtrates of M. tuberculosis and shown to be immunodominant antigens. More recently, these proteins have been demonstrated to mediate necrosis of an infected cell which leads to egress of M. tuberculosis from the infected cells. Interestingly, ESAT-6 and Cfp-10 are part of a family of related homologues within M. tuberculosis and related orthologues in mycobacterial species (Gey van Pittius et al. 2001). Moreover, this family of proteins are found in all gram-positive organisms and deletion in Staphylococcus causes attenuation.
Based on the above, it would be useful to identify mycobacterium genes that affect host IL-12 production and to further characterize ESAT-6 and ESAT-6-like gene clusters, particularly with regard to virulence. The present invention addresses that need.
The inventors have identified two regions in Mycobacterium spp. that suppress IL-12 production in host macrophages.
The present invention is directed to mycobacteria deleted in at least a portion of a region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster (=“R3”=“ike”). With these mycobacteria, the deleted portion comprises at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0619 and ΔMs0622-0625 as identified in the GenBank M. smegmatis genome sequence nc—008596 Oct. 19, 2006 version.
The invention is also directed to recombinant mycobacteria comprising a mutation in a roc-1 gene. With these invention mycobacteria, the mutation increases the ability of the mycobacterium to induce IL-12 and/or TNF-α production in a mammalian macrophage infected by the mycobacterium. Here, the roc-1 gene without the mutation is at least 90% homologous to SEQ ID NO:1, and the mycobacterium is not a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The invention is additionally directed to vaccines comprising any of the above-identified mycobacteria, with a vaccine adjuvant.
Also, the invention is directed to methods of making a recombinant mycobacterium. The methods comprise deleting at least a portion of a region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster, where the deleted portion comprises at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0619 and ΔMs0622-0625 as identified in the GenBank M. smegmatis genome sequence nc—008596 Oct. 19, 2006 version, wherein the mycobacterium is not an M. tuberculosis.
The invention is further directed to other methods of making a recombinant mycobacterium. The methods comprise genetically creating a mutation in a roc-1 gene, where the mutation increases the ability of the mycobacterium to induce IL-12 and/or TNF-α production in a mammalian macrophage infected by the mycobacterium, and where the roc-1 gene without the mutation is at least 90% homologous to SEQ ID NO:1, and wherein the mycobacterium is not a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
Also, the invention is directed to methods of inducing an immune response in a mammal. The methods comprise inoculating the mammal with any of the above-identified invention mycobacteria.
Additionally, the invention is directed to methods of inhibiting IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified mycolic acids from a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
The invention is also directed to other methods of inhibiting IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with a purified keto mycolic acid and/or methoxy mycolic acid.
The invention is additionally directed to methods of stimulating IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified mycolic acids from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1.
Further, the invention is directed to other methods of stimulating IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified α-mycolic acid.
Additionally, the invention is directed to vaccine adjuvants comprising any of the above mycobacterium, purified mycolic acids from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1, or purified α-mycolic acid.
The invention is further directed to vaccines comprising any of the above-described invention mycobacteria, purified mycolic acids from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1, or purified α-mycolic acid.
Also, the invention is directed to vaccines to a target antigen. The vaccines comprise the target antigen and any of the above-described invention vaccine adjuvants.
The invention is further directed to methods of inducing immunity to a target antigen in a mammal. The methods comprise administering the above invention vaccine to the mammal.
The inventors have identified two regions in Mycobacterium spp. that suppress IL-12 production in host macrophages. One region is the region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster (=“R3”=“ike”) (Example 2). The other region is the roc-1 gene (=repressor of cytokine-1, also known as mmaA4, mma4, cmaA and hma) (Example 1). This discovery, and other discoveries related thereto, allows for the production of new mycobacteria that are useful in vaccines, as well as various methods of vaccine production and utilization, and treatment of diseases or conditions involving manipulation of IL-12 levels.
Thus, the present invention is directed to mycobacteria deleted in at least a portion of a region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster. With these mycobacteria, the deleted portion comprises at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0619 and ΔMs0622-0625 as identified in the GenBank M. smegmatis genome sequence nc—008596 Oct. 19, 2006 version, where the mycobacterium is not an M. tuberculosis. See Appendix 1 for a further identification of the M. smegmatis region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster. While the region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster comprises genes Ms0615-0625, a recombinant mutant described in Example 2 that was deleted in Ms0620-0621 did not have an effect on IL-12 production.
These invention mycobacteria can be of any Mycobacterium species now known or later discovered. Preferred mycobacteria are M. smegmatis, M. bovis, M. avium, M. phlei, M. fortuitum, M. lufu, M. paratuberculosis, M. habana, M. scrofulacium, M. intracellulare, or M. kansasii. Most preferably, the mycobacterium is an M. smegmatis.
As discussed in Example 2, when mycobacteria deleted in the region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster are further transfected with the M. tuberculosis region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster, production of IL-12 and other cytokines in infected macrophages is increased above the uncomplemented strain. Thus, preferably the invention mycobacterium deleted in at least a portion of a region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster is genetically complemented with at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0619 and ΔMs0622-0625 from an M. tuberculosis. More preferably, the mycobacterium is genetically complemented with at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0625 from M. tuberculosis, i.e., the entire region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster.
Most preferably, these invention mycobacteria induces higher expression of IL-12, TNF-α, or IFN-γ in a mammal when compared to the mycobacterium without the deletion. Where the mycobacterium is capable of causing disease, it is also preferred that the mycobacterium has attenuated virulence in a mammal when compared to the mycobacterium without the deletion.
These mycobacteria can also further comprise a recombinant gene operably linked to a promoter that directs expression of the gene when the mycobacterium infects a mammalian cell. Such mycobacteria are useful for, e.g., inducing immunity against the antigen. The recombinant gene can also encode an enzyme or other protein needed by a mammal that is to be inoculated with the mycobacterium. Preferably, the gene encodes an antigen, for example to a neoplasm, tumor or cancer, or to a human pathogen, to take advantage of the increased immunogenicity to the antigen as a result of the increased IL-12 production induced by the mutant. Examples of pathogens (e.g., human pathogens) where antigens useful in these mycobacteria include viruses (e.g., HIV, hepatitis C virus, herpes virus, influenza, smallpox, diphtheria, tetanus, measles, mumps, rabies, poliovirus, etc.), bacteria (e.g., pathogenic mycobacteria, Salmonella sp., etc.), and eukaryotic parasites (e.g., malaria, Leishmania, etc.).
The invention is also directed to recombinant mycobacteria comprising a mutation in a roc-1 gene. With these invention mycobacteria, the mutation increases the ability of the mycobacterium to induce IL-12 and/or TNF-α production in a mammalian macrophage infected by the mycobacterium. Here, the roc-1 gene without the mutation is at least 90% homologous to SEQ ID NO:1, and the mycobacterium is not a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Preferably, the mutation is a deletion. Most preferably, the deletion is a deletion of the entire roc-1 gene (Δroc-1).
These invention mycobacteria can be of any Mycobacterium species now known or later discovered, except for virulent M. tuberculosis. Preferred mycobacteria are M. smegmatis, M. bovis, M. avium, M. phlei, M. fortuitum, M. lulu, M. paratuberculosis, M. habana, M. scrofulacium, M. intracellulare, an attenuated or avirulent M. tuberculosis, or M. kansasii. More preferably, the mycobacterium is M. bovis BCG. Another particularly preferred mycobacterium is an M. tuberculosis H37ra.
A second gene can also be eliminated in these mycobacterium, wherein the mycobacterium exhibits attenuated virulence in a mammal when compared to the same mycobacterium expressing the second gene. A preferred second genes here is a portion of an RD1 region, or a gene controlling production of a vitamin or an amino acid. Other preferred second genes that can usefully be eliminated here are those where eliminating expression of the second gene increases the ability of the mycobacterium to induce apoptosis of a mammalian macrophage infected by the mycobacterium. Examples of such genes are nlaA genes, nuoG gene and a secA2 gene.
These mycobacteria can also further comprise a recombinant gene operably linked to a promoter that directs expression of the gene when the mycobacterium infects a mammalian cell. Such mycobacteria are useful for, e.g., inducing immunity against the antigen. The recombinant gene can also encode an enzyme or other protein needed by a mammal that is to be inoculated with the mycobacterium. Preferably, the gene encodes an antigen, for example to a neoplasm, tumor or cancer, or to a human pathogen, to take advantage of the increased immunogenicity to the antigen as a result of the increased IL-12 production induced by the mutant. Examples of pathogens (e.g., human pathogens) where antigens useful in these mycobacteria include viruses (e.g., HIV, hepatitis C virus, herpes virus, influenza, smallpox, diphtheria, tetanus, measles, mumps, rabies, poliovirus etc), bacteria (e.g., pathogenic mycobacteria, Salmonella sp., etc.), and eukaryotic parasites (e.g., malaria, Leishmania, etc.).
