Patent Application
20150056142
Traditional near-infrared (NIR) imaging in the 750-800 nm region has been widely pursued for biological research and biomedical applications in the past decades. It is well known NIR imaging can benefit from reduced optical absorption and lower autofluorescence of biological substances. However, NIR imaging still suffers from optical absorption and autofluorescence, thus there is still a need to find alternative agents for imaging.
Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for compositions including organic, water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent that emit radiation at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm, methods of making the composition, methods of imaging a disease and related biological events, methods of imaging, monitoring and/or assessing a disease and related biological events, and the like.
One exemplary embodiment of a composition, among others, includes: a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent, optionally including one or more hydrophilic polymers, and a NIR-II emitting fluorophore, wherein the NIR-II emitting fluorophore emits light in the range of 1.0 to 1.7 μm under light excitation.
One exemplary embodiment of a composition, among others, includes: a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent made of conjugated polymers including a D-A copolymer functionalized with a surfactant, wherein the D-A copolymer emits fluorescence at 1.0 to 1.7 μm.
One exemplary embodiment of a method of imaging, among others, includes: exposing a subject or sample to an excitation light source, wherein the subject was administered or sample was exposed to a composition, wherein the composition includes a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent, wherein the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent has an affinity for a target; and detecting the composition in the subject or sample using an imaging or detection device, wherein the location of the composition correlates to the location of the target.
One exemplary embodiment of a method of imaging blood vessels, among others, includes: exposing a subject to an excitation light source, wherein the subject was administered a composition that includes a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent; and detecting the composition in the blood vessels using an imaging or detection device.
One exemplary embodiment of a method of in vivo fluorescence imaging of blood flow, among others, includes: exposing a subject to an excitation light source, wherein the subject is administered a composition that includes a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent; and imaging the composition in the blood vessels to measure the blood flow in a blood vessel using an imaging or detection device.
Other composition, methods, systems, features, and advantages of the present disclosure will be or become apparent to one with skill in the art upon examination of the following detailed description. It is intended that all such additional devices, systems, methods, features, and advantages be included within this description, be within the scope of the present disclosure, and be protected by the accompanying claims.
Many aspects of the disclosure can be better understood with reference to the following drawings. The components in the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead being placed upon clearly illustrating the principles of the present disclosure.
Before the present disclosure is described in greater detail, it is to be understood that this disclosure is not limited to particular embodiments described, as such may, of course, vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for the purpose of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting, since the scope of the present disclosure will be limited only by the appended claims.
Where a range of values is provided, it is understood that each intervening value, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit (unless the context clearly dictates otherwise), between the upper and lower limit of that range, and any other stated or intervening value in that stated range, is encompassed within the disclosure. The upper and lower limits of these smaller ranges may independently be included in the smaller ranges and are also encompassed within the disclosure, subject to any specifically excluded limit in the stated range. Where the stated range includes one or both of the limits, ranges excluding either or both of those included limits are also included in the disclosure.
Unless defined otherwise, all technical and scientific terms used herein have the same meaning as commonly understood by one of ordinary skill in the art to which this disclosure belongs. Although any methods and materials similar or equivalent to those described herein can also be used in the practice or testing of the present disclosure, the preferred methods and materials are now described.
All publications and patents cited in this specification are herein incorporated by reference as if each individual publication or patent were specifically and individually indicated to be incorporated by reference and are incorporated herein by reference to disclose and describe the methods and/or materials in connection with which the publications are cited. The citation of any publication is for its disclosure prior to the filing date and should not be construed as an admission that the present disclosure is not entitled to antedate such publication by virtue of prior disclosure. Further, the dates of publication provided could be different from the actual publication dates that may need to be independently confirmed.
As will be apparent to those of skill in the art upon reading this disclosure, each of the individual embodiments described and illustrated herein has discrete components and features which may be readily separated from or combined with the features of any of the other several embodiments without departing from the scope or spirit of the present disclosure. Any recited method can be carried out in the order of events recited or in any other order that is logically possible.
Embodiments of the present disclosure will employ, unless otherwise indicated, techniques of chemistry, synthetic organic chemistry, biochemistry, biology, molecular biology, molecular imaging, and the like, which are within the skill of the art. Such techniques are explained fully in the literature.
The following examples are put forth so as to provide those of ordinary skill in the art with a complete disclosure and description of how to perform the methods and use the compositions and compounds disclosed and claimed herein. Efforts have been made to ensure accuracy with respect to numbers (e.g., amounts, temperature, etc.), but some errors and deviations should be accounted for. Unless indicated otherwise, parts are parts by weight, temperature is in ° C., and pressure is at or near atmospheric. Standard temperature and pressure are defined as 20° C. and 1 atmosphere.
Before the embodiments of the present disclosure are described in detail, it is to be understood that, unless otherwise indicated, the present disclosure is not limited to particular materials, reagents, reaction materials, manufacturing processes, or the like, as such can vary. It is also to be understood that the terminology used herein is for purposes of describing particular embodiments only, and is not intended to be limiting. It is also possible in the present disclosure that steps can be executed in different sequence where this is logically possible.
It must be noted that, as used in the specification and the appended claims, the singular forms “a,” “an,” and “the” include plural referents unless the context clearly dictates otherwise. Thus, for example, reference to “a support” includes a plurality of supports. In this specification and in the claims that follow, reference will be made to a number of terms that shall be defined to have the following meanings unless a contrary intention is apparent.
In describing and claiming the disclosed subject matter, the following terminology will be used in accordance with the definitions set forth below.
By “administration” or “administering” is meant introducing water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure into a subject. The preferred route of administration of the compounds is intravenous. However, any route of administration, such as oral, topical, subcutaneous, peritoneal, intraarterial, inhalation, vaginal, rectal, nasal, introduction into the cerebrospinal fluid, or instillation into body compartments can be used. Also, these terms can mean that the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent is introduced to a sample using an appropriate technique for the sample.
In accordance with the present disclosure, “a detectably effective amount” of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure is defined as an amount sufficient to yield an acceptable image using equipment that is available for clinical use. A detectably effective amount of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure may be administered in more than one injection. The detectably effective amount of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure can vary according to factors such as the degree of susceptibility of the individual, the age, sex, and weight of the individual, idiosyncratic responses of the individual, and the like. Detectably effective amounts of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure can also vary according to instrument and film-related factors. Optimization of such factors is well within the level of skill in the art.
As used herein, the term “patient” or “subject” includes humans, poultry, and mammals (e.g., cats, dogs, horses, etc.) and their cells and tissues as well as non-mammalian organisms or animals. Typical subjects to which embodiments of the present disclosure may be administered will be mammals, particularly primates, especially humans. For veterinary applications, a wide variety of subjects will be suitable, e.g., livestock such as cattle, sheep, goats, cows, swine, and the like; poultry such as chickens, ducks, geese, turkeys, and the like; and domesticated animals particularly pets such as dogs and cats. For diagnostic or research applications, a wide variety of mammals will be suitable subjects, including rodents (e.g., mice, rats, hamsters), rabbits, primates, and swine such as inbred pigs and the like. Additionally, for in vitro applications, such as in vitro diagnostic and research applications, body fluids and cell samples of the above subjects will be suitable for use, such as mammalian (particularly primate such as human) blood, urine, or tissue samples, or blood, urine, or tissue samples of the animals mentioned for veterinary applications. In some embodiments, a system includes a sample and a subject. The term “living subject” refers to a subject noted above that is alive and is not dead. The term “living subject” refers to the entire subject and not just a part excised (e.g., a liver or other organ) from the living subject.
The term “sample” can refer to a tissue sample, cell sample, a fluid sample, and the like. The sample may be taken from a subject. The tissue sample can include hair (including roots), buccal swabs, blood, saliva, semen, muscle, or from any internal organs. The fluid may be, but is not limited to, urine, blood, ascites, pleural fluid, spinal fluid, and the like. The body tissue can include, but is not limited to, skin, muscle, endometrial, uterine, and cervical tissue. In the present disclosure, the source of the sample is not critical. The term “detectable” refers to the ability to detect a signal over the background signal.
The term “near-infrared-II (or NIR-II)” (or sometimes referred to as the “second near-infrared window”) refers to the spectral range of 1000-1700 nm in wavelength and is different from the traditional 700-800 nm NIR region. The term “NIR-IIa” refers to the 1300-1400 nm spectral region, which is located right before a substantial water absorption peak. The term “NIR-IIb” refers to the 1500-1700 nm spectral region, which is right after a substantial water absorption peak and right before another major water absorption peak.
The term “detectable signal” is a signal derived from non-invasive imaging techniques such as, but not limited to, NIR imaging. The detectable signal is detectable and distinguishable from other background signals that may be generated from the subject. In other words, there is a measurable and statistically significant difference (e.g., a statistically significant difference is enough of a difference to distinguish among the detectable signal and the background, such as about 0.1%, 1%, 3%, 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, or 40% or more difference between the detectable signal and the background) between the detectable signal and the background. Standards and/or calibration curves can be used to determine the relative intensity of the detectable signal and/or the background.
Embodiments of the present disclosure provide for compositions including organic, water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent that emit radiation at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm, methods of making the composition, methods of imaging a disease and related biological events, methods of imaging, monitoring and/or assessing a disease and related biological events, and the like. In particular, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the present disclosure can include an NIR-emitting agent(s) (also referred to as “NIR-II emitting agent”) or the donor-acceptor (D-A) copolymer emits light, where each emits light at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm (e.g., 1.3-1.4 μm or 1.5 to 1.7 μm). Compositions including water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agents can be used in in vivo and in vitro imaging of a target such as a disease (e.g., cancer or cardiovascular diseases). Embodiments of these compositions are advantageous because they combine water solubility and low optical scattering, low absorption, and low autofluorescence by endogenous tissues, and consequently should be able to be imaged in deep tissue with high sensitivity, and high spatial and temporal resolution. In addition, the size and/or morphology of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agents can be controlled so that they have a uniform distribution, the surface of the water soluble nanoparticles can be easily modified for specific targeting and/or rapid body clearance by either fecal or renal routes for particles with <5.5 nm hydrodynamic diameters, and the fluorescence quantum efficiency of the NIR-II emitting agent is preserved.
In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include a hydrophilic polymer and a NIR-II-emitting agent. In an embodiment, the NIR-II-emitting agent emits radiation at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm in NIR-II or at about 1.3 to 1.4 μm in NIR-IIa or about 1.5 to 1.7 μm in NIR-IIb. In an embodiment, the NIR-II emitting agent can include organic molecules, nanoparticles (e.g., nanotubes, quantum dots, etc.), and other molecules and particles that emit light at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm. In an embodiment, the polymer can be functionalized with a surfactant. An embodiment of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can have a diameter (or longest dimension, length) of about 3 to 20 nm or about 3 to 10 nm and lengths up to hundreds of nanometers or about 1 micron. In an embodiment, the NIR-II fluorescent agent can have a hydrodynamic size smaller than about 5.5 nm or about 4 nm. In an embodiment, the NIR-II fluorescent agent has the characteristic of being able to be excreted through the renal system.
In an embodiment, the hydrophilic polymer can be selected from poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), polyacrylamide, polyethylene glycol (PEG), and the like, as well as derivatives of each of these. In general, the polymer can have a molecular weight of about 2,000 to 16,000. In an embodiment, the polymer can be a PAA having a molecular weight of about 2000.
As mentioned above, the polymer can be functionalized with a surfactant so that the nanoparticle is water soluble. In an embodiment, the surfactant can include polyethylene glycol (PEG) based compound, a phospholipid-polyethylene glycol compound, n-MEG, poly(vinyl alcohol) (PVA), poly(acrylic acid) (PAA), poly(propylene furmarate-co-ethylene glycol) (P(PF-co-EG)), polyacrylamide, polypeptides, poly-N-substituted glycine oligomers (polypeptoids), and the like, as well as naturally derived polymers normally include hyaluronic acid (HA), alginate, chitosan, agarose, collagen, fibrin, gelatin, dextran, and any combination thereof, as well as derivatives of each of these. In an embodiment, the surfactant can be poly(ethylene glycol)-distearoylphosphatidylethanolamine (PEG-DSPE), 1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethylene glycol) (PEG-DSPE-amine), C18-PEG, and a combination thereof.
In an embodiment, the PEG can be a linear PEG, a multi-arm PEG, a branched PEG, and combinations thereof. The molecular weight of the PEG can be about 2 kDa to 90 kDa. When used in reference to PEG moieties, the word “about” indicates an approximate average molecular weight and reflects the fact that there will normally be a certain molecular weight distribution in a given polymer preparation.
In an embodiment, the NIR-II-emitting agents can be encapsulated within and/or disposed on the surface (e.g., partially) by hydrophilic polymers to form water-soluble nanoparticle, but preferably, the NIR-II emitting agents are disposed within the nanoparticle. In an embodiment, the nanoparticle can include one or more types of NIR-II emitting agents. In an embodiment, the nanoparticle can include up to 10 to 100 NIR-II emitting agents.
