Non-light activated adhesive composite, system, and methods of use thereof

Abstract

The present invention provides a non-light activated adhesive composite, method, and system suitable for medical and surgical applications. The composite includes a scaffold and a non-light activated adhesive. The scaffold and the non-light activated adhesive include biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable materials.

Description

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention relates to the field of biological tissue repair and/or wound closure, e.g., after injury to the tissue or surgery. More particularly, the present invention relates to the use of biological or biocompatible adhesive composites for the repair of biological tissue.

BACKGROUND

Known methods of biological tissue repair include sutures, staples and clips, sealants, and adhesives. Sutures are inexpensive, reliable, readily available and can be used on many types of lacerations and incisions. However, the use of sutures has many drawbacks. Sutures are intrusive in that they require puncturing of the tissue. Also, sutures require technical skill for their application, they can result in uneven healing, and they often necessitate patient follow-up visits for their removal. In addition, placement and removal of sutures in children may require sedation or anesthesia.

Staples or clips are preferred over sutures, for example, in minimally invasive endoscopic applications. Staples and clips require less time to apply than sutures, are available in different materials to suit different applications, and generally achieve uniform results. However, staples and clips are not easily adapted to different tissue dimensions and maintaining precision of alignment of the tissue is difficult because of the relatively large force required for application. Further, none of these fasteners is capable of producing a watertight seal for the repair.

Sealants, including fibrin-, collagen-, synthetic polymer- and protein-based sealants, act as a physical barrier to fluid and air, and can be used to promote wound healing, tissue regeneration and clot formation. However, sealants are generally time-consuming to prepare and apply. Also, with fibrin-based sealants, there is a risk of blood-borne viral disease transmission. Further, sealants cannot be used in high-tension areas.

Adhesives, for example, cyanoacrylate glues, have the advantage that they are generally easy to dispense. However, application of adhesives during the procedure can be cumbersome. Because of their liquid nature, these adhesives are difficult to precisely position on tissue and thus require adept and delicate application if precise positioning is desired. Cyanoacrylates also harden rapidly; therefore, the time available to the surgeon for proper tissue alignment is limited. Further, when cyanoacrylates dry, they become brittle. Thus, they cannot be used in areas of the body that have frequent movement. In addition, the currently available adhesives are not optimal for high-tension areas.

Laser tissue solders, or “light-activated adhesives,” are a possible alternative for overcoming the problems associated with the above-mentioned techniques. Laser tissue soldering is a bonding technique in which a protein solder is applied to the surface of the tissue(s) to be joined and laser energy is used to bond the solder to the tissue surface(s).

The use of biodegradable polymer scaffolding in laser-solder tissue repairs has been shown to improve the success rate and consistency of such repairs. See, for example, McNally et al., U.S. Pat. No. 6,391,049. However, a drawback of laser-soldering techniques is the need to supply light energy to the repair site to activate the adhesive. As a result, such techniques are only suitable for a limited number of clinical applications. For example, such techniques are generally not suitable for use outside of a hospital or other laser-equipped setting. Also, with laser techniques, there is always a risk of collateral thermal damage to the surrounding tissue.

Accordingly, there is a need for an improved method of biological tissue repair; particularly, a device or surgical product, system, and/or method which is capable of replacing the conventional suture, staple and clip techniques in a wide variety of applications.

SUMMARY

A novel biocompatible or biological adhesive composite that results from the combination of a non-light activated adhesive and a scaffold material has been invented. This composite has exhibited surprisingly good tensile strength and consistency when compared with sutures and the use of adhesives alone. It can be used effectively as an adhesive, sealing or repairing device for biological tissue. It may also be used as a depot for drugs in providing medication to a wound or repair site. The composite can be precisely positioned across, on top of, or between two materials to be joined (i.e. tissue-to-tissue or tissue-to-biocompatible implant). Proper alignment is accomplished within the time period before the adhesive sets or hardens. Thus, the composite can be applied to a repair site more quickly and easily than sutures or adhesives alone. In addition, application of the composite can provide a watertight seal at the repair site when required.