The present invention is also directed to vaccines comprising any of the above invention mycobacteria, with a vaccine adjuvant. The skilled artisan could select a suitable adjuvant for these vaccines without undue experimentation. Preferred vaccine adjuvant is purified mycolic acids from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1 or purified α-mycolic acid (see below and Example 1).
Also, the invention is directed to methods of making a recombinant mycobacterium. The methods comprise deleting at least a portion of a region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster, where the deleted portion comprises at least genes analogous to ΔMs0615-0619 and ΔMs0622-0625 as identified in the GenBank M. smegmatis genome sequence nc—008596 Oct. 19, 2006 version, wherein the mycobacterium is not an M. tuberculosis. The deletion is preferably made by recombinant methods allowing for insertion of a vector into the region 3 by homologous recombination, for example as described in the examples. Most preferably, the entire region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster, i.e., ΔMs0615-0625, is deleted. See Example 2 for non-limiting examples of these invention mycobacteria. These methods can be utilized with any mycobacteria, either wild-type or recombinant, e.g., with other attenuating mutations and/or foreign antigens. Preferably, the mycobacterium is an M. smegmatis.
The invention is further directed to other methods of making a recombinant mycobacterium. The methods comprise genetically creating a mutation in a roc-1 gene, where the mutation increases the ability of the mycobacterium to induce IL-12 and/or TNF-α production in a mammalian macrophage infected by the mycobacterium, and where the roc-1 gene without the mutation is at least 90% homologous to SEQ ID NO:1, and wherein the mycobacterium is not a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis. Example 1 provides exemplary methods for making these recombinant mycobacteria. These methods can be utilized with any mycobacteria, either wild-type or recombinant, e.g., with other attenuating mutations and/or foreign antigens. Preferably, the mycobacterium is an M. tuberculosis.
Since the invention mycobacteria described above generally induce IL-12 production, they are useful for inducing an immune response in a mammal, for example to the mycobacterium itself, e.g., as a tuberculosis vaccine, or to a recombinant antigen expressed by the mycobacterium or present with the mycobacterium. Thus, the present invention is also directed to methods of inducing an immune response in a mammal. The methods comprise inoculating the mammal with any of the above-identified invention mycobacteria.
As discussed in Example 1, purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis inhibit IL-12 production. Administration of these trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates are therefore useful where IL-12 production is excessive or otherwise unwanted. Therefore, the invention is additionally directed to methods of inhibiting IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis.
As used herein, “purified” means present in a greater concentration than would be found in nature, e.g., in an M. tuberculosis. Preferably, an isolated and purified mycolic acid is at least about 10% of the solute, non-salt component of the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates preparation; more preferably at least about 25%; even more preferably at least about 50%; still more preferably at least about 75%; and most preferably at least about 90% of the solute, non-salt component of the preparation.
Preferably, the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolate preparation here is in a pharmaceutically acceptable preparation. By “pharmaceutically acceptable” it is meant a preparation that (i) is compatible with the other ingredients of the composition without rendering the composition unsuitable for its intended purpose, and (ii) is suitable for use with subjects as provided herein without undue adverse side effects (such as toxicity, irritation, and allergic response). Side effects are “undue” when their risk outweighs the benefit provided by the composition. Non-limiting examples of pharmaceutically acceptable carriers include, without limitation, any of the standard pharmaceutical carriers such as phosphate buffered saline solutions, water, emulsions such as oil/water emulsions, microemulsions, and the like.
The above-described compounds can be formulated without undue experimentation for administration to a mammal, including humans, as appropriate for the particular application. Additionally, proper dosages of the compositions can be determined without undue experimentation using standard dose-response protocols.
Accordingly, the preparations designed for oral, lingual, sublingual, buccal and intrabuccal administration can be made without undue experimentation by means well known in the art, for example with an inert diluent or with an edible carrier. The preparations may be enclosed in gelatin capsules or compressed into tablets. For the purpose of oral therapeutic administration, the pharmaceutical preparations of the present invention may be incorporated with excipients and used in the form of tablets, troches, capsules, elixirs, suspensions, syrups, wafers, chewing gums and the like.
Tablets, pills, capsules, troches and the like may also contain binders, recipients, disintegrating agent, lubricants, sweetening agents, and flavoring agents. Some examples of binders include microcrystalline cellulose, gum tragacanth or gelatin. Examples of excipients include starch or lactose. Some examples of disintegrating agents include alginic acid, cornstarch and the like. Examples of lubricants include magnesium stearate or potassium stearate. An example of a glidant is colloidal silicon dioxide. Some examples of sweetening agents include sucrose, saccharin and the like. Examples of flavoring agents include peppermint, methyl salicylate, orange flavoring and the like. Materials used in preparing these various compositions should be pharmaceutically pure and nontoxic in the amounts used.
The preparations can easily be administered parenterally such as for example, by intravenous, intramuscular, intrathecal or subcutaneous injection. Parenteral administration can be accomplished by incorporating the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates into a solution or suspension. Such solutions or suspensions may also include sterile diluents such as water for injection, saline solution, fixed oils, polyethylene glycols, glycerine, propylene glycol or other synthetic solvents. Parenteral formulations may also include antibacterial agents such as for example, benzyl alcohol or methyl parabens, antioxidants such as for example, ascorbic acid or sodium bisulfite and chelating agents such as EDTA. Buffers such as acetates, citrates or phosphates and agents for the adjustment of tonicity such as sodium chloride or dextrose may also be added. The parenteral preparation can be enclosed in ampules, disposable syringes or multiple dose vials made of glass or plastic.
Rectal administration includes administering the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates, in a pharmaceutical composition, into the rectum or large intestine. This can be accomplished using suppositories or enemas. Suppository formulations can easily be made by methods known in the art. For example, suppository formulations can be prepared by heating glycerin to about 120° C., dissolving the composition in the glycerin, mixing the heated glycerin after which purified water may be added, and pouring the hot mixture into a suppository mold.
Transdermal administration includes percutaneous absorption of the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates through the skin. Transdermal formulations include patches (such as the well-known nicotine patch), ointments, creams, gels, salves and the like.
The present invention includes nasally administering to the mammal a therapeutically effective amount of the trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates. As used herein, nasally administering or nasal administration includes administering the compound to the mucous membranes of the nasal passage or nasal cavity of the patient. As used herein, pharmaceutical compositions for nasal administration of the compound include therapeutically effective amounts of the compound prepared by well-known methods to be administered, for example, as a nasal spray, nasal drop, suspension, gel, ointment, cream or powder. Administration of the compound may also take place using a nasal tampon or nasal sponge.
The invention is also directed to other methods of inhibiting IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with a purified keto and/or methoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose. As indicated in Example 1, keto and/or methoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose are the primary components of trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from a virulent Mycobacterium tuberculosis, which inhibit host IL-12 production. Preferably, the mammal is a human.
In some aspects of these methods, the mammal has an autoimmune disease. Autoimmune diseases are known to be exacerbated by IL-12. Thus, a treatment that inhibits IL-12 production is useful for administering to a patient with an autoimmune disease. Non-limiting examples of autoimmune diseases here is multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, rheumatoid arthritis, autoimmune pulmonary inflammation, Guillain-Barre syndrome, autoimmune thyroiditis, insulin dependent diabetes mellitus and autoimmune inflammatory eye disease.
As discussed in Example 2, besides IL-12, M. tuberculosis also inhibits host production of the proinflammatory cytokines TNF-α and IFN-γ. Thus, administration of purified mycolic acids from M. tuberculosis or keto and/or methoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose is useful for administration to a mammal at risk for or having a condition mediated by a proinflammatory cytokine. Examples of such conditions include appendicitis, peptic, gastric or duodenal ulcers, peritonitis, pancreatitis, ulcerative, pseudomembranous, acute or ischemic colitis, diverticulitis, epiglottitis, achalasia, cholangitis, cholecystitis, hepatitis, Crohn's disease, ileus, enteritis, Whipple's disease, asthma, allergy, anaphylactic shock, immune complex disease, organ ischemia, reperfusion injury, organ necrosis, hay fever, sepsis, septicemia, endotoxic shock, cachexia, hyperpyrexia, eosinophilic granuloma, granulomatosis, sarcoidosis, septic abortion, epididymitis, vaginitis, prostatitis, urethritis, bronchitis, emphysema, rhinitis, cystic fibrosis, pneumonitis, alvealitis, bronchiolitis, pharyngitis, pleurisy, sinusitis, influenza, respiratory syncytial virus infection, herpes infection, HIV infection, hepatitis B virus infection, hepatitis C virus infection, disseminated bacteremia, Dengue fever, candidiasis, malaria, filariasis, amebiasis, hydatid cysts, burns, dermatitis, dermatomyositis, sunburn, urticaria, warts, wheals, vasulitis, angiitis, endocarditis, arteritis, atherosclerosis, thrombophlebitis, pericarditis, myocarditis, myocardial ischemia, periarteritis nodosa, rheumatic fever, Alzheimer's disease, coeliac disease, congestive heart failure, adult respiratory distress syndrome, meningitis, encephalitis, multiple sclerosis, cerebral infarction, cerebral embolism, Guillain-Barre syndrome, neuritis, neuralgia, spinal cord injury, paralysis, uveitis, arthritides, arthralgias, osteomyelitis, fasciitis, Paget's disease, gout, periodontal disease, rheumatoid arthritis, synovitis, myasthenia gravis, thryoiditis, systemic lupus erythematosus, Goodpasture's syndrome, Behcets's syndrome, allograft rejection, graft-versus-host disease, Type I diabetes, ankylosing spondylitis, Berger's disease, Retier's syndrome, or Hodgkins disease.