In an embodiment, the NIR-II emitting agents within the particles or complexes can include, but are not limited to, small organic molecule based polymethine dyes (e.g., IR1061, IR 26, and IR 1051) (and derivatives thereof) that emit at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm, cyanine dyes (and derivatives thereof) that emit at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm. In an embodiment, the NIR-emitting agent can include the following that emit at about 1.0 to 1.7 μm: BODIPY® fluorophores (Molecular Probes) (e.g., 4,4-difluoro-4-bora-3a,4a-diaza-s-indacene (and derivatives thereof), which can be modified to alter the wavelength (BODIPY® substitutes for the fluorescein, rhodamine 6G, tetramethylrhodamine and Texas Red fluorophores are BODIPY® FL, BODIPY® R6G, BODIPY® TMR and BODIPY® TR, respectively)), 1H,5H,11H,15H-Xantheno[2,3,4-ij:5,6,7-ij′]diquinolizin-18-ium 9-[2(or 4)-(chlorosulfonyl)-4(or 2)-sulfophenyl]-2,3,6,7,12,13,16,17-octahydro-, inner salt (molecular formula: C31H29ClN2O6S2) (and derivatives thereof) (Texas Red), and Xanthylium, 3,6-diamino-9-(2-(methoxycarbonyl) phenyl, chloride (C21H17ClN2O3) (and derivatives thereof) (NIR Rhodamine dye), where derivatives of each can be used to modify the wavelength, as long as it is within the noted range of the present disclosure. In particular, the NIR dye can include, but is not limited to, NIR775, BODIPY® dye series (e.g., BODIPY® FL-X, BODIPY® R6G-X, BODIPY® TMR-X, BODIPY® TR-X, BODIPY® 630/650-X, and BODIPY® 650/665-X (Molecular Probes, Inc. Eugene, Oreg., USA)), NIR Rhodamine dyes, NIR Alexa® dyes (e.g., Alexa® Fluor 350, Alexa® Fluor 405, Alexa® Fluor 430, Alexa® Fluor 488, Alexa® Fluor 500 (Molecular Probes, Inc. Eugene, Oreg., USA)), ADS dyes (e.g., ADS775®, ADS 780®, and the like), Texas Red, or cyanine dyes (e.g., Cy5.5 Cy3, Cy5), and Li-Cor IRDye™ products.
In an embodiment, the NIR-II emitting agents can include, but are not limited to, a nanotube that emits from about 1.0 to 1.7 μm such as a carbon nanotube. In an embodiment, carbon nanotubes are generally described as large elongated fullerenes of closed-cage carbon molecules typically arranged in hexagons and pentagons. In an embodiment, the carbon nanotubes can be single wall nanotubes (SWNT) or multi-walled nanotubes (MWNT). Embodiments of the MWNT can include 2 or more walls, 5 or more walls, 10 or more walls, 20 or more walls, or 40 or more walls. In an embodiment, the carbon nanotubes including SWNTs and MWNTs may have diameters from about 0.6 nanometers (nm) up to about 3 nm, about 5 nm, about 10 nm, about 30 nm, about 60 nm or about 100 nm. In an embodiment, the single-wall carbon nanotubes may have a length from about 50 nm up to about 1 micro-meter (μm), or greater. In an embodiment, the diameter of the single-wall carbon nanotube is about 0.7 to 5 nm and has a length of about 50 to 500 nm. In an embodiment, the SWNT emits fluorescence at a range of 1.3-1.4 μm NIR-IIa with diameters in the range of 1.0 nm to 1.2 nm and can be made by HIPCO method, arc-discharge method and other methods. In an embodiment, the SWNT emits fluorescence in at range of 1.5 to 1.7 μm NIR-IIb with diameters in the range of 1.2 nm to 1.5 nm and can be made by arc-discharge, laser ablation, chemical vapor deposition, method and other methods.
In an embodiment, the select nanotubes were separated from other nanotubes based on semiconductor/metallic nature and diameter so that the select nanotube emits light in the range of 1.0 to 1.7 μm under light excitation. In particular, large-diameter semiconducting (LS) nanotubes were separated from HIPCO raw materials, and these selected nanotubes emit light predominantly in the range of 1.3 to 1.4 μm NIR-IIa region under light excitation. In general, the raw nanotubes can be sonicated, separated using ultracentrifugation, and separated in a gel-filtration column, to collect the LS nanotubes. These nanotubes have a diameter in the range of 1.0 nm to 1.2 nm and can be separated from other diameter and metallic nanotubes. In an embodiment, even larger nanotubes having a diameter in the range of 1.2 nm to 1.5 nm can be separated from other diameter and metallic nanotubes, and the 1.2-1.5 nm SWNTs predominantly fluoresce in the NIR-IIb region, i.e., 1500-1700 nm. Additional details are provided in the Examples. In an embodiment, the NIR-II emitting agents can include both the NIR-II emitting dye and the nanotube described above.
In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be prepared using a one-pot chemical synthesis. In an embodiment, the NIR-II-emitting agent (such as the dyes) and the hydrophilic polymer (such as PAA) are mixed in a solvent (e.g., DMSO) and then mixed with a surfactant. The mixture is sonicated and the solvent and unreacted chemicals are removed using a technique such as filtration. The nanoparticles are suspended in water and washed. In an embodiment, the NIR-emitting agent is disposed in the center of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent, while the surfactant agent is directed towards the outside of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent, which enhances the water solubility of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent.
In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can also include one or more types of agents bound (e.g., associated directly or indirectly) to the nanoparticle. The water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include one or more agents that can be used to enhance the interaction of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent with the subject or subject. In an embodiment, the agent (e.g., targeting agent) can have an affinity for a biological target such as, but not limited to, a compound, a polypeptide, a polynucleotide, an antibody, an antigen, a hapten, a cell type, a tissue type, and the like. In an embodiment, the agent may be an antigen specific for an antibody that corresponds to a certain disease or condition. In another embodiment, the agent may be a first protein specific for another protein. In another embodiment, the agent may be a polynucleotide sequence specific for a complementary polynucleotide sequence. In another embodiment, the agent can undergo a chemical, biological, and/or physical change, where the changed agent can have an affinity for a target.
In an embodiment, the targeting agent can include, but is not limited to, peptides, polypeptides (e.g., protein such as, but not limited to, an antibody (monoclonal or polyclonal)), nucleic acids (both monomeric and oligomeric), polysaccharides, sugars, fatty acids, steroids, purines, pyrimidines, drugs (e.g., small compound drugs), ligands, or combinations thereof. In an embodiment, the targeting agent can have an affinity for functional groups, compounds, cells, tissue, and the like, associated with a disease or condition. The targeting agent can have an affinity for one or more targets.
Thus, the agent can be selected so that the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be used to image and/or diagnose the presence or absence of the compounds, polypeptides, polynucleotides, antibodies, antigens, haptens, cell types, tissue types, and the like, associated with a disease or condition, or related biological activities.
In addition, the agent can also include, but is not limited to, a drug, a therapeutic agent, a radiological agent, a small molecule drug, and combinations thereof, that can be used to treat the target molecule and/or the associated disease and condition of interest. The drug, therapeutic agent, and radiological agent can be selected based on the intended treatment as well as the condition and/or disease to be treated. In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include two or more agents used to treat a condition and/or disease.
In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include at least two different types of agents, one being a targeting agent that targets certain cells or compounds associated with a condition and/or disease, while the second agent is a drug used to treat the disease. In this manner, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent acts as a detection component, a delivery component to the cells of interest, and a delivery component for the treatment agent. The detection of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be used to ensure the delivery of the drug to its intended destination as well as the quantity of water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent delivered to the destination.
Additional details regarding the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent and methods of making the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent are described in Examples 1 and 3.
In another embodiment, a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include conjugated polymers such as a donor-acceptor (D-A) copolymer functionalized with a surfactant, where the D-A copolymer emits radiation at 1.0 to 1.7 μm. In an embodiment, the surfactant can include those that are described in reference to the other embodiments described herein. In addition, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include agents (e.g., targeting agent) such as include those that are described in reference to the other embodiments described herein. An embodiment of a method of making the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent is described in Example 2.
In an embodiment, the selection of the donor monomer and the acceptor monomer to form D-A copolymer can be made so that the D-A copolymer has a tunable bandgap energy such that the fluorescence emission falls in the range of 1.0 to 1.7 μm. In an embodiment, the D-A copolymer can include a donor monomer such as benzo[1,2-b:3,4-b′]difuran, or its derivatives with electron-donating substituents. In an embodiment, the D-A copolymer can include an acceptor monomer such as thieno-[3,4-b]thiophene, or its derivative with electron-withdrawing substituents. In an embodiment, the D-A copolymer can be poly{4,8-bis(2-ethylhexyloxy)benzo[1,2-b;3,4-b′]difuran-alt-3-fluorothieno[3,4-b]thiophen-2-yl)nonan-1-one} or poly[(4,4′-bis(2-ethylhexyl)dithieno[3,2-b:“,3′-d]silole)-2,6-diyl-alt-3-fluorothieno[3,4-b]thiophen-2-yl)nonan-1-one].
Additional details regarding the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent and methods of making the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent are described in Example 2.
Embodiments of this disclosure include, but are not limited to: methods of imaging a sample or a subject using the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent, methods of imaging a disease (e.g., presence or progression) or related biological events, methods of monitoring or accessing a disease treatment, and the like. In particular, embodiments of the present disclosure can be used to image, detect, study, monitor, evaluate, assess, and/or screen, a condition, a disease, a disease treatment, in vivo or in vitro using the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent. When reference is made to “water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent”, any one of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agents described herein can be used to accomplish the noted method. In addition, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can include one or more agents, specifically targeting agents that target a specific disease or related biological event.
Embodiments of the present disclosure include methods for imaging a sample (e.g., tissue or cell(s)) or a subject (e.g., animal or human) that includes contacting a sample with or administering to a subject a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent or a composition including a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent. In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be excited with a laser or other light source with wavelength of about 500-1500 nm. Subsequently, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be imaged under optical excitation by a laser or other light sources using NIR imaging systems such as Princeton 2D InGaAs array or Hamamatsu 2D InGaAs image sensor, and the like. The imaging can be performed in vivo and/or in vitro. In an embodiment, the resolution obtained is less than 100 μm or about 10 μm. In an embodiment, an image can be obtained at about 1 to 3 mm into the sample or subject. In a particular embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be used in imaging a target disease, such as cancer, and determine its presence or progression/regression. For example, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent is provided or administered to a subject in an amount effective to result in uptake of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent. The subject is then introduced to an appropriate imaging system (e.g., NIR imaging system) for a certain amount of time (e.g., this depends on water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent being used, but it can be up to 3 min to 12 hours). The water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent is activated or excited (e.g., light source with wavelength of about 500-1500 nm) and emits radiation. The detected signal from the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent in the range of 1 to 1.7 μm (e.g., 1.3-1.4 μm or 1.5 to 1.7 μm) can be correlated to the amount of water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent in one or more areas corresponding the target, which correlates with the presence of the target in that location(s) of the subject. In an embodiment, the steps of this method can be repeated at determined intervals (e.g., daily, weekly, monthly, intervals in between these, and the like) so the presence/absence/progress of the disease can be monitored as a function of time and/or treatment.
Embodiments of the present disclosure include methods for imaging blood vessels in a sample (e.g., tissue or cell(s)) or a subject (e.g., animal or human). In an embodiment, the subject can be intravenously administered a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent or a composition including a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent. In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be excited with a laser or other light source. Subsequently, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be imaged under optical excitation by a laser or other light sources using NIR imaging systems, as described herein, to image the blood vessel. In an embodiment, the resolution obtained can be less than 100 μm or 10 μm or even smaller (e.g., about 1 or 5 μm). In an embodiment, an image can be obtained at a depth of about 1 to 3 mm or even deeper (e.g., 5 mm or 10 mm) into the sample or subject.
Embodiments of the present disclosure include methods for imaging blood flow in a blood vessel in a subject (e.g., animal or human). In an embodiment, the subject can be intravenously administered a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent or a composition including a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent. In an embodiment, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be excited as described above. Subsequently, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent can be imaged under optical excitation by a laser or other light sources using NIR imaging system, such as that described herein, show the blood flow in the blood vessel. In an embodiment, the resolution obtained can be less than 100 μm or 10 μm or even smaller. In an embodiment, an image can be obtained at a depth of about 1 to 3 mm or deeper into the sample or subject. In particular, embodiments of the present disclosure enable dynamically imaging and tracking in real-time blood flow in a subject. In an embodiment, video-rate imaging of the subject can be performed with an ultrafast frame rate of about 25.6 frames per second (fps). Such a high imaging speed enables clear observation of the blood flow front (See Examples). Thus, in vivo blood flow velocity measurements can be obtained using fluorescence imaging in real-space and -time
It should be noted that the amount effective to result in uptake of the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent into the subject (brain) may depend upon a variety of factors, including for example, the age, body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject; the time of administration; the route of administration; the rate of excretion of the specific water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent employed; the duration of the treatment; the existence of other drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific composition employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts.