The improved ease of clinical application makes the composite of the present invention applicable to all internal and external fields of surgery, extending from emergency neurosurgical and trauma procedures to elective cosmetic surgery, as well as to ophthalmic applications. Examples of external or topical applications for the composite include, but are not limited to, wound closure from trauma or at surgical incision sites. Internal surgical applications include, but are not limited to, repair of liver, spleen, or pancreas lacerations from trauma, dural laceration/incision closure, pneumothorax repair during thoracotomy, sealing points of vascular access following endovascular procedures, vascular anastomoses, tympanoplasty, endoscopic treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers/bleeds, dental applications for mucosal ulcerations or splinting of injured teeth, ophthalmologic surgeries, tendon and ligament repair in orthopedics, episiotomy/vaginal tear repair in gynecology. Additionally, as minimally invasive techniques become more common, the application of this technology to endoscopic, laparoscopic or endovascular techniques is very promising. With appropriate single-use packaging, the invention offers the potential for quick application in the field by less skilled professionals, paraprofessionals and bystanders in emergency situations—both military and civilian—outside a hospital or clinic setting.

Various techniques for forming the composite of the present invention and/or applying it to a wound or tissue repair site may be used. Additionally, there are numerous suitable alternatives for packaging the composite depending on the desired use, environment, or applications.

In accordance with the present invention, a composition suitable for medical and surgical applications is provided. The composition includes a scaffold including at least one of a biological material, biocompatible material, and biodegradable material, and a non-light activated adhesive including at least one of a biological material, biocompatible material, and biodegradable material. The non-light activated adhesive is combined with the scaffold to form a composite that, when used to repair biological tissue, has a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone.

Also in accordance with the present invention, a method for repairing, joining, aligning, or sealing biological tissue is provided. The method includes the steps of combining a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable scaffold and a non-light activated biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable adhesive to form a composite having a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone, and applying the composite to an adhesion site.

Yet further in accordance with the present invention, a product for joining, repairing, aligning or sealing biological tissue is provided. The product includes a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable scaffold, a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable non-light activated adhesive, and means for coupling the scaffold and the adhesive to form a composite having a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

FIG. 1 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 1, comparing the maximum strength of repairs formed in organ specimens quoted as a percentage of native tissue strength;

FIG. 2 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 1, comparing the maximum strength of repairs formed in vascular specimens quoted as a percentage of native tissue strength;

FIGS. 3A-3B are photographs showing the surgical technique used in Example 2 to perform strabismus surgery on rabbit eyes using cyanoacrylate glue alone;

FIG. 4A-4C are photographs showing the surgical technique used in Example 2 to perform strabismus surgery on rabbit eyes using scaffold-enhanced cyanoacrylate glue;

FIG. 5 is a photograph of the incision sites on the dorsal skin of a rat taken immediately following the repair of each incision using one of the four techniques described in Example 3;

FIG. 6 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 3, showing the tensile strength of skin repairs performed using four different repair techniques seven days postoperatively;

FIG. 7 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 3, showing the time to failure of the skin repairs seven days postoperatively;

FIG. 8A is a low magnification photomicrograph from Example 3 of rat skin 7 days after standardized full-thickness incision and repair with a 5-0 Nylon suture. E=keratinized squamous epithelium; D=dermis; ST=suture & suture tract; M=subdermal muscular layer; *=granulation tissue and healed wound tract;

FIG. 8B is a low magnification photomicrograph from Example 3 of rat skin 7 days after standardized full-thickness incision and repair by standard external application of cyanoacrylate (Dermabond™). E=keratinized squamous epithelium; D=dermis; SIR=superficial inflammatory reaction; M=subdermal muscular layer; *=granulation tissue and healed wound tract;

FIG. 8C is a low magnification photomicrograph from Example 3 of rat skin 7 days after standardized full-thickness incision and repair by external application of PLGA scaffold combined with cyanoacrylate. E=keratinized squamous epithelium; D=dermis; SIR=superficial inflammatory reaction; M=subdermal muscular layer; *=granulation tissue and healed wound tract; BV=blood vessel;

FIG. 9 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 3, showing the tensile strength of skin repairs performed using four different repair techniques fourteen days postoperatively;

FIG. 10 is a graph summarizing results obtained during the studies described in Example 3, showing the time to failure of the skin repairs fourteen days postoperatively;