The inventors have also discovered that administration of purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1 stimulates IL-12 production by the host. Thus, the invention is additionally directed to methods of stimulating IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1.
Since α- or epoxy mycolates esterified to trehalose is the primary mycolic acid in Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1, treating a mammal with purified α- or epoxy mycolates esterified to trehalose is also useful for stimulating IL-12 production. Thus, the invention is further directed to methods of stimulating IL-12 production in a mammal. The methods comprise treating the mammal with purified α- or epoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose.
Stimulation of IL-12 production is useful for inducing immunity. Therefore, purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1 or purified α- or epoxy mycolates esterified to trehalose are useful as a vaccine adjuvant. Thus, the purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1 or purified α- or epoxy mycolates esterified to trehalose for these methods is preferably in a vaccine adjuvant.
Stimulation of IL-12 production is known to be useful for treating infections or cancer. These methods can therefore be used where the mammal has an infection. They can also be used where the mammal has cancer.
The invention is also directed to a vaccine adjuvant comprising any of the above-described invention mycobacteria. Additionally, the invention is directed to a vaccine adjuvant comprising purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1. Further, the invention is directed to a vaccine adjuvant comprising purified α- or epoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose.
The invention is further directed to vaccines comprising any of the above-described invention mycobacteria, purified trehalose 6′-6′ dimycolates from Mycobacterium tuberculosis Δroc-1, or purified α- or epoxy mycolate esterified to trehalose.
Also, the invention is directed to vaccines to a target antigen. The vaccines comprise the target antigen and any of the above-described invention vaccine adjuvants.
The invention is further directed to methods of inducing immunity to a target antigen in a mammal. The methods comprise administering the above invention vaccine to the mammal.
The region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster or the roc-1 gene can also be targets for drug development. In these aspects of the invention, an anti-mycobacterial drug could be identified by screening compounds (including small organic molecules or macromolecules like antibodies or aptamers) for the ability to eliminate expression of the roc-1 gene or relevant genes in the region 3 ESAT-6-like gene cluster.
Preferred embodiments of the invention are described in the following examples. Other embodiments within the scope of the claims herein will be apparent to one skilled in the art from consideration of the specification or practice of the invention as disclosed herein. It is intended that the specification, together with the examples, be considered exemplary only, with the scope and spirit of the invention being indicated by the claims, which follow the examples.
Example Summary
Mycobacterium tuberculosis has evolved many strategies to evade elimination by the host immune system and establish a chronic infection. One method of immune evasion is to repress IL-12p40 production by macrophages. To identify the factors responsible for repression of macrophage IL-12p40 production by M. tuberculosis, we screened a transposon library of M. tuberculosis for mutants that lacked this function using a macrophage cell line expressing a reporter for IL-12p40 transcription. This approach led to the identification of the M. tuberculosis mmaA4 gene as a key locus involved in the repression of IL-12p40. Mutants in which the mmaA4 gene was inactivated produce significantly more IL-12p40 and TNF-α as compared to wildtype M. tuberculosis. The mmaA4 gene encodes an S-adenosylmethionine dependant methyl transferase required for the synthesis of methoxy and keto mycolic acids, which are abundant lipids among which some are secreted as a component of the glycolipid trehalose 6,6′-dimycolate (TDM). The ΔmmaA4 mutant is defective in synthesis of oxygenated mycolates. Studies using TDM purified from the ΔmmaA4 mutant showed increased IL-12p40 secretion from treated macrophages, similar to the increase observed from ΔmmaA4 mutant infected macrophages. In contrast, purified TDM isolated from wildtype M. tuberculosis represses IL-12p40 secretion from treated macrophages. These results indicate that the oxygen-containing substitutions on mycolic acids negatively regulate IL-12p40 production, and identified a new immunoregulatory role for TDM as a repressor of macrophage IL-12p40 production. The identification of this function for the mmaA4 gene provides a genetic basis for an important aspect of immune evasion by M. tuberculosis, and may have significant implications for approaches to engineering more immunogenic attenuated vaccine strains of this organism.
TDM, trehalose dimycolate; mmaA4, methyl transferase 4; hma, hydroxymycolic acid; LPS, lipopolysaccharide; TLR, Toll-like receptor.
Introduction
Based on the evidence that the amount of IL-12 produced is a good correlate of protective immunity (Manca et al., 1999), that IL-12 therapy decreases bacterial burden and extends survival in patients or mice infected with TB (Greinert et al., 2001; Flynn et al., 1995; Holscher et al., 2001), and that M. tuberculosis represses IL-12p40 production (Hickman et al., 2002; Nau et al., 2002), it was hypothesized that M. tuberculosis actively modulates the production of this cytokine in infected macrophages. To identify genes responsible for this, a transposon library of M. tuberculosis mutants was screened using a macrophage cell line expressing a reporter gene for monitoring IL-12p40 expression. The mmaA4 gene is identified here as a locus in M. tuberculosis involved in the repression of IL-12 production in infected macrophages. Additionally, it is shown that inactivation of the mmaA4 gene by targeted deletion caused production of mycolic acids that lacked methoxy and keto functional groups. The mycobacterial component eliciting this increase in cytokine production from the infecting ΔmmaA4 mutant was identified as trehalose 6,6′-dimycolate (TDM), which is devoid of keto- and methoxy-mycolic acids. In contrast to TDM from wildtype M. tuberculosis, which repressed IL-12p40 production by macrophages, purified TDM from the ΔmmaA4 mutant stimulated macrophage IL-12p40 production. Our data establish the role of the MmaA4-derived oxygenated mycolic acids of TDM in the repression of IL-12p40 production, thus establishing part of the genetic and mechanistic basis for an important aspect of the immune evasion strategy of M. tuberculosis.
Results
Isolation of a Mutant Defective in Repression of IL-12p40 Production by Infected Macrophages.
To isolate mutants that are defective in IL-12p40 suppression, a macrophage reporter cell line was generated to monitor IL-12p40 expression. Previously, a macrophage reporter cell line was described containing a minimal IL-12p40 promoter fused to GFP that was stably integrated into the genome (Dao et al., 2004). Since the regulation of the IL-12p40 promoter in response to M. tuberculosis infection is not known, for this screen another macrophage cell line was engineered containing a stable integration of the full-length IL-12p40 promoter fused to GFP. Detailed analysis by flow cytometry of this reporter cell showed that GFP levels accurately reflected IL-12p40 production from the endogenous locus. GFP was not transcribed in uninfected macrophages until treated with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) or infected with E. coli (data not shown). A flow cytometric assay of GFP expression after infection with mycobacterial strains that varied in their virulence showed that induction of GFP followed a similar pattern to what was observed using a capture ELISA to quantitate IL-12 p40 levels in supernatants of infected bone marrow-derived macrophages (
It was reasoned that the loss of determinants that repress IL-12p40 would cause the mutant to induce elevated levels of IL-12p40. To isolate mutants that induce IL-12p40, a Himar-1 transposon library of the sequenced M. tuberculosis H37Rv strain was created and arrayed in 96-well plates. This transposon was used to generate M. tuberculosis mutants because it inserts randomly into frequently-occurring TA dinucleotides (Rubin et al., 1999). Approximately 2880 transposon mutants were screened by fluorimetric assay of macrophages expressing the IL-12 p40-GFP reporter to identify wells in which GFP expression was greater than a baseline established by wildtype H37Rv infection. From this primary screen three mutants were identified that gave enhanced GFP signals. These were found by sequencing to have transpositions in the mmaA3, ackA, and Rv3435c genes. The insertional mutant of mmaA3, which encodes an S-adenosylmethionine-dependent methyl transferase known to be involved in the modification of M. tuberculosis mycolic acids (Takayama et al., 2005), gave the highest GFP expression with our secondary screen, as compared to wildtype (
Focusing on the mutant with an insertion in the mmaA3 gene, specialized transduction (Bardarov et al., 1997; Bardarov et al., 2002) was used to generate an independent deletion mutant of this gene. Since the mmaA3 gene is upstream of the mmaA4 gene that is also known to encode a methyl transferase that acts on mycolic acids, and the transcriptional regulation of this locus could have been compromised by the transposon insertion, a strain with deletion of the mmaA4 gene was also generated. Findings for the ΔmmaA3 and the ΔmmaA4 mutants are described here.
Increased Induction of IL-12p40 by Macrophages Infected with the ΔmmaA4 Mutant.