The present disclosure also provides packaged compositions or pharmaceutical compositions comprising a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier and a water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent of the disclosure. In certain embodiments, the packaged compositions or pharmaceutical composition includes the reaction precursors to be used to generate the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent according to the present disclosure. Other packaged compositions or pharmaceutical compositions provided by the present disclosure further include indicia including at least one of: instructions for using the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent to image a subject, or subject samples (e.g., cells or tissues), which can be used as an indicator of conditions including, but not limited to, a disease and biological related events.
Embodiments of this disclosure encompass kits that include, but are not limited to, the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent and directions (written instructions for their use). The kit can further include appropriate buffers and reagents known in the art for administering various combinations of the components listed above to the subject cell or subject organism. The water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent and carrier may be provided in solution or in lyophilized form. When the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent and carrier of the kit are in lyophilized form, the kit may optionally contain a sterile and physiologically acceptable reconstitution medium such as water, saline, buffered saline, and the like.
Embodiments of the present disclosure can be included in one or more of the dosage forms mentioned herein. Unit dosage forms of the pharmaceutical compositions (the “composition” includes at least the water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent) of this disclosure may be suitable for oral, mucosal (e.g., nasal, sublingual, vaginal, buccal, or rectal), parenteral (e.g., intramuscular, subcutaneous, intravenous, intra-arterial, or bolus injection), topical, or transdermal administration to a patient. In an exemplary embodiment, the unit dosage form is given to the subject via intravenous injection.
The amounts and a specific type of active ingredient (e.g., water-soluble NIR-II fluorescent agent) in a dosage form may differ depending on various factors. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the compositions of the present disclosure will be decided by the attending physician or other attending professional within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific effective dose level for any particular subject will depend upon a variety of factors, including for example, the activity of the specific composition employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject; the time of administration; the route of administration; the rate of excretion of the specific compound employed; the duration of the treatment; the existence of other drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific composition employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts. For example, it is well within the skill of the art to start doses of the composition at levels lower than those required to achieve the desired effect and to gradually increase the dosage until the desired effect is achieved. Exemplary dosages are provided in the Examples.
Now having described the embodiments of the disclosure, in general, the examples describe some additional embodiments. While embodiments of the present disclosure are described in connection with the example and the corresponding text and figures, there is no intent to limit embodiments of the disclosure to these descriptions. On the contrary, the intent is to cover all alternatives, modifications, and equivalents included within the spirit and scope of embodiments of the present disclosure.
Recent work have shown that fluorescence detection in the second near-infrared (NIR) window (NIR-II, 1,000-1,700 nm) with carbon nanotube and quantum dot emitters allows for unprecedented tissue penetration depths for in vivo epifluorescence imaging, affording high spatial and temporal resolution owing to low autofluorescence and reduced photon scattering in the long-wavelength NIR-II spectral range. Here, we develop the first small molecule based NIR-II fluorescence agent for biological imaging in the >1000 nm range. A highly hydrophobic NIR-II fluorescent organic molecule IR-1061 is made water-soluble and biocompatible by embedding in a polymer nanoparticle coated with hydrophilic polyethylene glycol (PEG) chains. The resulting polymer-dye nanoparticles exhibit bright fluorescence emission in the NIR-II window with high photostability in aqueous media. In vivo mice imaging is performed for the first time with organic dyes emitting >1,000 nm to reach deeper penetration depth than traditional NIR imaging in the 750-800 nm window, affording visualization of the inner organs of mice and high resolution images of blood vessels well below the skin of mouse hindlimb.
Traditional near-infrared (NIR) imaging in the 750-800 nm region has been widely pursued for biological research and biomedical applications in the past decades. It is well known NIR imaging can benefit from reduced optical absorption and lower autofluorescence of biological substances in this ‘biological transparency window’ than in the visible range (1, 2). Nowadays, many fluorophores exist in the visible range and an increasing number of NIR fluorophores have become available commercially, as a result of decades of fluorophore research (3-6) including the first NIR fluorophore indocyanine green (ICG) approved by the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) for human use. ICG is a water-soluble tricarbocyanine dye emitting at ˜800 nm in the NIR region and can be safely intravenously administered in human (7).
In recent years, we and others have found that fluorescent agents with longer wavelength emission in a new NIR-II window (1.0-1.7 μm) are advantageous for biological imaging mainly due to much reduced tissue scattering of photons in this range (8-20). Prior to these efforts, the NIR-II window has been rarely explored for biological imaging since no biocompatible fluorophores exist emitting >1000 nm and that a ˜1000 nm borderline exists separating commonly used Si photodetectors and cameras from the lower bandgap semiconductor counterparts. The benefit of significantly reduced photon scattering overweighs the disadvantage of slightly increased light absorption in the NIR-II window, making it possible for in vivo fluorescent imaging to achieve higher spatial resolution at much greater penetration depths (several millimeters) than traditional NIR fluorescence imaging (<1 mm) with whole animals (11, 25-31)).
Inorganic carbon nanotubes (8-15), several quantum dots (e.g., Ag2S, Ag2Se, InSb) (16-19) and rare earth nanoparticles (20) are the only fluorescent agents used for biological imaging in the NIR-II region thus far. It will be desirable to develop or synthesize small organic molecules emitting >1,000 nm to build a much larger library of NIR-II fluorophores as in the visible and traditional NIR windows. Small organic molecule approaches are most likely to eventually satisfy all of the desired characteristics of NIR-II fluorophores including high quantum yield, high biocompatibility and rapid excretion from animals and humans. Currently, there are only a small number of organic molecules known to fluoresce in the >1000 nm NIR-II region, all of which are highly hydrophobic, water insoluble cyanine or thiopyrilium dyes including IR-26, IR-1048, IR-1051 and IR-1061 (21-24). None of the organic dyes in NIR-II have been used or are compatible in their native forms for biological imaging.
Here we report synthesis of the first biocompatible NIR-II agent based on an organic dye such as for example IR-1061 for in vivo biological imaging. IR-1061 is a commercially available water insoluble polymethine dye with a chemical name of 4-[2-[2-Chloro-3-[(2,6-diphenyl-4H-thiopyran-4-ylidene)ethylidene]-1-cyclohexen-1-yl]ethenyl]-2,6-diphenylthiopyrylium tetrafluoroborate (
Synthesis, Characterization and Photostability of PEGylated IR-1061-polymer (IR-PEG) Nanoparticles.
We prepared the IR-PEG nanoparticles through a simple one-pot chemical synthesis method. Briefly, IR-1061 and PAA were first dissolved in dimethyl sulfoxide (DMSO) and then quickly added into a DSPE-mPEG aqueous solution, followed by sonication (see Methods for details). DMSO and other excess unreacted reagents were removed from the mixture by centrifugal filtration (100 kDa molecular weight cut-off), and the IR-PEG nanoparticles were resuspended in water, repeatedly washed and centrifuged to remove any precipitates (see Methods).
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) was employed to image the IR-PEG nanoparticles deposited on a silicon substrate. Uniform nanoparticles were observed (
The formation of surfactant coated IR-PEG nanoparticles occurred when PAA and IR-1061 dissolved in DMSO were rapidly dispersed into water containing the phospholipid-PEG surfactant. As DMSO mixed with water, the hydrophobic IR-1061 molecules became bound and embedded into the hydrophobic parts of the PAA chains to avoid the aqueous phase, leading to the formation of nanoparticles that were further wrapped by amphiphilic polymers to form an aqueous stable complex containing the hydrophilic arm of PEG chains extended into the water surroundings. PAA has been reported to be an excellent polydentate polymer for functionalization of nanomaterials and is highly biocompatible (32-34). The approach of non-covalent coating of nanoparticles including carbon nanotubes by PEGylated phospholipid by our group and others has been proven highly effective in stabilizing nanoparticles in aqueous solutions including sera and blood, reducing non-specific binding of biomolecules (e.g., proteins) and imparting biocompatibility for in vitro and in vivo use (8-11, 13-17, 35).
Free IR-1061 molecules dissolved in DMSO showed an absorbance peak at 1074 nm and a shoulder peak at 945 nm. The IR-PEG nanoparticles in water exhibited blue-shifted absorbance with a sharp peak at 780 nm and a shoulder peak at 1047 nm, corresponding to change in the local environment of the IR-1061 molecules in the PAA matrix from that in DMSO. The blue shift in the absorbance for IR-PEG nanoparticles in water brought the resonance absorption closer to the 808-nm laser line used for NIR-II imaging (8-11, 13-17). Fluorescence emission spectra under 808-nm laser excitation (
The fluorescence quantum yield of IR-PEG nanoparticles in water in the NIR-II region was measured to be ˜1.8% using IR-26 molecules in DCE as a reference (quantum yield of IR-26˜0.5%; see SI and
Biological Imaging using IR-PEG Nanoparticles.
To explore the IR-PEG nanoparticles as an NIR-II fluorescent agent for biological imaging, we performed whole-body in vivo imaging of nude mice through intravenous injection of a 200 μl solution of IR-PEG nanoparticles in PBS at an injected dose of ˜0.27 mg/ml (based on the mass of IR-1061 embedded in PAA; or ˜360 μM of IR-1061). We performed video-rate imaging at 8.4 frames per second to take advantage of the relative high fluorescence quantum yield of the IR-PEG nanoparticles. Within ˜4 s of injection, fluorescence of the IR-PEG nanoparticles was observed in the lungs and kidneys of the mouse as they passed through these organs with the blood flow (FIG. 1.3A&B), before entering other parts of the mouse (
We zoomed into the various regions of the mouse body and performed imaging at higher magnifications (see Methods). The hindlimb region was imaged in both the 1100-1700 nm NIR-II region and the 1300-1700 nm NIR-II region using different long-pass filters, and compared to an image taken in the traditional NIR-I region (˜800 nm,
In this work, we developed the first NIR-II fluorescent imaging agent for biological systems based on small organic fluorophores. Mouse inner organ and blood vessel imaging with the IR-PEG nanoparticles represented the first time organic molecular fluorophores were used for in vivo animal research, matching previous NIR-II results with inorganic carbon nanotubes and quantum dots (10, 11). We demonstrated that entrapment of hydrophobic NIR-II organic dyes into an amphiphilic polymeric matrix could afford improved stability of organic fluorophores in aqueous solutions while largely preserving the fluorescent quantum efficiency and imparting biocompatibility for in vivo research. Much work lies ahead in synthesizing water soluble organic fluorophores with aqueous stability and biocompatibility without the need of polymer entrapment approach. Rational organic synthesis of small molecules with >1000 nm fluorescence emission for NIR-II imaging could potentially obtain much higher quantum efficiencies than existing ones, and tune the excitation and emission wavelengths with control. Such small organic fluorophores could also be rapidly excreted out of the body, giving little toxicity problems. With these advances, it is conceivable to develop NIR-II fluorescent agents for widely spread pre-clinical research and clinical use.
0.1 mg IR-1061 dye (m.w.=749.1; 80% dye content, purchased from Sigma-Aldrich) and 1 mg polyacrylic acid (m.w.=2 kDa; Sigma-Aldrich) were dissolved in 1 ml DMSO, while DSPE-mPEG (m.w.=5 kDa; purchase from Laysan Bio, Inc.) was dissolved in 2 ml water at a concentration of 10 mg/ml DSPE-PEG. 1 ml DMSO solution was quickly dispersed into 2 ml aqueous solution (3 ml total) and sonicated by using cup-horn sonicator (Branson Analog 450 Cell Disruptor, Fisher Scientific; power level 5.5) for continuous 5 min. Diluted into a total of 4 ml mixture by adding water, this mixture was further centrifuged using 100 kDa molecular weight cut-off filter (Amicon) to remove DMSO and unreacted reagents, and washed by water 6 times using the same filter. The complex was finally suspended in 3 ml water, followed by ultracentrifugation (50,000 rpm or 300,000 g for 30 min). Supernatant was thus acquired as solutions of IR-PEG nanoparticles. This aqueous solution can be further concentrated by using a 100 kDa filter to eliminate excess water, and centrifuged at 10,000 g for 5 min to remove any substantial precipitates before in vitro cell staining or in vivo mouse injection. NIR fluorescence spectroscopy.