To confirm the findings from the IL-12p40 macrophage reporter assays, the cytokines produced in conditioned media of bone marrow-derived macrophages infected with either the ΔmmaA3 or ΔmmaA4 mutants were examined. Macrophages infected with the ΔmmaA3 mutant showed variable increases in IL-12p40 production, as compared to those observed for the ΔmmaA4 mutant (data not shown). Moreover, the ΔmmaA3 mutant, when grown on agar plates, showed both rough and smooth colonial morphology (data not shown). This phenotypic switching was found to be reversible upon subsequent sub-cloning. Because the switching between the two morphologies was a potential confounding variable that could affect IL-12p40 induction, no additional studies were pursued with the ΔmmaA3 mutant. On the other hand, the ΔmmaA4 mutant maintained a stable smooth colony morphology with routine passage (
Macrophages infected with the ΔmmaA4 mutant showed a reproducible increase in both IL-12p40 and TNF-α production (
The mmaA4 Gene Encodes an Enzyme Involved in Modification of Methoxy- and Keto-Mycolic Acids.
When the ΔmmaA4 mutant was plated on media containing the detergent Tween-80, a smooth colony morphology with ruffled edges was observed. This was distinctly different from the rough morphology observed with wildtype M. tuberculosis after 1 month of growth on plates. This difference in colony morphology was reversed by complementation of the ΔmmaA4 mutant (
Mycolic acids are long-chain α-alky β-hydroxy fatty acids unique to mycobacteria. Three distinct structural classes of mycolic acids (alpha-, methoxy-, and keto-mycolic acids) are an integral part of the M. tuberculosis outer cell envelope (
Trehalose 6,6′-Dimycolate (TDM) Purified from the mmaA4 Mutant is Sufficient to Elicit the Increase in IL-12p40 and TNF-α Production.
Mycolic acids can be esterified at the 6 and 6′ carbon positions of the disaccharide trehalose to form trehalose 6,6′-dimycolate (TDM), which is an abundant mycobacterial glycolipid that is secreted into the cytoplasm of infected macrophages (Takayama et al., 2005: Geisel et al., 2005). Since TDM is known to have direct effects on macrophages (Rao et al., 2005; Tao et al., 2006; Rhoades et al., 2003), it was hypothesized that TDM from the ΔmmaA4 mutant could be considered a good candidate for regulation of IL-12p40. TDM was purified to homogeneity by thin-layer chromatography from wild type and ΔmmaA4 mutant bacteria (
TDM from Wild Type M. tuberculosis is a Negative Regulator of IL-12p40 Production in Macrophages.
The finding that wtTDM induced only baseline levels of IL-12p40 over the wide range tested, while ΔmmaA4TDM strongly induced IL-12p40 production, led to the hypothesis that the wtTDM having oxygen-containing methoxy and keto groups was negative regulator of IL-12p40 production. To test this idea, a lipid competition assay between wtTDM and ΔmmaA4TDM was performed, in which macrophages were treated with a mixture of both glycolipids. Reduction of IL-12p40 was observed in macrophages treated with the glycolipid mixture (
We reasoned that if TDM actively represses IL-12p40 production, this repression should be observed in the presence of other agonists of IL-12p40 production. Lipopolysaccharide (LPS) is a bacterial pathogen-associated molecular pattern (PAMP) that induces a potent IL-12p40 response when added to macrophages. wtTDM inhibited LPS induction of IL-12p40 3-4-fold (
Discussion
This work was designed to investigate the components of Mycobacterium tuberculosis that modulate the host immune response. To this end, a screen for mutants was developed that interfered with the production of macrophage IL-12p40, a cytokine important for activating innate and adaptive immunity against intracellular pathogens. This approach led to the discovery of the M. tuberculosis mmaA4 gene as a key locus involved in modulation of IL-12p40. Loss of the mmaA4 gene in M. tuberculosis H37Rv induced infected macrophages to produce more IL-12p40, and that this inducing activity was linked to its TDM. In contrast, TDM from wildtype M. tuberculosis represses macrophage production of IL-12p40. This is the first demonstration of such activity for TDM of M. tuberculosis.
Currently, there are two hypotheses concerning IL-12p40 production by macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis: either M. tuberculosis actively represses IL-12p40 production (Hickman et al., 2002; Nau et al., 2002) or, alternatively, M. tuberculosis lacks the ability to stimulate macrophage IL-12p40 production. Prior to this work, it was unclear which of these two mechanisms was at play, since the determinant from a mutant that represses IL-12p40 had not been isolated. This work provides the previously missing evidence to explain this underappreciated aspect of the immune evasion function of M. tuberculosis. These studies support the view that M. tuberculosis actively represses IL-12p40 in macrophages, and refute the idea that the lack of IL-12p40 production by macrophages infected with M. tuberculosis is a passive process. Further, it is suggested that deliberate repression of IL-12p40 by M. tuberculosis through mycolic acid modification interferes with host protective immunity.
Mycolic acids comprise ˜30% of the dry weight of the tubercle bacterium (Takaya et al., 2005). The genes involved in the addition of functional groups to the mycolic acid meromycolate chains encode cyclopropane synthases (pcaA, cmaA2) and methyl transferases (mmaA1, mmaA2, mmaA3, and mmaA4). These genes are 50% to 70% identical and are thought to be S-adenosylmethione-dependent methyl transferases (Takayama et al., 2005). The three classes of mycolic acids are esterified individually to the disaccharide trehalose, producing many types of TDM, which is secreted into the cytoplasm of infected macrophages and is thought to mediate many of the cellular processes of the immune response (Rhoades et al., 2003; Karakousis et al., 2004; Geisel et al., 2005). The contribution of these functional groups of mycolic acid to the cytokine-inducing activity of TDM is beginning to be clarified. For example, loss of transcyclopropanation on oxygenated mycolic acids from the TDM purified from the ΔcmaA2 mutant causes increased TNF-α production, resulting in hypervirulence (Rao et al., 2006). On the other hand, TDM that lacks a majority of alpha mycolates from a ΔpcaA mutant causes delayed cytokine production, leading to decreased tissue destruction and increased survival of the mouse (Rao et al., 2005).
Previously, the mmaA4 gene (also known as hma) was shown to be required for the synthesis of oxygenated mycolates; however, TDM isolated from the ΔmmaA4 mutant has not previously been characterized (Dinadayala et al., 2003; Dubnau et al., 2000). Here, the finding that the ΔmmaA4 mutant does not synthesize oxygenated mycolic acids was reproduced, and it was further demonstrated that TDM devoid of oxygenated mycolic acids purified from the mutant induced increased IL-12p40 and TNF-α production over that of wtTDM. Previous work has suggested a dependence of IL-12p40 expression on TNF-α (Zhan and Cheers, 2008). Additionally, it was demonstrated that wtTDM represses both E. coli LPS and ΔmmaA4 TDM-induced IL-12p40 production. The repression observed in this experiment was specific for IL-12p40 induced by ΔmmaA4 TDM; for IL-12p40 induced by LPS, a small but significant repression was also observed for TNF-α. This observation could be explained by the hypothesis that ΔmmaA4 TDM and LPS activate different signaling pathways. This new function identified for wtTDM is a novel immunoregulatory activity.
Although wtTDM represses IL-12p40 production in the presence of agonist, it is not a classical repressor in the sense that wtTDM alone stimulates weak IL-12p40 production. One hypothesis for how wtTDM exerts both a modest stimulating and a strong inhibitory function is that wtTDM may stimulate weakly via one receptor and inhibit strongly through another. It is possible that TDM devoid of oxygenated mycolates (ΔmmaA4TDM) preferentially binds and activates a different receptor than wtTDM does. Similar observations have been made for another antagonist of E. coli LPS, penta-acylated LPS from P. gingivalis. The penta-acylated LPS from P. gingivalis weakly stimulates macrophages through toll-like receptor (TLR) 2 signaling; however, it also strongly inhibits cytokine production induced by E. coli LPS by interfering with TLR4 recognition (Darveau et al., 2004). wtTDM signaling is dependent on MYD88, an adaptor molecule for the TLR signaling pathway, but is independent of TLR2 or TLR4 receptors (Geisel et al., 2005). Therefore, wtTDM may repress IL-12p40 production by a different mechanism than does P. gingivalis LPS.
Although it cannot be distinguished which mycolic acids from the mutant, alpha or epoxy, are mediating the increase in IL-12p40 and TNF-α production, it can be concluded that the loss of oxygenated mycolates contributed to the ΔmmaA4TDM cytokine-inducing activity. An insight into ΔmmaA4TDM's stimulatory activity can be found in the functional groups on the mycolates. The polarity of each functional group relative to one another, as determined by thin-layer chromatography of mycolic acids developed in hexane/ethyl acetate solvents, showed the cyclopropane group on alpha mycolates to be apolar. The methoxy group on methoxy mycolates demonstrates intermediate polarity, whereas the carbonyl group on keto mycolates is the most polar of these functional groups. Indeed, surface pressure measurements of a Langmuir monolayer of mycolic acids showed that the polarity of each functional group contributes to the physical properties of the mycolic acids. The apolar alpha mycolates are flexible, while the keto mycolates are very rigid and the methoxy mycolates have intermediate flexibility (Villeneuve et al., 2005; Hasegawa and Leblanc, 2003). It is postulated that the flexibility of alpha mycolates allows them to adopt an array of conformations and that this may confer activating properties not observed for the oxygenated mycolates. Since the epoxy functional group is a very reactive functional group, it can be speculated that this group could also contribute to the stimulating activity of ΔmmaA4TDM.
Since IL-12p40 is a cytokine that is critical in initiating adaptive immune responses in vivo, it is predicted that the removal of inhibitors of IL-12p40 production would lead to decreased bacterial burden and increased host survival. Indeed, Dubnau et al. (2000) has shown attenuation of growth of the ΔmmaA4 mutant in a mouse model of M. tuberculosis infection. The data showing that purified ΔmmaA4TDM induced more IL-12p40 than did wtTDM provides a possible explanation of the attenuated phenotype. It is proposed that activation of host immunity by ΔmmaA4TDM results in decreased bacterial burden. It is plausible that M. tuberculosis remodels its mycolic acid composition in response to the host environment, possibly as a mechanism to repress and evade host immunity. Analysis of mycolic acid production during infection showed that M. tuberculosis synthesizes more keto mycolates following macrophage infection (Yuan et al., 1998). Additionally, the transcriptional profiling of M. tuberculosis transcripts in the lungs of infected mice showed that the mmaA4 gene is upregulated in granulomas, as compared to its growth in liquid (Rachman et al., 2006).
Microbes express species-specific molecular structures called pathogen-associated molecular patterns (PAMPs). These are recognized by macrophages, resulting in expression of cytokines and activation of host immunity (Iwasaka and Medzhitov, 2004; Kopp and Medzhitov, 2003). A prominent theme emerging from our current work with TDM, and from previous work on other mycobacterial glycolipids (Dao et al., 2004; Reed et al., 2004; Quesniaux et al., 2004; Yoshida and Koide, 1997), is that of PAMPs that normally induce protective host cytokine production into PAMPs that suppress cytokine production may be an active strategy used by pathogens to evade host immune responses. For example, studies of the purified precursor glycolipid lipomannan showed that modification of this glycolipid with arabinose generates lipoarabinomannin, which represses IL-12p40 production (Nigou et al., 2001). Phenolic glycolipid, which consists of a base structure of phenol and phthiocerol dimycocerosates, represses production of chemokines and other inflammatory cytokines. Removal of this phenol group in mutants lacking the pks 1-15 gene cluster is sufficient to reverse this repression and leads to increased mouse survival (Reed et al., 2004). It is unclear whether the host environment is involved in the temporal and spatial expression of these M. tuberculosis genes.
This paradigm of modifying PAMPs to evade host immunity is a strategy common among opportunistic bacteria that cause chronic infection (Dixon and Darveau, 2005; Miller et al., 2005; Munford and Varley, 2006). For example, P. aeruginosa (associated with cystic fibrosis), H. pylori (associated with peptic ulcer disease), and P. gingivitis (associated with periodontal disease), have naturally occurring variants of LPS structures that antagonize cytokine production (Coate et al., 2003; Hajjar et al., 2002; Miller et al., 2005). Since colonization of H. pylori is dependent on flagellar-based motility, the flagellin is also modified to evade detection by the immune system (Andersen-Nissen et al., 2005; Gewirtz et al., 2004). Ultimately, all of these modifications affect the production of cytokines by the immune system, further emphasizing the importance of cytokines on the development of protective immunity.
Previous studies have shown that IL-12p70 (composed of the p40 and p35 subunits) therapy in mice infected with M. tuberculosis or M. avium decreases bacterial burden and prolongs survival (Flynn et al., 1995; Doherty and Sher, 1998; Ehlers et al., 2005; Holscher, 2004). Moreover, IL-12 therapy is a successful adjuvant to a standard drug treatment in a patient suffering from disseminated TB (Greinert et al., 2001). IL-12p70 is required for the maintenance of memory T-cells generated after M. tuberculosis infection (Feng et al., 2005). IL-12p40 homodimers are required for dendritic cell migration to the lymphoid organs and for activation of naïve T-cells following M. tuberculosis infection. Additionally, the importance of IL-12p40 homodimers in inducing protective immunity was shown by Holscher et al. (2001), who demonstrated that IL-12p40 homodimer therapy is sufficient to extend the survival of mice infected with M. tuberculosis. It is likely that the components involved in IL-12p40 repression have not all been identified, and the screening approach described here makes it feasible to analyze a library of M. tuberculosis mutants to saturation in order to identify additional components that repress IL-12p40 in virulent M. tuberculosis. This approach may ultimately lead to the construction of more immunogenic organisms that can be further modified to create new and more effective attenuated vaccine strains.
Materials and Methods
Reagents. Cultures of mycobacteria were routinely grown in 7H9-C media which contained Middlebrook 7H9 media supplemented with OADC (oleic acid/albumin/dextrose/catalase) (Difco, Becton-Dickinson), 0.5% Glycerol, and 0.05% Tween-80.
Morphology Studies.
Colonial phenotype for wildtype M. tuberculosis were observed by plating bacterial cultures on Middlebrook 7H10 plates supplemented with OADC, 0.5% glycerol, and 0.05% Tween-80. The phenotype for the ΔmmaA4 mutant was determined by plating on the 7H10 plates described above with 50 μg/ml hygromycin.
Differentiation of Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages from BALB/c Mice.
Six-to-eight-week-old female BALB/c mice were purchased from Jackson Laboratory (Bar Harbor, Me.). Bone marrow-derived macrophages were derived from these animals, as previously described (Johnson, et al., 1983). Briefly, bone marrow cells were removed from the femurs of mice and cultured in DMEM-C containing 20% L929 cell-conditioned medium (as a source of M-CSF), for 7 days at 37° C., 5% CO2. Bone marrow-derived macrophages were harvested on day 6 to plate for infection with different M. tuberculosis strains on day 7.
Construction of a GFP based reporter for IL-12p40 expression. The construction of the −350+55 IL-12p40-GFP Raw 294 reporter line was described previously (Dao et al., 2004). Using a similar strategy to monitor IL-12p40 expression from a full-length (FL) IL12p40 promoter (Murphy et al., 1995), position −800 to +55 relative to the transcription start of IL-12p40 promoter was amplified from C57B6 mouse genomic DNA by PCR by using upstream primer 5′ ACAGGATTGCACACCTCTTTG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:3) and downstream primer 5′ TTGCTTTGCTGCGAGC 3′ (SEQ ID NO:4). The 856 by PCR product was placed into the TOPO cloning vector (Invitrogen), giving rise to the pFL.IL12p40.TOPO vector. The full-length IL12p40 GFP reporter construct (pFL.IL-12p40.EGFP-1) was generated by removing the HindIII/PstI fragment from the pFL.IL-12p40.TOPO vector and cloned into the HindIII/PstI site of the green fluorescent protein (GFP) reporter vector, pEGFP-1 (BD Bioscience). A stable FL.IL-12p40.GFP reporter macrophage cell line was made in a mouse Raw 294.7 macrophage line. The reporter strain was grown in DMEM media with high glucose, supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum and 10 mM Hepes, and selected with 1 mg/ml of G418, a concentration which was determined to kill Raw 264.7 cells with 99% efficiency.
Growth of M. tuberculosis Strains for Infection.
For each infection, a new vial of bacterial culture was brought up from stock kept at −70° C. Thawed M. tuberculosis H37Rv, Beijing HN878, or M. smegmatis was grown in 10 ml 7H9-C media, as described above. The ΔmmaA4 mutant was grown in 7H9-C media along with a selectable drug, 50 μg/ml hygromycin, while the complemented ΔmmaA4 mutant was grown in 7H9-C media under selection with 40 μg/ml of kanamycin. All mycobacterial strains were grown to an optical density of OD600 nm between 0.1 to 0.3 prior to infection since mycobacterial cultures grown to OD≧0.5 undergo autolysis (data not shown) (Tullius et al., 2001). Prior to infection, the bacteria were pelleted to remove the supernatant and resuspended in 7H9-C media without drug. The resuspended pellets were sonicated 1× continuously for 10 sec.
Infection of Bone Marrow-Derived Macrophages or FL.IL-12p40-GFP Macrophage Reporter Cell Line with Mycobacteria.
Bone marrow-derived macrophages were seeded in triplicate at 2×105 macrophages per 48 well, or in 98 well for the FL.IL-12p40-GFP macrophage reporter cell line. The macrophages were infected with mycobacteria at a multiplicity of infection (MOI) of 3 or 10. After 4 hr incubation in a humidified incubator at 37° C. in the presence of 5% CO2, noningested bacteria were removed by washing gently (three times) with pre-warmed DMEM-C cell media. Each well then received 200λ DMEM-C cell media containing 50 ug/ml gentamycin (to kill the remaining extracellular bacteria), and plates were cultured in a humidified incubator at 37° C. in the presence of 5% CO2.