NIR fluorescence spectra were taken on a home-built NIR fluorescence spectrometer in the 900-1500 nm region when excited by an 808-nm laser and in the 1100-1500 nm region when excited by a 980-nm laser. The excitation light at 808 nm was provided by an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) at a total output power of 160 mW and filtered through an 850-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The excitation light at 980 nm was provided by a 980-nm diode laser (LDX Optronics) at a total output power of 160 mW and filtered through a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The excitation laser beam was allowed to pass through the solution sample of either IR-1061 in DMSO or IR-PEG nanoparticles in aqueous solutions in a 1 mm path cuvette (Starna Cells) and the emission was collected with the transmission geometry. A 900-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) alone was used to reject the excitation light at 808 nm, and a filter set consisting of a 1050-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) and an 1100-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) was used to reject the excitation light at 980 nm. The emitted fluorescence after laser line rejection was directed into a spectrometer (Acton SP2300i) equipped with an InGaAs linear array (Princeton OMA-V). The emission spectrum was corrected after raw data acquisition to take into account the detector sensitivity profile and the extinction features of the filters.
UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of different solutions as mentioned in the study were measured by using a Cary 6000i UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer, background-corrected for contribution from the employed solvents. The wavelength range was selected to be 600-1500 nm, and the solution sample was placed in a 1-mm quartz rectangular spectrophotometer cuvette (Starna Cells, 1 mm path length, 0.4 ml capacity).
Estimation of residual amount of surfactant and dye after nanoparticle synthesis.
In a typical synthesis of IR-PEG nanoparticles, every 3 ml reaction mixture (2 ml water mixed with 1 ml DMSO) contained 0.1 mg IR-1061, 1 mg PAA, and 20 mg DSPE-mPEG, where DSPE-mPEG constituted an overwhelming majority of the nanoparticles in weight. After the formation of nanoparticles in water, the solutions were immediately frozen by liquid nitrogen and sent for lyophilization overnight. The lyophilized powder was weighed and assumed to containing only DSPE-mPEG by neglecting a marginal amount of dye and polymer in the samples. The residual percentage of surfactant was calculated as follows:
Estimation of IR-1061 composition in the nanoparticles was carried out as follows: nanoparticles in water after synthesis were lyophilized and re-dissolved in DMSO: DCM (v/v 1:1) mixture. The mixture was investigated using UV-Vis-NIR spectroscopy with scanned range from 300 nm to 1200 nm, and compared to the spectra in the same range obtained from different concentrations of IR-1061 in DMSO: DCM (v/v 1:1) mixture. Absorbance at 438 nm in all spectra, where an absorption peak showed up, was utilized to determine the dye concentration.
NIR fluorescence quantum yield measurement of IR-PEG nanoparticles.
Fluorescence quantum yield of the prepared IR-PEG nanoparticles was measured in a similar manner to a previous publication (1), using the IR-26 dye as the reference with a quantum yield of 0.5% (2, 3). In a typical procedure, a stock solution of 1 mg/mL IR-26 in 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) was diluted to a solution in DCE with absorbance of around 0.10 at 808 nm. Then a series of samples with decreasing concentrations were made from serial dilution of this solution and UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of these samples were taken to confirm their absorbance values at 808 nm were ˜0.08, ˜0.06, ˜0.04 and ˜0.02, respectively (
where QYref is 0.5% and nsample and nref are the refractive index of water and DCE, respectively.
Mouse handling and injection.
Mouse handling and injection procedures are described in the Stanford Institutional Animal Care and Use Committee protocols. Athymic nude mice (n=4), purchased from Charles River, were injected intravenously through the tail with a 200 μl solution of IR-PEG nanoparticles (360 μM IR-1061 in 1× PBS) for video-rate in vivo fluorescence imaging. The mice were anesthetized using 2 L/min of O2 with 2.5% isoflurane during the injection and subsequent imaging. Prior to injection, IR-PEG nanoparticle solutions were ultra-centrifuged at 10,000 g for 5 min to remove aggregates and bacteria. For fluorescence imaging in the NIR-I window, a 200 μl solution of IRDye-800 conjugated to single-walled carbon nanotubes ([IRDye-800]=33.3 μM) was made by conjugating the IRDye-800 NHS ester (LI-COR) to amine-functionalized nanotubes and injected into the mouse tail vein.
NIR fluorescence imaging of live mice.
A liquid-nitrogen-cooled, 320×256 pixel two-dimensional InGaAs array (Princeton Instruments) was used to capture fluorescence images of IR-1061 solutions in the NIR-II region. The excitation light was provided by an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter and a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs) before reaching the animal on the imaging plane with an excitation power density of 140 mW·cm−2. The emitted epifluorescence from the animal was allowed to pass through a 900-nm long-pass filter and an 1100-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) to collect fluorescence in the >1100 nm NIR-II region. A lens pair consisting of two touching achromats (200 mm and 75 mm, Thorlabs) was used to focus the fluorescence image of the entire mouse body onto the detector. To record a video showing the circulation of injected IR-PEG nanoparticles in the whole body, the InGaAs camera was set to expose continuously, with an exposure time of 100 ms for each image acquisition. There was also an 19-ms overhead time in the readout, leading to a total time of 119 ms between consecutive frames and a frame rate of 8.4 frames·s−1for the video.
For stationary imaging of the hindlimb and abdomen areas of the mouse after injection, the distance of the two aforementioned achromats (200 mm and 75 mm, Thorlabs) was adjusted to afford a magnification of 2.5× higher than the whole body imaging setup. The field of view was 25 mm×20 mm, covering only the hindlimb or the abdomen area. For NIR-I fluorescence imaging under this magnification, the excitation light was provided by a 785-nm diode laser (Renishaw) and filtered through a 790-nm bandpass filter (Thorlabs). The emitted fluorescence from the mouse in the front-face geometry was allowed to pass through a 790-nm longpass filter (Semrock) and an 850-nm shortpass filter (Thorlabs) to collect fluorescence in the NIR-I region. For NIR-II fluorescence imaging under this magnification, the excitation light was provided by an 980-nm diode laser (LDX Optronics) and filtered through a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs) before reaching the mouse on the imaging plane with an excitation power density of 600 mW·cm−2, lower than the safe exposure limit of 726 mW·cm−2 at 980 nm (4). The emitted fluorescence from the mouse in the front-face geometry was allowed to pass through a 1000-nm long-pass filter and an 1100-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) to collect fluorescence in the >1100 nm NIR-II region with an exposure time of 150 ms, or a 1000-nm long-pass filter and an 1300-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) to collect fluorescence in the >1300 nm NIR-IIa region with an exposure time of 300 ms.
Dynamic contrast-enhanced imaging based on PCA.
Dynamic contrast-enhanced images were obtained in a similar way to previous work by the Hillman group (5) and our group (6). First 200 consecutive frames immediately after injection from the video-rate whole body imaging were loaded into an array using MATLAB software, and the built-in princomp function was used to perform PCA. The overlaid image includes positive and negative 2nd, 3rd and 4th components, color-coded in red, green and blue, respectively.
In vivo fluorescence imaging in the second near-infrared window (1.0-1.7 μm) can afford deep tissue penetration and high spatial resolution, owing to the reduced scattering of long-wavelength photons. Here, we synthesize a series of low-bandgap donor/acceptor copolymers with tunable emission wavelengths of 1050-1350 nm in this window. Non-covalent functionalization with phospholipid-polyethylene glycol results in water-soluble and biocompatible polymeric nanoparticles, allowing for live cell molecular imaging at >1000 nm with polymer fluorophores for the first time. Importantly, the high quantum yield of the polymer allows for in vivo, deep-tissue and ultrafast imaging of mouse arterial blood flow with an unprecedented frame rate of >25 frames per second. The high time resolution results in spatially and time resolved imaging of the blood flow pattern in cardiogram waveform over a single cardiac cycle (˜200 ms) of a mouse, which has not been observed with fluorescence imaging in this window before.
In vivo biological imaging in the second near-infrared window (NIR-II, 1.0-1.7 μm) has attracted much interest recentlyl1-8 owing to salient advantages over imaging in the visible (400-750 nm) and the conventional near-infrared (NIR, 750-900 nm) regions. Detecting longer wavelength photons in the NIR-II affords reduced photon scattering in biological tissues accompanied by lower autofluorescence, leading to higher spatial resolution at deeper tissue penetration depths.9 To date, single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs)1-3,10-14, semiconducting quantum dots (QDs)6,7,15-17, rare-earth doped nanoparticles8 and nanoparticles made of small organic molecules18 are fluorophores used for fluorescence imaging in the NIR-II region. These NIR-II agents can be functionalized with hydrophilic molecules to afford biocompatibility for intravenous administration and can be gradually cleared out from the body without obvious acute or chronic toxicity in animal studies.16,19,20 However, shortcomings of existing NIR-II fluorophores include relatively low fluorescence quantum yield1,8,21, unfavorably short emission wavelength18 and potential toxicity due to heavy metals in QDs.6,7,15-17 A much wider range of fluorophores could be developed to tackle these problems. An ideal fluorophore developed for NIR-II biological imaging should allow for tunable excitation and emission wavelengths in the >1000 nm NIR-II region with a high fluorescence quantum yield and high biocompatibility.