ELISA Measurement of Cytokine Production.
Infection was allowed to proceed for 16 to 24 hr before cell supernatants were harvested. For time course studies, the supernatants were collected at the additional time points of 48 and 72 hr. Supernatant was filtered with the 0.22 μm SpinX column (Costar) to remove any uningested extracellular bacteria. Cytokines in the conditioned medium were analyzed by sandwiched ELISA using the Biosource International (Camarillo, Calif.) kit for IL-12p40 and TNF-α, following the manufacturer's protocol.
Flow Cytometry.
Following infection of the FL.IL12p40 GFP-reporter macrophage cell line with H37Rv, HN878 Beijing, and M. smegmatis, the experiment was allowed to proceed for 16 to 24 hr before processing the cells for FACS analysis. Mycobacteria infected cells were trypsinized, fixed with equal volume of 4% paraformaldehyde, and left at 4° C. overnight. The following day, GFP expression was ascertained by using the FACSCalibur (BD Pharmingen) with CELLQuest (BD Biosciences) and analyzed with FlowJo software (Tree Star).
Construction of Himar-1 M. tuberculosis H37Rv Mutant Library.
The Himar-1 M. tuberculosis H37Rv mutant library was generated using the Himar-1 transposon delivered by phage, pHAE159, as described previously. Briefly, the phage containing mariner transposon was propagated to high titer in MP buffer (50 mM Tris (pH 7.6), 150 mM NaCl, 10 mM MgCl2, 2 mM CaCl2) and used to transduce the M. tuberculosis H37Rv strain. The transductions were plated on 7H10 plates containing 50 ug/ml hygromycin, and placed at 37° C. for three weeks. Transductants were picked into 96-well plates containing 200λ of 7H9 media supplemented with OADC, 0.5% glycerol, 0.05% Tween 80, and 50 μg/ml hygromycin. A Himar-1 transposon library of M. tuberculosis H37Rv was grown to late-log phase. Aliquots of the mariner M. tuberculosis H37Rv library were made into separate 96-well plates for stocking and were diluted and grown to mid-log phase for screening.
High-Throughput Screen for M. tuberculosis Mutants that Strongly Induce IL-12p40 Production.
The IL-12 reporter strain, Raw 294.7-FL.IL12p40-GFP, was seeded at 2×105 per 96 well the day before infection. Screening of the mariner transposon library was done the following day. The growth of mycobacteria in the 96 well was determined by photometric measurements of cell density at optical density (OD) 590 nm using the plate reader Viktor II. Subsequently, the mutant in each well was diluted to approximately an MOI of 10 (2×106 CFU) per 10 μl. An aliquot of 10 μl of bacteria from each well was used to infect the FL.IL-12p40-GFP Raw 294 macrophage reporter cell line. Infected reporter macrophages were incubated in a humidified incubator at 37° C. in the presence of 5% CO2 for 4 hr. Noningested bacteria were removed by washing gently (three times) with pre-warmed DMEM-C cell media. Each well then received 200 μl DMEM-C cell media containing 50 μg/ml gentamycin, and the plates were cultured in a humidified incubator at 37° C. in the presence of 5% CO2 for 16 hr, at which time IL-12 expression was found to be maximal. The GFP expression from individual wells on the plate was determined by the use of the Viktor II plate reader, which was set at 488 nm/530 nm excitation/emission filter pair and to a reading of 1.0 sec per well. For secondary screening of the candidates, the mutants were expanded in 10 ml cultures, and grown to an OD600nm of between 0.1 and 0.3. The IL-12 reporter macrophages were infected with the candidate in duplicate and incubated overnight, as described above. After 16 hr, the cells were harvested by trypsinization, and single-cell suspensions from these infected macrophages were generated. Next, an equal volume of 4% paraformaldehyde was added to each well. The cells were fixed overnight at 4° C. Flow cytometer analysis for GFP expression was performed the following day.
Construction of phagemid for deletion of mmaA3 and mmaA4. The mmaA3 (RvO643c) and mmaA4 (RvO642c) mutants were constructed by homologous recombination using the specialized transducing phages. The deleted sequence was replaced with hygromycin cassette. Construction of the mmaA3 phagemid: The deletion phagemid for the ΔmmaA3 mutant was constructed by PCR amplification of the 5′-flanking region of mmaA3 using M. tuberculosis H37Rv genomic DNA with the following primer pairs: 0643cRL 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATAGATTGGTCACTCGATCACCGGCTTGCACGTA 3′ (SEQ ID NO:5) and 0643cRR 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATCTTTTGGGGAGACGTCGTAGTGCGCTTGGATG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:6). This PCR product is 553 bp. For the 3′ flanking region of mmaA3, the following primer pairs were used: 0643c LL 5′ TTTTTTTACCATAAATTGGGGAACAGTCGGCGAAGACGGGTTT 3′ (SEQ ID NO:7) and 0643cLR 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATTTCTTGGTGAAGTTGGCCCAGTCGCTCAGCAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:8). This PCR product is 811 bp. Construction of the mmaA4 phagemid: The deletion phagemid for the ΔmmaA4 mutant was constructed by PCR amplification of the 5′-flanking region of mmaA4 from M. tuberculosis H37Rv genomic DNA using the primer pairs 0642cRL 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATAGATTGGTTCGAGACGGCGCGTTTCATCA 3′ (SEQ ID NO:9) and 0642cRR 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATCTTTTGGCGACCCGCGTAAGGCAGACCAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:10) for the 5 prime arm. This PCR product is 994 bp. The primer pairs were 0642cLL 5′ TTTTTTTACC ATAAATTGG AGC ACTCGATC ACCGGCTTGC ACGTA 3′ (SEQ ID NO:11) and 0642cLR 5′ TTTTTTTTCCATTTCATGGTCCAACCGCACCCAATGTCCAGCAG 3′ (SEQ ID NO:12) for the downstream arm, which gives rise to a 723 bp PCR product.
Following cloning into p0004S (0642c.p004S or 0643c.p004S), the resulting plasmid was then packaged into the temperature-sensitive phage phAE159, as described earlier, to yield the knockout phages [ok?] for mmaA3 (phAE301) and mmaA4 (phAE302). Specialized transduction was performed, as described previously (Bardarov et al., 2002), and the transduction mix was spread on 7H10 plates, selecting with 50 μg/ml hygromycin.
Construction of ΔmmaA4 Complementing Strain.
Complementation analyses were performed with the cosmid 3E2 (Rv0630c-Rv0654c), which contains the mmaA4 gene in the integration proficient vector pYUB412. The transformation of the mutant strains with the constructs was described previously. Kanamycin-resistant clones were screened for reversion of mutant colonial morphology.
Small-Scale Lipid Extraction and MAME Analysis.
Initially, 10 ml cultures of wildtype M. tuberculosis, ΔmmaA4 mutant, or complemented ΔmmaA4 mutant at an OD600 nm˜0.4 were labeled using 1 μCi/ml [14C]-acetic acid and further incubated for 12 hr. Cells were recovered by centrifugation at 27,000×g for 10 min and carefully freeze-dried using a Savant SpeedVac. Cellular-associated lipids were extracted twice using 2 ml of CHCl3/CH3OH/H2O (10:10:3, v/v/v) for 3 hr at 50° C. Organic extracts were combined with 1.75 ml CHCl3 and 0.75 ml H2O, mixed, and centrifuged. The lower organic phase was recovered, backwashed twice with 2 ml of CHCl3/CH3OH/H2O (3:47:48, v/v/v), and then dried and resuspended with 200 μl of CHCl3/CH3OH (2:1, v/v). The residual cell pellet was subjected to alkaline hydrolysis using 15% aqueous tetrabutylammonium hydroxide (TBAH) at 100° C. overnight, followed by the addition of 4 ml of dichloromethane, 300 ml iodomethane, and 4 ml of water. The entire reaction mixture was then mixed for 1 hr. The upper aqueous phase was discarded and the lower organic phase washed twice with water and evaporated to dryness. Mycolic acid methyl esters (MAMES) were re-dissolved in diethyl ether. After centrifugation, the clear supernatant was again dried and resuspended in dichloromethane (100 ml) and an aliquot subjected to 1D-High Performance Thin-Layer Chromatography (1D-HPTLC), using two developments of hexane/ethyl acetate [95:5]). MAMES were visualized by autoradiography by exposure of TLCs to X-ray film (Kodak X-Omat).
Large-Scale Lipid Extraction and Purification of TDM.
Four liter cultures of wildtype M. tuberculosis or ΔmmaA4 mutant were grown to OD600nm=0.4. Mycobacteria were recovered by spinning at 3000 RPM for 15 min on a table-top centrifuge. Cellular lipids were extracted as described above from freeze-dried cells twice using 200 ml of CHCl3/CH3OH/H2O (10:10:3, v/v/v) for 3 hr at 50° C. Organic extracts were combined with 175 ml CHCl3 and 75 ml H2O, mixed, and centrifuged. The lower organic phase was recovered, back washed twice with 200 ml of CHCl3/CH3OH/H2O (3:47:48, v/v/v), dried, and resuspended with 2 ml of CHCl3/CH3OH (2:1, v/v). The lipid extract was examined by two-dimensional TLC on aluminum-backed plates of silica gel 60 E254 (Merck 5554, city/state), using chloroform/methanol/water (100:14:0.8, v/v/v) in the first direction and chloroform/acetone/methanol/water (50:60:2.5:3, v/v/v) in the second direction. TDM was visualized either by spraying plates with α-naphthol/sulfuric acid, or by spraying with 5% ethanolic molybdophosphoric acid followed by gentle charring.
The crude lipid extract (250 mg) dissolved in chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v) was applied to a diethylaminoethyl (DEAE) cellulose column (2 cm×15 cm) and the flow-through kept for further purification. TDM was further purified by preparative TLC on 10 cm×20 cm plastic-backed TLC plates of silica gel 60 F254 (Merck 5735, Darmstadt, Germany), run in chloroform/methanol/ammonium hydroxide (80:20:2, v/v/v). The plates were then sprayed with 0.01% 1,6-diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene dissolved in petroleum ether/acetone (9:1 v/v), and lipids were visualized under UV light. Following detection, the plates were re-developed in toluene to remove diphenyl-1,3,5-hexatriene and the corresponding TDM band scraped from the plates and extracted from the silica gel using three extractions of chloroform/methanol (2:1, v/v) to provide highly purified TDM.
The highly purified TDM from wildtype M. tuberculosis was reconstituted in petroleum at a concentration of 200 μg/ml. Aliquots of 500 μl were made into endotoxin-free glass vials, and the samples were dried under nitrogen for storage. The TDM stock was tested for endotoxin contamination using the Limulus Amoebocyte Lysate (LAL) assay from Bio Whittaker, following the manufacturer's protocol. Briefly, TDM in one of the vials was resuspended in DMSO to a Cf=1 mg/ml. 10 μl of the sample was used in the LAL assay. The TDMs from wildtype M. tuberculosis H37Rv or ΔmmaA4 mutant were endotoxin-free (data not shown).
Reconstitution and Dilution of TDM for Macrophage Stimulation.
At the time of the experiment, 100 μg TDM was reconstituted to 100 μg/500 μl with petroleum ether. A series of 2-fold dilutions of TDM was made with petroleum ether to yield 10 μg/100 μl, 5 μg/100 μl, and 2.5 ug/1004 after which 100 μl was used to coat a 48-well plate. The plate was air dried to evaporate the solvent and washed once with PBS, then air dried again. The TDM dose used in this assay is higher than that used for PAMPs from gram-negative bacteria, such as lipopolysaccharide, but comparable to that of PAMPs from gram-positive bacteria, such as lipoteichoic acid and peptidoglycan (Ellingsen et al., 2002; Takeuchi et al., 1999; Grangette et al., 2005). Bone marrow-derived macrophages were then immediately added at 2×105 cells/200 μl per well. For TDM and ΔmmaA4TDM cotreatment, 10 μg/100 μl wtTDM and 5 μg/100 μl mmaA4TDM were individually added to a 48-wells plate. The contents were mixed to ensure even distribution of the lipids before the plate was air-dried, washed with PBS, then air dried again before the addition of macrophages. For E. coli LPS and wtTDM cotreatment, the wells were first coated with 2.5 ug wtTDM, air dried, washed with PBS, then aired dried again; this was followed by the layering of bone marrow-derived macrophages and the addition of 100 ng/ml E. coli LPS. Cell supernatants were harvested, filtered, and then analyzed by ELISA, as described above.
Example Summary
In the evolution of the Mycobacterium genus, mycobacterial cells evolved ways to evade killing by phagocytic cells. Described here is a set of genes, the ike locus, for immune killing evasion, which when deleted from M. smegmatis allow the resulting mutant to be readily killed in mouse lungs by the innate immune system. The killing of this mutant correlates with the induction of high levels of IL-12p40, IL-12p70, and IFN-γ. Vaccination of immunocompetent mice with M. smegmatis Δike or M. smegmatis Δike containing the M. tuberculosis ike region conferred significant protection to mice challenged intravenously with a high dose of M. tuberculosis. Whereas naïve mice die in 7 to 10 days following challenge, the mice immunized with M. smegmatis Δike survived 40 to 50 days and 60% of the mice immunized with M. smegmatis Δike containing M. tuberculosis ike greater than 70 days. Analysis of the mouse lung of one of the surviving mice revealed no detectable M. tuberculosis infection and the other 2 mice at day 85 post challenge appear to be fully healthy and gaining weight. This data suggests that the vaccination has elicited effective sterilizing immunity. It is hypothesed that the M. smegmatis Δike mutant elicits a robust TH1 response by virtue of its IL-12 inducing abilities and pro-apoptotic phenotypes. Thus, the M. smegmatis Δike mutant appears to be an attractive vaccine vector to develop TH1 type immunity.
Introduction
Region 3 (R3), one of the homologs to RD1, from M. tuberculosis was annotated as essential by Sassetti et. al. (2001), and certain genes within this region were found to be up-regulated upon infection of mouse lungs. Since this region is the most conserved in all of the mycobacterial species, we hypothesized that Region 3 from M. tuberculosis plays some essential function in immune evasion.
Results
Construction of RD1 Homologue and Paralogue Deletion Mutants of M. smegmatis.
Using specialized transduction, the esat-6/cfp-3-10 like proteins were deleted from region 1 (R1), as well as their paralogs in regions 3 and 4. The entire region 1 secretion system was also identified, including genes Msmeg0615 through Msmeg0626, as well as the entire region 3 and 4 secretion systems. Regions 2 and 5, which are present in M. tuberculosis, have no homologs in M. smegmatis. Thus it was determined that neither the esat-6/cfp-10 genes nor the entire secretion system for these genes are essential in M. smegmatis. The same deletions were attempted in M. tuberculosis, and similar results were obtained with one exception. A deletion of the entire Region 3 esat-6/cfp-10 like secretion system could not be generated in M. tuberculosis, even though the esat-6/cfp-10 like genes were able to be deleted separately. Thus Region 3 plays some essential role in M. tuberculosis.
Unlike M. smegmatis ΔR1 and ΔR4, the M. smegmatis ΔR3 Fails to Kill immunocompetent or immunocompromised mice.
Intravenous infections of C57B1/6 mice with 106 M. smegmatis mc2155 have previously been shown to be rapidly cleared from these mice. The bacteria do not persist in the mouse, nor does it cause mortality of the mice. Increasing the dose to 107 M. smegmatis mc2155 or higher induces mortality of the mice within 7 days. Infection of immunocompromised SCID or Rag−/− mice show the same phenotype. When the M. smegmatis ΔR1, ΔR3, and ΔR4 strains were also tested for virulence by administration of a 5×107 cells IV, only strains ΔR1 and ΔR4 achieved mortality of C57B1/6 mice (
The R3 Region of M. smegmatis Provides an Immune Killing Evasion Function and is Readily Killed in Mouse Lungs.
Having observed the failure of the R3 deletion mutant to kill mice, the clearance of this strain in the organs of the infected mice was examined. Remarkably, this mutant was killed in mouse lungs in a highly efficient manner (
The M. smegmatis Δike Mutant Containing the M. tuberculosis ike Cosmid Fails to Kill Immunocompetent or Immunocompromised Mice.
Whether Region 3 from M. tuberculosis could complement the Region 3 deletion from M. smegmatis was determined. Using an M. tuberculosis cosmid library, the cosmid containing the M. tuberculosis R3 (ike) region was determined. This was cloned into the M. smegmatis Δike mutant, generating the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike strain. This strain was infected at a high dose intravenously into immunocompetent C57B1/6 mice, as well as immunocompromised Rag−/− mice. Interestingly, the M. tuberculosis ike did not fully complement the M. smegmatis Δike mutant, since the strain failed to kill C57B1/6 or Rag−/− mice (
The M. smegmatis Δike Mutant as Well as the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike Strain Elicits High Levels of IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α in Mice Following Intravenous Infections.
Serum cytokine levels were measured in C57B1/6 mice over several days following infection with wild-type M. smegmatis and two Δike mutant strains. Levels of IL-6, IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α were measured to identify whether a Th1 response was being elicited from these mice. A continual increase in serum IL-12, IFN-γ, and TNF-α levels was observed from Δike mutant infected mice, 4 to 8 fold as compared to wild type infected mice, which eventually returned back to normal levels (
Mice Immunized with the M. smegmatis Δike Mutant as Well as the M. Smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike Strain are Protected from High Dose M. tuberculosis Challenge.
Mice were immunized intravenously (5×107 cells) with the M. smegmatis Δike mutant as well as the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike strain. After waiting five weeks for the bacteria to clear, the mice, along with a naïve control group, were subsequently challenged with a high dose (108) of the virulent M. tuberculosis H37Rv. The results are shown in
The M. smegmatis Δike Mutant Induces More IL-12p40 In Vitro than the Wild-Type or the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike Strain.