Here we report the synthesis of conjugated polymers with intrinsic fluorescence >1000 nm through donor-acceptor (D-A) alternating copolymerization, an effective way of synthesizing polymers with tunable bandgap energy in the NIR and at even longer wavelength regions.22-29 By copolymerization of an electron-donating monomer benzo[1,2-b:3,4-b′]difuran and an electron-withdrawing monomer fluorothieno-[3,4-b]thiophene, we derive a brightly fluorescent copolymer, poly(benzo[1,2-b:3,4-b′]difuran-alt-fluorothieno-[3,4-b]thiophene) (named ‘pDA’) with fluorescence emission at ˜1050 nm with a large Stokes shift of ˜400 nm and a high fluorescence quantum yield of ˜1.7%, much higher than the quantum yield of typical carbon nanotubes (˜0.4%) used previously.3 We non-covalently functionalize the polymer with a PEGylated surfactant to afford water solubility and biocompatibility. We successfully tune the emission wavelength of the conjugated polymer fluorophores from 1050 nm to 1350 nm, and demonstrate the first in vitro and in vivo biological imaging in the >1000 nm window using conjugated polymer fluorophores. Results:
Synthesis of NIR-II Fluorescent pDA-PEG Nanoparticles. The pDA polymer was synthesized through a copolymerization reaction of two monomers, 1-(4,6-dibromo-3-fluorothieno[3,4-b]thiophen-2-yl)nonan-1-one and 2, 6-bis(trimethyltin)-4,8-bis (2-ethylhexyloxy)benzo[1,2-b;3,4-b′]difuran.26 Fluorine was introduced into the thienothiophene unit to tune the fluorescence to long wavelengths (
Atomic force microscopy (AFM) revealed the size distribution of pDA-PEG nanoparticles (
Molecular Imaging of Cells with pDA-PEG in NIR-II We investigated pDA-PEG as a fluorescent label capable of targeting specific molecules on cell surfaces for performing molecular imaging of cancer cells through functionalization of pDA with targeting ligands. We made pDA-PEG-NH2 using an amine-terminated phospholipid surfactant, DSPE-PEG-NH2.33,34 Cetuximab (Erbitux) antibodies were then thiolated and conjugated to pDA-PEG-NH2 via standard crosslinking reaction between the -NH2 groups on the polymer and —SH groups on the thiolated antibody (see Methods). Then the pDA-PEG-Erbitux was applied to target the epidermal growth factor receptors (EGFR) on the cell membranes of EGFR-positive breast tumor MDA-MB-468 cells while the EGFR-negative brain tumor U87-MG cells were used as a negative contro15 Cell imaging in NIR-II detected >1000 nm fluorescence of pDA-PEG-Erbitux (
Ultrafast Blood Flow Tracking with pDA-PEG in NIR-II Next, we performed in vivo mouse blood vessel imaging by detecting the >1000 nm fluorescence of intravenously injected pDA-PEG solutions. Owing to the bright fluorescence of pDA-PEG with a 4-fold higher quantum yield (1.7%) than nanotube fluorophores3 (quantum yield ˜0.4%), we were able to dynamically image and track real-time arterial blood flow in the mouse hindlimb with a much shorter exposure time (˜20 ms) than previously possible (˜100 ms) in the NIR-II window 3 Immediately following a tail-vein injection of 200 μL solution of pDA-PEG, we performed video-rate imaging of the left hindlimb of a mouse in the supine position with an ultrafast frame rate of 25.6 frames per second (fps) compared to the previously achievable 5.3 fps.3 Such a high imaging speed enabled clear observation of the fast-moving flow front in the femoral artery as the NIR-II emitting pDA-PEG entered the hindlimb (
Interestingly, high time-resolution analysis of blood flow-front position versus time revealed periodic variations in instantaneous velocity over time with a period of 150-200 ms, showing oscillations between the highest instantaneous blood velocity of ˜8 cm·s−1 and the lowest blood velocity of ˜2 cm·s−1, corresponding to the ventricular ejection (systolic) and ventricular relaxation (diastolic) phases respectively of a single cardiac cycle (
To further glean the oscillating blood flow front with high time-resolution, we selected a region of interest (ROI) of the femoral artery and analyzed the NIR-II fluorescence intensity as a function of time (
It is also interesting to note that the dots observed along the femoral artery in the baseline-subtracted images (FIGS. 2.4F-H) were at fixed positions over time and corresponded to local higher NIR-II intensity regions along the femoral artery. These high intensity local regions were found to coincide with locations along the vessel with slightly larger vessel diameters (by ˜20%) of the lumen measured with the vessel image. That is, more NIR-II pDA-PEG fluorophores in the blood were filled into a larger lumen and thus exhibited higher NIR-II intensity (
In vivo fluorescence imaging of live animals in the NIR-II region benefits from deeper penetration of up to a few millimeters inside the body and reduced scattering of photons that scales inversely proportional with wavelength as ˜λ−w (w=0.22-1.68) in biological tissues.3,9 Conjugated polymers have been widely used in organic solar cells,26,39 light-emitting diodes40,41 and organic electronics.42,43 Fluorescent imaging with conjugated polymers has been limited to emission wavelength <900 nm.44-46 Our current work developed the NIR-II agent with >1000 nm fluorescence based on conjugated polymers for biological imaging both in vitro and in vivo.47 The facile synthetic route of donor-acceptor copolymers could allow further tuning of the optical properties of the polymers through modifying the donor-acceptor structures (
A salient advantage of the pDA-PEG polymer as an NIR-II fluorophore for in vivo live animal imaging is its much higher quantum yield (˜1.7%) than SWNTs (˜0.4%) previously used for hindlimb blood flow tracking.3 This allows for much faster (20 ms exposure time vs. previous 100 ms)3 video-rate imaging of dynamic changes in the blood flow labeled by NIR-II fluorophore, pushing the limit of temporal resolution to a previously unattainable level of >25 fps (the instrument frame rate limit is 50 fps due to an overhead time of 19 ms). Although the pDA-PEG polymer has similar quantum efficiency (˜1.7%) to nanoparticles of small organic molecules (˜1.8%),18 since the major peak of the small organic molecule nanoparticles is located at ˜920 nm while the major peak of pDA-PEG polymer is at 1050 nm, the pDA-PEG polymer has a greater portion of emitted photons in the >1000 nm NIR-II region (˜70%) than the small molecule nanoparticles (˜40%).18 Taken together, the high fluorescence quantum yield, red-shifted fluorescence emission in the NIR-II region and low density of the pDA polymer require 10˜100× lower mass dose of injection than previous NIR-II fluorophores (such as SWNTs1-3,9-12, QDs6,7,15-17, rare-earth doped nanoparticles8 and nanoparticles incorporating organic molecules18) to reach the same in vivo imaging quality, and allow for dynamic fluorescence imaging with much shorter exposure time and higher temporal resolution. This high temporal resolution well exceeds the heart rate of mice (˜5 beats per second, or ˜200 ms per cycle) by 5 times, eliminating the need for cardiac gating typically required for low-frame-rate cardiovascular imaging techniques.38,49
Previous fluorescence imaging and tracking of blood flow usually require the removal of scattering tissue over the vessels of interest to afford higher spatial resolution, and gating devices to eliminate image blurring due to cardiac and respiratory motions on a faster time scale than the temporal resolution of image acquisitions (˜10 fps).38,50 Ultrasound imaging and optical coherence tomography (OCT) with ultrafast image acquisition rate (kHz˜MHz) have shown the advantages of measuring fast blood flow and cardiac cycles,51-53 but the spatial resolution (in the 10 μm ˜1 mm range) and signal-to-noise ratio are sub-optimal due to long wavelengths54 and speckles.55,56 Here, by utilizing NIR-II fluorescence with reduced tissue scattering and an ultrafast frame rate of >25 fps, we have enabled simultaneous blood velocity and cardiac cycle measurements as well as high resolution imaging of blood vessels 1-2 mm deep under otherwise highly scattering skin tissues.57 We have also proved the concept that the polymer-based NIR-II fluorophores can be used to track blood flow in capillaries with sub-10 μm diameters (
The dynamic range of blood velocity measurement with the fluorescence of pDA-PEG. The dynamic range of velocity measurement using the pDA-PEG fluorophores is from 0 to ˜640 mm/s, determined by both the optical properties (the NIR-II fluorescence brightness) of pDA-PEG and the speed of data acquisition of the camera used for dynamic imaging. The detailed derivation of the dynamic range is shown as follows.
Since velocity is defined as distance/time, we need to find out the dynamic ranges of available time intervals of image acquisition and the measurable distance in our imaging system. The frame rate of dynamic fluorescence imaging (i.e., the inverse of time interval per image acquisition), which determines how fast we can track the blood flow in vivo, is given by 1/(exposure time+overhead time). Here the exposure time needed for acquiring images with good quality is determined by the brightness of the pDA fluorophores, and the overhead time is determined by the rate at which the camera acquires and digitizes each image. The shortest possible exposure time is 20 ms (using the brightest pDA polymer we currently have), while the shortest possible overhead time of the camera is ˜19 ms. Therefore, the maximum frame rate we can use for dynamic imaging is 1/(20 ms+19 ms)=25.6 Hz (or 25.6 fps). Our imaging system is a low-pass system, meaning any frequency lower than 25.6 Hz is available by increasing the time interval between measurements. Therefore the dynamic range of temporal resolution is from 0 to 25.6 Hz.
On the other hand, by using different lens/objective sets to form images with different magnifications onto the camera, the measurable distance during dynamic imaging ranges from 1 m (diffraction limit) to 25 mm (field of view limit). Since velocity is distance divided by time, one can derive the slowest and the fastest measurable blood velocity in our current setup using the pDA fluorophores as follows:
The slowest measurable blood velocity=1 μm×0 Hz=0 mm/s
The fastest measurable blood velocity=25 mm×25.6 Hz=640 mm/s
Therefore the dynamic range of measurable blood velocity in our current system using the pDA fluorophores is given as 0 to 640 mm/s
The heavy-metal-free nature of fluorescent conjugated polymers bodes well for potentially low toxicity agents for in vivo applications.60 In a cellular toxicity study, we found that the toxicity of pDA-PEG nanoparticles depended on the surfactant coating, and a surfactant with branched PEG exhibited alleviated toxicity (see Methods). The mice injected with pDA-PEG were monitored over a period of up to 2 months without showing obvious toxic effects or health problems. We also attempted tuning the size of the pDA-PEG nanoparticles and obtained the smallest pDA-PEG with an average hydrodynamic size of <6 nm (
Real-time hemodynamic imaging could be of central importance to better understanding various cardiovascular diseases and designing treatment strategies.61 An ideal NIR-II fluorescent agent capable of achieving hemodynamic imaging with high spatial and temporal resolutions should have tunable emission wavelength in the >1000 nm region to minimize tissue scattering, high fluorescence quantum efficiency (>5%) for ultra-short imaging exposure time. The current work opens up future research to achieve these goals, and could eventually lead to NIR-II fluorescence agents suitable for clinic use.
Synthesis ofpDA copolymer. The synthesis of monomers M1 and M2 can be found in previous publications.62-64 For the synthesis of the pDA copolymer, 0.091 g of monomer M1 (0.2 mmol), 0.148 g of the monomer M2 (0 2 mmol) and 15 mL of anhydrous toluene were mixed in a two-neck flask. The solution was flushed with N2 for 10 min, and 15 mg of Pd(PPh3)4 was added into the flask. Then the solution was flushed with N2 for another 25 min. The two-neck flask was placed in an oil bath and heated up carefully to 110° C. The mixture was stirred for 24 h at 110° C. under N2 atmosphere. After the reaction was complete, the mixture was allowed to cool down to room temperature, and the polymer was precipitated by adding 100 mL of methanol and filtered through a Soxhlet thimble. Soxhlet extraction was performed with methanol, hexanes and chloroform. 80 mg of the polymer was obtained as a green solid from the chloroform fraction by rotary evaporation, and dried under vacuum overnight with a moderate yield of 56%.
Characterizations of monomers and pDA copolymer. All compounds, including the monomers M1 and M2, and the pDA copolymer, were characterized by nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR) spectroscopy. The 1H NMR and 19F NMR spectra were measured on a Bruker AV-400 spectrometer at room temperature. Chemical shifts were described as 6 values (ppm), where tetramethylsilane (TMS) was used as an internal reference. Splitting patterns were labeled as s (singlet), d (doublet), t (triplet), m (multiplet) and br (broad). As such, the NMR spectral assignments for the two monomers M1 and M2, as well as the product polymer, are given as follows,
1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 2.95 (t, 2H), 1.76 (m, 2H), 1.39-1.30 (m, 10H), 0.91 (t, 3H).
19F NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): −129 ppm (s, Ar-F)
1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 7.06 (s, 2H), 4.35 (d, 4H), 1.78 (m, 2H), 1.37-1.70 (m, 16H), 0.96-1.03 (m, 12H), 0.44 (s, 18H).
1H NMR (400 MHz, CDCl3): δ 6.80 (br, 2H), 4.31 (br, 4H), 3.06 (br, 2H), 2.01-1.21 (br, 30H), 0.81-1.21 (br, 15H).
Elemental analysis of the pDA copolymer was performed on a Flash EA 1112 elemental analyzer. Elemental composition of pDA copolymer was calculated based on the molecular formula (C41H53FO5S2)n as C: 69.26%; H: 7.80%; O: 11.25%, and compared to measured elemental composition by the elemental analyzer: C, 70.08%; H, 7.73%; O, 11.09%.
Molecular weight and polydispersity of the pDA copolymer were measured by gel permeation chromatography (GPC). The number-average molecular weights (Mn), weight-average molecular weights (Mw) and polydispersity index (PDI, Mw/Mn) were determined using polystyrene as the reference. Measurements were carried out using a Waters 515 HPLC pump, a Waters 2414 differential refractometer, and three Waters Styragel columns (HT2, HT3 and HT4) with THF as the eluent at a flow rate of 1.0 mL·min−1 at a temperature of 35° C.
Preparation of pDA-PEG and pDA-PEG-NH2. The as-synthesized pDA polymer was dissolved in THF at a mass concentration of 75 μg·mL−1 and mixed with an aqueous solution of DSPE-mPEG(5 kDa) (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) at a concentration of 1.1 mg·mL−1 with a 1:9 volume ratio for making the pDA-PEG, or with an aqueous solution of DSPE-PEG-NH2 (5 kDa) (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) at 1.1 mg·mL−1 with a 1:9 volume ratio for making the pDA-PEG-NH2. The pDA polymer remained soluble in the mixed solvent without any precipitation. Then the mixture was dialyzed against water to remove THF and make a THF-free, clear aqueous solution of pDA-PEG or pDA-PEG-NH2 polymers. To remove aggregates formed during dialysis, the suspension was ultracentrifuged for 30 min at 300,000 g and only the supernatant was retained. Free, unbound surfactant in the solution was removed through 30-kDa centrifugal filters (Amicon) without causing any instability to the pDA-PEG polymers, suggesting the hydrophobic core of pDA and the hydrophilic shell of DSPE-mPEG were making a strongly-held complex.
Preparation of pDA-PEG-Erbitux bioconjugate. A 200 μL solution of pDA-PEG-NH2 after excess surfactant removal was concentrated to a mass concentration of 320 μg·mL−1, determined by a mass extinction coefficient of 30.4 L·g−1·cm−1 at its peak absorbance in the UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum. Then this solution was mixed with 1 mM sulfo-SMCC for 1 h in PBS at pH 7.4. On the other hand, 12.3 μL of Erbitux solution (Bristol-Myers Squibb) at a concentration of 2 mg·mL−1 (˜13.3 μM) was mixed with a 1.64 μL solution of Traut's reagent (Sigma) at 1 mM concentration and 86 μL PBS solution. In the mixture the molar ratio of Erbitux antibody to Traut's reagent was 1:10. The mixture of Erbitux antibody and Traut's reagent was allowed to react for 1.5 h at room temperature. After removing excess sulfo-SMCC from the polymer solution and excess Traut's reagent from the antibody solution by filtration through 30-kDa centrifugal filters (Amicon), the two solutions were mixed and allowed to react for 2 days in PBS at 4° C. to make the pDA-PEG-Erbitux bioconjugate.