In order to determine a mechanism of killing in vivo, a macrophage IL-12p40 transcription reporter cell line was infected in vitro. This cell line contains a GFP gene fused to the IL-12p40 promoter integrated into the chromosome of the J774 cell line. This cell line was tested to ensure fidelity to the native promoter, and then used for screening purposes. Upon infection, the M. smegmatis Δike mutant induced 4-5 fold more IL-12 transcription than the parent wild-type strain. This induction was, complemented when the Δike region from M. tuberculosis was integrated into the M. smegmatis Δike mutant strain. This was surprising, since in vivo studies with this recombinant strain did not show complementation of the phenotype. Deletion of an un-related factor, GroE1, from the M. smegmatis genome did not alter IL-12p40 transcription. Furthermore, this induction is not dependent on the Esat-6/Cfp-10-like proteins in this region, since deleting them did not induce IL-12p40 transcription. Thus the repression that is being observed in the wild-type strain is a consequence of Region 3 itself or secreting some other factor.
Mice immunized with the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike strain kill wild-type M. tuberculosis in the lung, liver, and brain after challenge. In order to determine whether the survival of C57B1/6 mice after immunization and challenge was a result of elimination of the bacteria from the mouse organs, CFU counts were taken at various time points post-challenge. The largest difference seen between the immunization groups was between 7 and 14 days. The M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike strain mc25003::Mtb R3 was able to successfully reduce the CFU counts in the liver 2.5 logs compared to all other immunization groups and the PBS control (
IL12p40 serum concentrations were measured after challenge of mice inoculated with the M. smegmatis Δike::M. tuberculosis ike strain mc25003::Mtb R3 and RvΔsecA2-ΔlysA. The mice inoculated with the mc25003::Mtb R3 strain showed a large rise in IL12p40 concentrations within a day of challenge with the virulent M. tuberculosis strain H37Rv HD (
Discussion
Deletions of esat-6/cfp-10 from R3 alone, as well as the entire region were generated in M. smegmatis. It was confirmed that the entire R3 deletion from M. tuberculosis is essential, whereas the esat-6/cfp-10 deletion is not. The R3 mutant in M. smegmatis upregulates IL-12 transcription, whereas the esat-6/cfp-10 deletion has no effect on IL-12 in M. smegmatis or M. tuberculosis. Further, complementation of the M. smegmatis R3 deletion with M. tuberculosis R3 restores the IL-12 suppressive phenotype. This complementation is characterized by necrosis of in vitro macrophage culture, allowing M. smegmatis to grow in macrophage. Infection of a high dose of wild-type M. smegmatis will kill C57B1/6 and SCID mice, while the R3 deletion allows for survival of these mice. Most interesting is the rapid rate of killing of the R3 deletion mutant from the mouse lungs. Serum cytokine levels parallel what is seen in vitro in that IL-12 and IFN-γ is upregulated in the R3 mutant infected mouse. Ultimately, Region 3 appears to be essential for protection from innate immune responses, and this evasion is mediated by some secreted molecule other than Esat-6 or Cfp-10.
Brief Introduction on Cell Biology of Phagosome Maturation
Macrophages have an innate ability to engulf foreign particles, including bacteria, into intracellular compartments called phagosomes. This phagocytosis event is then followed by a series of events leading to maturation of the phagosomes. Eventually, matured phagosomes will fuse to lysosome. Bacteria ended up in lysosome are generally killed, but it is possible that bacteria can be killed during the early steps of phagosome maturation. Two maturation events occurs simultaneously on phagosome before fusing to lysosomes. First is recruitment of LAMP1, which is a protein that recruits Rab7. Second is the formation of multivesicular bodies by the endosomal sorting complex required for transport (ESCRT). These two events appear to be independent, as LAMP1 recruitment can occur in the absence of a major ESCRT component.
Why Use Hrs as a Marker?
Both recruitments of both LAMP1 and ESCRT is controlled by hepatocyte growth factor-regulated tyrosine kinase substrate (Hrs). Because Hrs represents a common point of phagosome maturation before two separable events diverge, and because Hrs is only recruited to phagosome containing fully internalized bacteria, we chose Hrs as a cellular marker for phagocytosis and phagosome maturation.
Methods
To test whether IKE/R3 prevents/delays the recruitment of Hrs, we infected J774, a murine macrophage cell line, with mc2155 or mc25003 at a MOI 10:1 for 1 h, followed by a 1 h chase in the presence of gentamycin that would eliminate non-phagocytosized bacteria. Infected cells were then fixed, permeabilized, and processed for immunofluorescence staining using a rabbit polyclonal antibody raised against Hrs (Santa Cruz Biotechnology). The antibody had been pre-incubated with a Mycobacterium strain to eliminate non-specific binding by the antibody to the bacteria. The anti-Hrs antibody was visualized by an anti-rabbit antibody conjugated with Alexa dye 594. Bacteria were visualized by its ability to autofluorescence at blue color. The percentage of phagosomes that showed Hrs staining were determined from 50 phagosomes in triplicate.
Results
Discussion
There are three ways that an impairment of Hrs recruitment can lead better killing by macrophages. First is the ability of the phagosome to mature and fuse with lysosome. This possibility is unlikely because mc2155-phagosomes showed the same level of Rab7 recruitment and lysosome co-localization with mc25003-phagosomes. Secondly, the phagosomes containing M. smegmatis without IKE/R3 may undergo more multivesicular bodies formation by ESCRT. The third possibility is that IKE/R3 blocks Hrs recruitment by preventing phagocytosis by macrophages.
In view of the above, it will be seen that the several advantages of the invention are achieved and other advantages attained.
As various changes could be made in the above methods and compositions without departing from the scope of the invention, it is intended that all matter contained in the above description and shown in the accompanying drawings shall be interpreted as illustrative and not in a limiting sense.
All references cited in this specification are hereby incorporated by reference. The discussion of the references herein is intended merely to summarize the assertions made by the authors and no admission is made that any reference constitutes prior art. Applicants reserve the right to challenge the accuracy and pertinence of the cited references.
This is a U.S. national phase of PCT Application No. PCT/US2008/003204, filed Mar. 10, 2008, which claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/918,997, filed on Mar. 19, 2007, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 60/930,839, filed May 17, 2007, the contents of which are hereby incorporated by reference.
This invention was made with government support under grant numbers AI52816, AI063537 and AI26170 awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The government has certain rights in the invention.
| Filing Document | Filing Date | Country | Kind | 371c Date |
|---|---|---|---|---|
| PCT/US2008/003204 | 3/10/2008 | WO | 00 | 9/8/2011 |
| Publishing Document | Publishing Date | Country | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| WO2009/008912 | 1/15/2009 | WO | A |
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 6372478 | Bloom | Apr 2002 | B1 |
| 6733761 | McKinney | May 2004 | B2 |
| 6752994 | Jacobs, Jr. | Jun 2004 | B2 |
| 6821769 | Alland | Nov 2004 | B2 |
| 7722861 | Jacobs | May 2010 | B2 |
| 7758874 | Jacobs, Jr. | Jul 2010 | B2 |
| 7939089 | Jacobs | May 2011 | B2 |
| 7998471 | Jacobs, Jr. | Aug 2011 | B2 |
| 20030147861 | Watson et al. | Aug 2003 | A1 |
| 20070009547 | Brosch et al. | Jan 2007 | A1 |
| 20070202131 | Jacobs, Jr. | Aug 2007 | A1 |
| 20090110696 | Jacobs, Jr. | Apr 2009 | A1 |
| 20100297185 | Jacobs, Jr. | Nov 2010 | A1 |
| Number | Date | Country |
|---|---|---|
| WO 2006076518 | Jul 2006 | WO |
| Entry |
|---|
| International Search Report for PCT Application No. PCT/US2008/003204, 2009. |
| Written Opinion of the International Searching Authority for PCT Application No. PCT/US2008/003204, 2009. |
| Van Pittius et al. “The ESAT-6 gene cluster of Mycobacterium tuberculosis and oher high G+C gram-positive bacteria.” Genome Biology, 2001, 2:10, pp. 1-18. |
| Mycobacterium smegmatis str. MC2 155, complete genome. NCBI Reference Sequence pp. 125-127. Retrieved from the NCBI Sequence Database, 2009. |
| Yuan et al. “A common mechanism for the biosynthesis of methoxy and cyclopropyl mycolic acids in Mycobacterium tuberculosis.” Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA, 93:23,12828-12833, 1996. |
| Indigo et al. “Cord factor trehalose 6,6′-dimycolate (TDM) mediates trafficking events during mycobacterial infection of murine macrophases.” Microbio. 2003, 2049-2059. |
| Salman et al. “Synthesis of mycolic acids of mycobacteria: an assessment of the cell-free system in light of the whole genome.” Biochi. et Biophys. Acta 1437, 1999, 325-332. |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20120141533 A1 | Jun 2012 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60918997 | Mar 2007 | US | |
| 60930839 | May 2007 | US |