Spectral Charaterizations of pDA-PEG. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectrum of pDA-PEG polymer in water was measured by a Cary 6000i UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer, background-corrected for contribution from water. The measured range was 400-900 nm. The NIR-II fluorescence spectrum was taken using a home-built NIR-II spectroscopy setup in the 900-1500 nm region. The excitation source was an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) at an output power of 160 mW and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The excitation at 808 nm was intentionally chosen to balance absorption and scattering to afford maximum penetration depth of excitation light for in vivo imaging. The excitation beam was allowed to pass through an aqueous solution of pDA-PEG polymer in a 1 mm path cuvette (Starna Cells) and the emission was collected in the transmission geometry with a 900-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) to reject the excitation light. The emitted fluorescence from the sample was directed into a spectrometer (Acton SP2300i) equipped with a liquid-nitrogen-cooled InGaAs linear array detector (Princeton OMA-V). The emission spectrum was corrected after raw data acquisition to account for the detector sensitivity profile and extinction feature of the filter using the MATLAB software.
Determination of fluorescence quantum yield of pDA-PEG. Fluorescence quantum yield of the pDA-PEG polymer in water was measured in a similar way to a previous publication,32 using the NIR-II fluorescent IR-26 dye as the reference (quantum yield =0.5%).31 For reference calibration on our setup, a stock solution of 1 mg·mL−1 IR-26 dissolved in 1,2-dichloroethane (DCE) was diluted to a DCE solution with its absorbance value of ˜0.10 at 808 nm. Then this sample was diluted using DCE to a series of samples with their absorbance values at 808 nm of ˜0.08, ˜0.06, ˜0.04 and ˜0.02. Using these highly diluted samples with low absorbance minimized any secondary optical processes such as reabsorption and reemission effects. Then a total of five IR-26 solutions in DCE with linearly spaced concentrations (including the one with absorbance of ˜0.10) were loaded into a 10-mm path fluorescence cuvette (Starna Cells) one at a time. The excitation source was an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) with a linewidth FWHM of 1.89 nm at an output power of 160 mW and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The emission was collected in the transmission geometry with a 900-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) to reject the excitation light and the emission spectrum was taken in the 900-1500 nm region. The same absorption and emission measurements were carried out for pDA-PEG polymers and SWNTs in aqueous solutions too. Then all emission spectra of both the reference and the samples were corrected after raw data acquisition to account for the detector sensitivity profile and the extinction profiles of the filters, and integrated in the 900-1500 nm NIR-II region. The definition of quantum yield dictates that all emitted photons should be taken into account for quantum yield measurement.65 In our quantum yield measurements, since an 808-nm laser is used, ideally the integration of the emission spectra should start from 809 nm to cover the complete emission band; however, due to the limited choice of excitation and emission filters, we started the integration from 900 nm, which would give an underestimated quantum yield. Nonetheless, this underestimation would not be too much since one could see from the emission spectra that the emission dropped rapidly below 950 nm, meaning there would not be too much fluorescence emission under 900 nm. The integrated NIR-II fluorescence intensity was plotted against absorbance at the excitation wavelength of 808 nm and fitted into a linear function. Two slopes, one obtained from the reference of IR-26 in DCE and the other from the sample (pDA-PEG or SWNT), were employed in the calculation of the quantum yield of the sample, based on equation (1) as follows,
where nsample and nref are the refractive indices of water and DCE, respectively.
AFM imaging of pDA-PEG. AFM image of pDA-PEG was acquired with a Nanoscope IIIa multimode AFM in the tapping mode. The sample for imaging was prepared by drop-drying a highly diluted aqueous solution of pDA-PEG polymer at a mass concentration of 750 ng·L−1 onto the SiO2/silicon substrate without any post-processing steps. To plot the size distribution of the pDA-PEG polymeric nanoparticles, 100 nanoparticles were measured from the AFM images and their heights were used to generate the histogram of size distribution. Due to the effect of tip size convolution in AFM,66 the height measurement from the AFM micrograph, rather than the lateral size measurement, was used to measure the size of the nanoparticles deposited on the substrate.
Dynamic light scattering (DLS) analysis of pDA-PEG. DLS was performed using a solution of pDA-PEG at 0.75 μg·ml−1 in PBS in a 1-cm quartz cuvette. A PBS solution was used to mimic the ionic strength in blood because the hydrodynamic size of pDA-PEG was dependent on the ionic strength. The data was collected using a Brookhaven Instruments 90Plus Particle Size Analyzer.
Cell incubation and staining. All cell culture media were supplemented with 10% fetal bovine serum, 100 μg·mL−1 streptomycin, 100 IU·mL−1 penicillin and L-glutamine. The human glioblastoma U87-MG cells were cultured in Low Glucose Dulbecco's Modified Eagle Medium (DMEM), with 1 g·L−1D-glucose and 110 mg·L−1 sodium pyruvate, in the presence of 5% CO2. Human breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells were cultured in Leibovitz's L-15 medium at 37° C., CO2 free. Cells were maintained in a 37° C. incubator. For cell staining, cells were trypsinized before the as-made pDA-PEG-Erbitux bioconjugate was incubated with both EGFR-positive (MDA-MB-468) and EGFR-negative (U87-MG) cell lines at a concentration of 5 μg·mL−1 at 4° C. for 1 h, followed by washing the cells with 1× PBS to remove all free, unbound pDA-PEG-Erbitux bioconjugate in the suspension.
NIR-II fluorescence imaging of cancer cells. Targeted cell imaging in the 1.0-1.7 μm NIR-II window was carried out using a 658-nm laser diode with a 150 μm-diameter excitation beam focused by a ×50 objective lens (Olympus). The NIR-II fluorescence from pDA-PEG-Erbitux bioconjugate was collected using a liquid-nitrogen-cooled, 320×256 pixel, 2D InGaAs camera (Princeton Instruments 2D OMA-V). The excitation light was filtered out using a 900 nm and a 1000 nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) so that the intensity of each pixel in the camera represented fluorescence in the 1.0-1.7 μm NIR-II region. The exposure time was 3 s for all fluorescence images.
Mouse Handling. All vertebrate animal experiments were performed under the approval of Stanford University's Administrative Panel on Laboratory Animal Care (APLAC). 8-week old female BALB/c mice were obtained from Charles River and housed at the Research Animal Facility of Stanford under our approved animal protocols. Before hindlimb vessel imaging, all mice were anesthesized in a rodent anesthesia machine with 2 L·min−1 O2 gas flow mixed with 3% Isoflurane. Then the hair over the hindlimb skin was carefully removed using Nair to avoid causing wounds to the skin. Tail vein injection of the pDA-PEG contrast agent was carried out in dark and synchronized with the camera that started continuous image acquisition simultaneously. The injected dose was a 200 μL bolus of the pDA-PEG in a lx PBS solution at a mass concentration of 0.25 mg·mL−1. During the time course of imaging the mouse was kept anesthetized by a nose cone delivering 1.5 L·min−1 O2 gas mixed with 3% Isoflurane.
Ultrafast video-rate NIR-II vessel imaging. Video-rate NIR-II vessel imaging was done in a similar manner as our previous publication.3 In brief, imaging was carried out on a homebuilt imaging setup consisting of a 2D InGaAs camera (Princeton Instruments 2D OMA-V). The excitation was provided by an optical-fiber-coupled 808-nm diode laser (RMPC Lasers), intentionally chosen to balance absorption and scattering to afford maximum penetration depth of excitation light for in vivo imaging. The high fluorescence quantum yield of the pDA-PEG also ensured sufficient emission for ultra-fast in vivo imaging despite the non-resonant excitation under 808 nm. The light was collimated by a collimator with a focal length of 4.5 mm (ThorLabs) and filtered by an 850-nm and a 1000-nm shortpass filter (ThorLabs). The power density of the excitation laser at the imaging plane was 140 mW·cm−2, significantly lower than the reported safe exposure limit of 329 mW·cm−2 at 808 nm.67 The emitted fluorescence from the mouse was allowed to pass through a 900 nm and a 1000 nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) and to be focused onto the InGaAs detector by a lens pair consisting of two NIR achromats (200 and 75 mm; Thorlabs). The distance between the two NIR achromats was adjusted to have only one hindlimb of the mouse included in the field of view. The camera was set to expose continuously using the LabVIEW software with an exposure time of 20 ms. NIR-II images were acquired with a frame rate of 25.6 fps due to a 19 ms overhead time during readout.
In vitro toxicity study of pDA-PEG. We determined the in vitro toxicity of pDA-PEG by MTS assay using a CellTiter96 kit (Promega) on human breast cancer MDA-MB-468 cells. To evaluate how the surfactant coating of the pDA polymer affected the nanoparticles' in vitro toxicity, we coated the pDA polymer (the same formulation as in
39 Li, G., Shrotriya, V., Huang, J. S., Yao, Y., Moriarty, T., Emery, K. & Yang, Y. High-efficiency solution processable polymer photovoltaic cells by self-organization of polymer blends. Nat. Mater. 4, 864-868 (2005).
41 Kawamura, Y., Yanagida, S. & Forrest, S. R. Energy transfer in polymer electrophosphorescent light emitting devices with single and multiple doped luminescent layers. J. Appl. Phys. 92, 87-93 (2002).
To date, brain imaging has largely relied on X-ray computed tomography and magnetic resonance angiography with limited spatial resolution and long scanning times. Fluorescence-based brain imaging in the visible and traditional near-infrared regions (400-900 nm) is an alternative but currently requires craniotomy, cranial windows and skull thinning techniques, and the penetration depth is limited to 1-2 mm due to light scattering. Here, we report through-scalp and through-skull fluorescence imaging of mouse cerebral vasculature without craniotomy utilizing the intrinsic photoluminescence of single-walled carbon nanotubes in the 1.3-1.4 micrometer near-infrared window. Reduced photon scattering in this spectral region allows fluorescence imaging reaching a depth of >2 mm in mouse brain with sub-10 micrometer resolution. An imaging rate of ˜5.3 frames/s allows for dynamic recording of blood perfusion in the cerebral vessels with sufficient temporal resolution, providing real-time assessment of blood flow anomaly in a mouse middle cerebral artery occlusion stroke model.
The essential functions of the brain dictate that any significant cerebral dysfunction or disease, such as the cerebrovascular disease, could lead to severe morbidity or mortality.1 Brain imaging has relied on X-ray computed tomography (CT) and magnetic resonance angiography (MRA) to reach sufficient penetration depth,2-4 but these modalities are limited in spatial resolution (˜sub-millimeter) and long scanning times (˜minutes),5-7 impairing the resolution of small vessels and dynamic blood flow in the brain. On the other hand, fluorescence-based optical imaging of the brain in the visible and traditional near-infrared regions (400-900 nm) has relied on craniotomy, cranial windows and skull thinning techniques8-11 and the penetration depth for in vivo brain imaging has been limited to a depth of 1-2 mm8,12-14 by light scattering.15,16
Recently, we and others have shown that biological imaging with carbon nanotube and quantum dot fluorescent agents in the long near-infrared region (1.0-1.7 μm, named NIR-II region) can benefit from reduced tissue scattering and autofluorescence, reaching deeper penetration depths in vivo than traditional NIR (NIR-I, 750-900 nm) imaging techniques.17-29 Photon scattering scales as λ−α, where α=0.2 to 4 for biological tissues. The reduced scattering in the NIR-II region has allowed in vivo fluorescence imaging of blood vessels in the hindlimb of mice with -30 μm lateral resolution at >1 mm depth.22 Here, we report the first non-invasive brain imaging in a narrow 1.3-1.4 μm region (named as the NIR-IIa region), allowing penetration through intact scalp and skull and resolving cerebral vasculatures with a previously unattainable spatial resolution of sub-10 μm at a depth of >2 mm underneath the surface of the scalp skin in an epifluorescence imaging mode. The 1.3-1.4 NIR-IIa window is rationally chosen for in vivo imaging so as to minimize scattering by rejecting shorter wavelength photons than 1.3 μm while avoiding increase light absorption by water vibrational overtone modes above -1.4 μm. Further, dynamic NIR-IIa cerebrovascular imaging with high temporal resolution (<200 ms/frame) was used to reveal drastically reduced blood flow due to arterial occlusion in an acute stroke model on mice.
Phantom Imaging in NIR-I, NIR-II and NIR-Ila Regions. We first used a highly scattering medium (Intralipid ®, 1 wt % aqueous solution) as a mimic to biological tissue20 and studied the penetration depths of fluorescence imaging in the NIR-I (<900 nm), NIR-II (1.0-1.7 μm) and NIR-IIa (1.3-1.4 μm) regions. High pressure CO conversion (HiPCO) single-walled carbon nanotube30 (SWNT)-IRDye800 conjugates excited by an 808-nm laser were used as emitters fluorescing in a wide 800 - 1700 nm span (for side-by-side comparing imaging with IRDye800 that emits in the 800-900 nm NIR-I window, and with SWNT that emits in the 1000-1700 nm NIR-II window),31,32 using optical filters to select detection and imaging wavelength ranges (
Live Mouse Brain Imaging in NIR-II and NIR-Ila Regions. We performed non-invasive in vivo cerebrovascular fluorescence imaging of healthy C57B1/6 mice with the same SWNT-IRDye800 conjugates in several spectral windows. A solution of SWNT-IRDye800 was injected intravenously through the tail (see Methods) of a mouse. The head of the mouse with hair shaved off (
The wavelength dependence of fluorescence imaging of mouse brain can be gleaned by inspecting the extinction spectra of the scalp skin and the cranial bone (i.e., the skull), both of which feature a water overtone vibration absorption peak above ˜1.4 μm and a declining photon scattering profile (
High Resolution Cerebral Imaging in the NIR-Ila Window. We then used microscopic objectives to image cerebral vessels with high resolution at 15-fold (pixel size ˜5 μm) and 30-fold (pixel size ˜2.5 μm) higher magnification than used for
Statistical analysis of measured capillary vessel widths revealed an average vessel width of 9.4±2.5 μm, based on 63 different capillary vessels with widths ranging from 5 μm to 15 μm taken from a series of microscopic cerebral vascular images (
Dynamic NIR-Ila Fluorescence Imaging of Cerebral Blood Perfusion Immediately after tail-vein injection of SWNTs into a healthy control mouse (Mouse CO, we performed dynamic brain imaging (frame rate=5.3 frame per second) and observed the NIR-IIa signal arising from the lateral sulcus on both sides of the cerebrum within 3 s (
The dynamic NIR-IIa fluorescence imaging allowed us to quantify cerebral blood perfusion by measuring average NIR-IIa intensity in the region of MCAs.22 In the healthy Mouse C1, the linearly rising fluorescence signals in both cerebral hemispheres had almost identical slopes, suggesting a relative perfusion of ˜1 (see SI for perfusion analysis) (FIG. 3.4M; FIG. 3.13I&J for repeat). However, in Mouse M1 with MCAO, the relative perfusion in the occluded left hemisphere was only 0.159 (
The NIR-IIa fluorescence imaging method is advantageous for brain imaging in terms of high resolution, deep penetration depth and non-invasive nature without the need for craniotomy. Previously, imaging in the traditional NIR-I region (750-900 nm) has observed sub-10 μm capillary vessels at ˜350 μm depth with craniotomy to remove scattering extracerebral tissues,12 much shallower than the imaging depth of >2 mm below the scalp in the NIR-IIa region without craniotomy. This striking difference can be rationalized by considering the highly scattering nature of the brain tissue, with a large scattering coefficient of 7.49 mm−1 at 800 nm versus ˜2.54 mm−1 at 1350 nm (
Although the maximum penetration depth of <3 mm in this work prevents it from clinical imaging of much deeper vasculature inside the human brain, our new brain imaging method based on the long-wavelength NIR-IIa fluorescence can serve as a non-invasive biomedical imaging tool of understanding the mechanisms of the impaired neurovascular and neurometabolic regulation on both cortical and sub-cortical levels in animal model studies. Besides the cerebrovascular dynamics probed with NIR-IIa fluorescence in this work, we also envisage non-invasive brain imaging of neuronal and/or glial network activity with cellular resolution in live mice using neuronal activity indicators labeled with NIR-IIa fluorophores. In the long term, we anticipate fluorescence imaging using novel, metabolizable fluorophores with even longer emission wavelengths and less scattering to be eventually applied to diagnosis and monitor of cerebral vascular anomaly such as arteriovenous malformation and brain tumor, and other neurovascular disregulations involving rapid modification of cerebral blood flow, such as migraine.
In this work, we explored a new biological transparent sub-window in the 1.3-1.4 μm, i.e., NIR-IIa region and performed non-invasive brain imaging in this window by penetrating through the intact skin and skull. We resolved cerebral vasculatures with a high spatial resolution of sub-10 μm at a depth of >2 mm in an epifluorescence imaging mode. Compare to previous NIR-II work, we found that the 1.3-1.4 μm NIR-IIa window for in vivo imaging can further reduce tissue scattering by rejecting shorter wavelength photons than 1.3 μm. The truly non-invasive nature and dynamic imaging capability of NIR-IIa cerebrovascular imaging could allow for high spatial and temporal resolution imaging to follow biological processes in the brain at the molecular scale.
Preparation of biocompatible SWNT-IRDye800 multicolor emitter. Raw HiPCO SWNTs (Unidym) were suspended in an aqueous solution containing 1 wt % sodium deoxycholate by 1 hour of bath sonication. This suspension was then ultracentrifuged at 300,000 g to collect the supernatant, and 0.75 mg·ml−1 of DSPE-mPEG(5 kDa) (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) along with 0.25 mg·ml−1 of DSPE-PEG(5 kDa)-NH2 (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) was added to the supernatant. The resulting suspension was sonicated for 5 min and dialyzed against lx phosphate buffer saline (PBS) at pH 7.4. These amine-functionalized SWNTs were conjugated with IRDye800 dye molecules. Briefly, the as-made SWNT solution was concentrated down to ˜2 μM after removal of excess surfactant through 30-kDa centrifugal filters (Amicon) and was mixed with 0.1 mM IRDye800 NHS ester (LI-COR) dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The reaction was allowed to proceed for 1 h at pH 7.4 before removing excess IRDye800 by filtration through the 30-kDa filters.
Sorting of LS nanotubes. A 1-cm diameter column filled with 20 ml of ally dextran-based size-exclusion gel (Sephacryl S-200, GE Healthcare) was used to perform diameter separation of HiPCO SWNTs. 2.5 mg of raw HiPCO SWNTs was sonicated in water with 1 wt % sodium cholate (SC) for 1 h, followed by ultracentrifugation at 300,000 g for 30 min. 80% of the supernatant was collected and diluted with same volume of 1 wt % sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution before adding to the gel column. Metallic SWNTs passed the column directly, while semiconducting SWNTs were trapped. Finally, a 0.6 wt % SC/0.4 wt % SDS mixed surfactant solution was added to wash out and collect the LS nanotubes.
NIR fluorescence spectroscopy of the SWNT-IRDye800 conjugate. NIR fluorescence spectrum was taken using a home-built NIR spectroscopy setup in the 850-1650 nm region. The excitation light was provided by a 160-mW, 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The excitation light was allowed to pass through the solution of SWNT-IRDye800 conjugate in a 1-mm path cuvette (Starna Cells) and the emission was collected in the transmission geometry. The excitation light was rejected using an 850-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs). The emitted fluorescence was directed into a spectrometer (Acton SP2300i) equipped with a liquid-nitrogen-cooled InGaAs linear array detector (Princeton OMA-V).
Mouse handling, surgery and injection. C57B1/6 mice were obtained from Taconic Farms. All animal studies were approved by Stanford University's Administrative Panel on Laboratory Animal Care. For induction of MCAO, an incision was made on the left common carotid artery (CCA) and a silicon-coated nylon filament was introduced into the left CCA and threaded forward into internal carotid artery (ICA) until the tip occluded the origin of the middle cerebral artery (MCA). For induction of cerebral hypoperfusion, only the left external carotid artery (ECA) and common carotid artery (CCA) were ligated. The hair over the scalp was removed using Nair before tail-vein injection and imaging. All mice were anaesthetized before injection using 2 L·min−1 O2 gas flow mixed with 3% Isoflurane. For comparative cerebrovascular imaging in different NIR sub-regions, a solution (200 μL) of 0.43 mg·mL−1 SWNT-IRDye800 was injected. For dynamic NIR-IIa imaging, a solution (200 μL) of 0.43 mg·mL−1 SWNT-DSPE-mPEG without IRDye800 was injected. A 28-gauge syringe needle was inserted into the tail vein for injection. For steady-state imaging of the mouse brain, injection was done ˜5 min before the mouse was placed on the imaging stage. For dynamic imaging, injection was done in the dark when the mouse was already placed on the imaging stage and the InGaAs camera started recording images continuously immediately after the nanotube solution was injected into the tail vein.
NIR fluorescence imaging in different sub-regions. A liquid-nitrogen-cooled, 320×256 pixel two-dimensional InGaAs array (Princeton Instruments) was used to take images in all sub-regions of NIR including the NIR-I, NIR-II and NIR-IIa regions. The excitation light was provided by an 808-nm diode laser coupled to a 4 5-mm collimator, and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter and a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), with an in-plane excitation power density of 140 mW·cm−2. The emitted fluorescence was allowed to pass through different filter sets to ensure the images taken in different NIR sub-regions. A lens pair consisting of two achromats was used to focus the image onto the detector with different magnifications (see SI for detailed information for selections of filter sets and lens sets).
Microscopic NIR-Ha imaging of cerebral vessels. High-magnification intravital imaging of cerebral vessels was carried out with a 160-mW, 808-nm diode laser as the excitation source and two objective lens (4× and 10×, Bausch & Lomb) for microscopic imaging. The mouse with scalp hair removed was injected with a solution (200 μL) of 0.22 mg·mL−1 LS nanotubes and placed on a home-made stereotactic platform fixed on a motorized 3D translational stage with digital position readout (Newport). The resulting NIR photoluminescence was collected using the same 2D InGaAs camera in the NIR-IIa window as aforementioned. The depth of vessels was determined by recording the distance the 3D stage had travelled axially to the objective from focusing on the scalp surface. Snell's law was applied to correct for the actual depth due to refractive index mismatch.8
Dynamic cerebrovascular imaging in the NIR-Ha window. The dynamic imaging setup was the same as the aforementioned NIR-IIa fluorescence brain imaging with lower magnification that covered the entire mouse head. The InGaAs camera was set to expose continuously with an exposure time of 100 ms, to which an 87.5-ms overhead time was added to result in a frame rate of 5.3 frames·s−1. The dynamic-contrast-enhanced images were obtained by loading the first 100 consecutive frames with the MATLAB software for PCA analysis of arterial and venous vessels based on their haemodynamic difference.20,22,46
Preparation of water-soluble and biocompatible SWNT-IRDye800 multicolor emitter. The preparation of water soluble and biocompatible SWNTs is based upon the detailed procedure described in another publication of our group with some modifications.1 In brief, raw HiPCO SWNTs (Unidym) were suspended in an aqueous solution containing 1 wt % sodium deoxycholate by 1 hour of bath sonication. This suspension was then ultracentrifuged at 300,000 g to remove the nanotube bundles and other large aggregates. The supernatant was retained after ultracentrifugation and 0.75 mg·ml-1 of DSPE-mPEG(5 kDa) (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[methoxy(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) along with 0.25 mg·ml-1 of DSPE-PEG(5 kDa)-NH2 (1,2-distearoyl-sn-glycero-3-phosphoethanolamine-N-[amino(polyethyleneglycol, 5000)], Laysan Bio) was added to the supernatant. The resulting suspension was sonicated in a bath sonicator briefly for 5 min and then dialyzed in a 3500 Da membrane (Fisher) against lx phosphate buffer saline (PBS) solution at pH 7.4 with a minimum of six bath changes and a minimum of two hours between changes of water bath. To remove aggregates formed during dialysis, the suspension was ultracentrifuged again for 30 min at 300,000 g. This surfactant-exchanged SWNT sample has lengths ranging between 100 nm and 2.0 μm with the average length of ˜500 nm. These amine-functionalized SWNTs were further conjugated with IRDye800 dye molecules according to the protocol developed in our group.2 Briefly, the as-made SWNT solution was concentrated down to ˜2 μM after removal of excess surfactant through 30-kDa centrifugal filters (Amicon) and was mixed with 0.1 mM IRDye800 NHS ester (LI-COR) dissolved in dimethylsulfoxide (DMSO). The reaction was allowed to proceed for 1 h at pH 7.4 before purification to remove excess IRDye800 by filtration through the 30-kDa filters. The as-made SWNT-IRDye800 conjugate solution was kept at 4° C. in the refrigerator and away from light to avoid photobleaching of the IRDye800 fluorescence.
Sorting of large-diameter semiconducting (LS) nanotubes. A 1-cm diameter column filled with 20 ml of ally dextran-based size-exclusion gel (Sephacryl S-200, GE Healthcare) was used as filtration medium to perform diameter separation of HiPCO SWNTs.3 2.5 mg of raw HiPCO SWNTs (Unidym) was sonicated in water with 1 wt % sodium cholate (SC) for 1 h, followed by an ultracentrifugation at 300,000 g for 30 min to remove large bundles and aggregates. 80% of the SC-dispersed supernatant was collected and diluted with same volume of 1 wt % sodium dodecyl sulfate (SDS) solution to make a mixture of 0.5 wt % SC and 0.5 wt % SDS surfactants, before adding to the gel column. Metallic SWNTs passed the column directly, while semiconducting SWNTs were trapped. Finally, a 0.6 wt % SC/0.4 wt % SDS mixed surfactant solution was added to wash out and collect the LS nanotubes.
UV-Vis-NIR absorption measurements. UV-Vis-NIR absorption spectra of water, 1% Intralipid in water and acetone, the mouse cranial bone and scalp skin were measured by a Cary 6000i UV-Vis-NIR spectrophotometer, background-corrected for contribution from any solvent. The measured range was 600-1800 nm. For water and 1% Intralipid in acetone, since there was no scattering of light by the samples, only absorption spectra were measured. For 1% Intralipid in water and the mouse tissue samples, since the UV-Vis-NIR spectrometer only collected light at the incident angle of the beam, the scattered incident light from the sample would not be collected and would thus add to the absorption spectra. Therefore the obtained absorption spectrum for any scattering sample should really be extinction spectra, which can be considered as a combination of the absorption spectrum and the scattering spectrum.
NIR fluorescence spectroscopy of the SWNT-IRDye800 conjugate. NIR fluorescence spectrum was taken using a home-built NIR spectroscopy setup in the 850-1650 nm region. The excitation light was provided by an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) at an output power of 160 mW and filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs), an 1100-nm short-pass filter (Omega) and a 1300-nm short-pass filter (Omega). The excitation light was allowed to pass through the solution sample of SWNT-IRDye800 conjugate in a 1 mm path cuvette (Starna Cells) and the emission was collected in the transmission geometry. The excitation light was rejected using an 850-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) so that the fluorescence of both IRDye800 and SWNTs could be collected in the 850-1650 nm wavelength range. The emitted fluorescence from the solution sample was directed into a spectrometer (Acton SP2300i) equipped with a liquid-nitrogen-cooled InGaAs linear array detector (Princeton OMA-V). The emission spectrum was corrected after data acquisition to account for the laser excitation bleed-through, the sensitivity profile of the detector and extinction feature of the filter using the MATLAB software.
Mouse handling, surgery and injection. C57B1/6 mice were obtained from Taconic Farms. All animal studies were approved by Stanford University's Administrative Panel on Laboratory Animal Care. Induction of middle cerebral artery occlusion (MCAO) and cerebral hypoperfusion was performed according to a previous study with minor modifications.4 Briefly, mice were anesthetized using 30% O2, 70% N2O, and 2% isoflurane before surgery. For induction of MCAO, an incision was made on the left common carotid artery (CCA) and a silicon-coated nylon filament (Doccol Co., CA) was introduced into the left CCA and threaded forward into internal carotid artery (ICA) until the tip occludes the origin of the middle cerebral artery (MCA). For induction of cerebral hypoperfusion, only the left external carotid artery (ECA) and common carotid artery (CCA) were ligated. Control, unsurgerized mice (n=3), mice with induced MCAO (n=4) and mice with cerebral hypoperfusion (n=4) were used in the study. The hair over the scalp skin was removed using Nair before tail-vein injection and imaging. All mice were initially anesthesized before imaging in a knockdown box with 2 L·min-1 O2 gas flow mixed with 3% Isoflurane. A nose cone delivered 1.5 L·min-1 O2 gas and 3% Isoflurane throughout imaging. For comparative cerebrovascular imaging in NIR-I, NIR-II and NIR-IIa regions, a solution (200 μL) of 0.43 mg·mL-1 (4.3 mg·kg-1 body weight) SWNT-IRDye800 conjugates was injected into a mouse intravenously. For dynamic imaging in the NIR-IIa region, a solution (200 μL) of 0.43 mg·mL-1 (4.3 mg·kg-1 body weight) SWNT-DSPE-mPEG without IRDye800 was injected into a mouse intravenously. The maximum SWNT concentration in the blood circulation was ˜4× lower than our previously found half maximal inhibitory concentration (IC50) of SWNTs to vascular endothelial cells.5 The blood circulation half-time of DSPE-mPEG functionalized SWNTs was ˜5 h,6 and our previous studies had shown the lack of acute or long-term toxicity of such PEGylated SWNTs in vivo.?-9 For the injection of nanotube solution, a 28 gauge syringe needle was inserted into the tail vein, allowing for bolus injection during the first frames of imaging. For steady-state imaging of the mouse head, injection was usually done ˜5 min before the mouse was transferred to the imaging stage and imaged. For dynamic imaging of the mouse head, injection was done in the dark and the InGaAs camera started recording images continuously immediately after the nanotube solution was injected into the tail vein.
NIR fluorescence imaging of phantom and mouse brain in different sub-regions. A liquid-nitrogen-cooled, 320×256 pixel two-dimensional InGaAs array (Princeton Instruments) was used to take images in all sub-regions of NIR including the NIR-I, the NIR-II and the NIR-IIa regions. The excitation light was provided by an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers) coupled to a collimator with a focal length of 4.5 mm (Thorlabs). The excitation light was filtered by an 850-nm short-pass filter and a 1000-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs) before reaching the sample on the imaging plane. The excitation power density at the imaging plane was 140 mW·cm-2, significantly lower than the reported safe exposure limit of 329 mW·cm-2 at 808 nm.10 The emitted fluorescence was allowed to pass through different filter sets to ensure the NIR images taken in different sub-regions. For the NIR-I region, an 850-nm long-pass filter and a 900-nm short-pass filter (Thorlabs) were used the confine the NIR-I region of 850-900 nm. For the NIR-II region, a 910-nm long-pass filter and a 1000-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) were used to confine the NIR-II region of 1000-1700 nm. The upper bound at 1700 nm was determined by the sensitivity profile of the InGaAs detector. For the NIR-IIa region, a 1000-nm long-pass filter, a 1300-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) and a 1400-nm short-pass filter (Edmund Optics) were used to confine the NIR-II region of 1300-1400 nm. A lens pair consisting of two achromats (200 mm and 75 mm, Thorlabs) was used to focus the image onto the detector with a field of view of 25 mm×20 mm, which covered a segment of the SWNT-IRDye800-filled capillary tube in the phantom imaging case and only the head and the neck area of the mouse in the in vivo brain imaging case. A higher magnification was also achieved by using two other NIR achromats (150 mm and 200 mm, Thorlabs) to zoom into a smaller region of the brain. Phantom NIR fluorescence images were flat-field corrected to compensate for the non-uniformity of the excitation laser beam.
High resolution microscopic imaging of cerebral vessels in the NIR-Ha region. High-magnification intravital imaging of cerebral vessels was carried out in epifluorescence mode with an 808-nm diode laser (RMPC lasers, 160 mW) as the excitation source and two objective lens (4× and 10×, Bausch & Lomb) for microscopic imaging. The mouse with scalp hair removed was intravenously injected with a solution (200 μL) of 0.22 mg·mL-1 (2.2 mg·kg-1 body weight) separated LS nanotubes and placed in a home-made stereotactic platform fixed on a motorized 3D translational stage (Newport) that allowed for the digital position adjustment and readout of the mouse relative to the objective. The stereotactic stage had two posts fixed on two dovetail linear translational stages (Thorlabs) allowing for fine adjustment to fix the motion of the mouse head. The resulting NIR photoluminescence was collected using the same 2D InGaAs camera as aforementioned. The emitted fluorescence was filtered through a 1000-nm long-pass filter, a 1300-nm long-pass filter (Thorlabs) and a 1400-nm short-pass filter (Edmund Optics) to ensure only photons in the 1300-1400 nm NIR-IIa region were collected. Exposure times of 0.3-1 s were used for best signal-to-noise ratio. The depth of vessels was determined by first focusing the imaging plane onto the surface of the scalp skin, setting this as zero depth, and recording the axial distance the platform had travelled relative to the objective from the zero depth to reach a vascular image, based on the digital readout of the 3D translational stage. Since the objective was immersed in air, the raw axial movement of the objective was corrected to account for the refractive index difference of scalp skin (n=1.38),11 cranial bone (n=1.56)12 and brain tissue (n=1.35)13 and to obtain the actual imaging depth inside the brain based on Snell's law.14
Dynamic cerebral vascular imaging in the NIR-Ha window. The dynamic imaging setup was the same as the aforementioned NIR-IIa fluorescence brain imaging with lower magnification that covered the entire mouse head. The InGaAs camera was set to expose continuously, and fluorescence images in the NIR-IIa window were acquired with LabVIEW software. The exposure time for each image acquisition was 100 ms. There was also an 87.5-ms overhead time in the readout, leading to a total time of 187.5 ms between consecutive frames and a frame rate of 5.3 frames·s-1 for the video. Depending on the orientation of the mouse head, the time-course images were rotated to make the head upright in the field of view using the MATLAB built-in function imrotate. This turned the left and right cerebral hemispheres symmetrical in the image and made it easier to select ROIs for cerebral blood perfusion measurement later. Then dynamic-contrast-enhanced images were obtained by loading 100 consecutive frames starting from the frame when signal first appeared in the brain, into an array using the MATLAB software, and the built-in princomp function was used to perform PCA.5,6,15 The principal components featuring pixels showing up earlier in the video were automatically combined and used to represent arterial features while those featuring pixels showing up later in the video were combined and used to represent venous features based on the haemodynamic difference of arterial and venous flows.
Brain blood perfusion measurement using NIR-IIa fluorescence. In a typical procedure for brain blood perfusion measurement, consecutive NIR-IIa images taken from dynamic imaging were loaded into MATLAB software, and ROIs of both the surgerized left cerebral hemisphere and the untreated right cerebral hemisphere were selected in the lateral sulcus region. The NIR-IIa fluorescence intensity increase within each ROI was plotted as a function of time from 0 s to 3.94 s (22 frames) p.i. The plot featured a linear rising edge starting at s followed by a plateau region due to blood saturation of NIR-IIa contrast agent. Then the plot was normalized against the saturation level of the control cerebral hemisphere (i.e., the right hemisphere) and the linear rising edge after normalization was fitted into a line with its slope proportional to blood velocity as proved in previous publications.5,16 By such analysis two slope values were obtained for each mouse, one derived from the control right cerebral hemisphere, and the other derived from the surgerized left cerebral hemisphere. Then the slope derived from the left hemisphere was normalized against that from right hemisphere to obtain the relative perfusion in the surgerized brain tissue to reveal the degree of occlusion of blood perfusion:
This measurement was repeated for 3-4 mice in each group to obtain statistically significant data.
Vessel width analysis for NIR-IIa images. To analyze the widths of blood vessels for in vivo cerebral vascular imaging, all images were loaded into the Image) software, and a line was drawn perpendicular to a linear feature of interest (i.e., a blood vessel). Then the NIR-IIa intensity values on this line were extracted and plotted against their physical locations along this line. The blood vessels intersected by the line were represented as peaks in the intensity profile and each peak was fitted into a Gaussian function using the Origin software.
Laser Doppler flowmetry for cerebral blood perfusion measurement. Mice were anesthetized with 1.5% isoflurane (1.5%), O2 (30%) and N2O (70%) mixture. Body temperature was maintained at 36-37° C. A flexible fiberoptic probe was affixed to the skull over the MCA (2 mm posterior and 6.5 mm lateral to bregma) after the scalp skin was removed for cerebral blood flow (CBF) measurements by laser Doppler flowmetry (LDF). Baseline CBF values were measured before vascular intervention and considered to be 100% flow.
It should be noted that ratios, concentrations, amounts, and other numerical data may be expressed herein in a range format. It is to be understood that such a range format is used for convenience and brevity, and thus, should be interpreted in a flexible manner to include not only the numerical values explicitly recited as the limits of the range, but also to include all the individual numerical values or sub-ranges encompassed within that range as if each numerical value and sub-range is explicitly recited. To illustrate, a concentration range of “about 0.1% to about 5%” should be interpreted to include not only the explicitly recited concentration of about 0.1 wt % to about 5 wt %, but also include individual concentrations (e.g., 1%, 2%, 3%, and 4%) and the sub-ranges (e.g., 0.5%, 1.1%, 2.2%, 3.3%, and 4.4%) within the indicated range. In an embodiment, the term “about” can include traditional rounding according to significant figures of the numerical value. In addition, the phrase “about ‘x’ to ‘y’” includes “about ‘x’ to about ‘y’”.
It should be emphasized that the above-described embodiments of the present disclosure are merely possible examples of implementations, and are merely set forth for a clear understanding of the principles of this disclosure. Many variations and modifications may be made to the above-described embodiment(s) of the disclosure without departing substantially from the spirit and principles of the disclosure. All such modifications and variations are intended to be included herein within the scope of this disclosure and protected by the following claims.
This application claims priority to copending U.S. Provisional Application entitled “NEAR-INFRARED-II FLUORESCENT AGENTS, METHODS OF MAKING NEAR-INFRARED-II FLUORESCENT AGENTS, AND METHODS OF USING WATER-SOLUBLE NIR-II FLUORESCENT AGENTS” having Ser. No. 61/867,700, filed on Aug. 20, 2013, which is incorporated herein by reference.
This invention was made with Government support under Contract/Grant No. 5R01CA135109-02, awarded by National Cancer Institute of US National Institute of Health. The Government has certain rights in this invention.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 61867700 | Aug 2013 | US |