FIG. 11 is a graph summarizing tensile strength data from the studies described in Example 4;

FIG. 12 is a graph comparing time of failure for repairs tested in the studies described in Example 4;

FIG. 13A is an electron micrograph (magnification: 120×) of the smooth (intimal) surface of SIS used in studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 13B is an electron micrograph (magnification: 120×) of the irregular surface of SIS used in studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 14A is an electron micrograph (magnification: 120×) of the smooth (intimal) surface of PLGA used in studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 14B is an electron micrograph (magnification: 120×) of the irregular surface of PLGA used in studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 15 is a graph summarizing tensile strength results from the studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 16 is a graph summarizing time to failure results from the studies described in Example 5;

FIG. 17 is a graph summarizing tensile strength results from the studies described in Example 6;

FIG. 18 is a graph summarizing time to failure results from the studies described in Example 6;

FIGS. 19A-19D are electron micrographs (magnification: 120×) of irregularities added to the scaffold in studies described in Example 7;

FIG. 20 is a graph summarizing tensile strength results from the studies described in Example 7;

FIG. 21 is a graph summarizing time to failure results from the studies described in Example 7;

FIGS. 22A-22G are photographs of example embodiments of the disclosed scaffold;

FIG. 23 is a schematic representation of example embodiments of the disclosed scaffold;

FIGS. 24A and 24B are schematic representations of one embodiment of a form of packaging the composite, showing the scaffold isolated from the adhesive until the composite is needed for application to a wound or repair site;

FIG. 25 is another embodiment of a form of packaging the composite, showing the scaffold isolated from the adhesive until the composite is needed for application to a wound or repair site; and

FIGS. 26A and 26B are an illustrated representation of an application of one embodiment of the composite, showing how the scaffold provides biologically active materials to the tissue.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

Several experimental studies have confirmed the effectiveness of the present composite, which comprises a non-light activated adhesive and a scaffold, for biological tissue repair. The attached Appendix, incorporated herein by this reference, includes data tables relating to these studies. While specific compounds have been used in these studies, it is understood that the composite of the present invention is not limited to the particular compounds used in any of the disclosed examples.

The scaffold and adhesive used to form the composite of the present invention may each be composed of either biologic or synthetic materials. Examples of biologic materials that may be used as adhesives include, but are not limited to, serum albumin, collagen, fibrin, fibrinogen, fibronectin, thrombin, barnacle glues and marine algae. Examples of synthetic materials suitable for use as adhesives include, but are not limited to, cyanoacrylate (e.g., ethyl-, propyl-, butyl- and octyl-) glues. The biologic materials are, by their very nature, biodegradable. Currently marketed synthetic adhesives such as cyanoacrylates are not in themselves biodegradable, but processes can be applied to make them biodegradable. For example, a formaldehyde-scavenging process can be applied that allows the product to degrade in the body without producing a toxic reaction.

The mechanism by which the adhesive material bonds to the tissue, and thus, the determination of whether any auxiliary equipment is necessary, is dependent at least in part on the selection of the adhesive material. Some non-light activated adhesives require an activator or initiator (other than laser energy) to cause or accelerate bonding. For example, polymerization of octyl-cyanoacrylates can be accelerated through contact with a chemical initiator such as that contained in the tip of the applicator of Ethicon's Dermabond™. Cohesion's CoStasis and Cryolife's Bioglue also rely on the addition of an activator at the time of application, namely, fibrinogen and glutaraldehyde, respectively. It is understood that all of the above-mentioned adhesives, whether or not they require an initiator or activator, are considered “non-light activated” adhesives.

The scaffold operates to ensure continuous, consistent alignment of the apposed tissue edges. The scaffold also helps ensure that the tensile strength of the apposed edges is sufficient for healing to occur without the use of sutures, staples, clips, or other mechanical closures or means of reinforcement. By keeping the tissue edges in direct apposition, the scaffold helps foster primary intention healing and direct re-apposition internally. Thus, the scaffold functions as a bridge or framework for the apposed edges of severed tissue.

As mentioned above, the scaffold is either a synthetic or biological material. A suitable biological scaffold comprises SIS (small intestine submucosa), polymerized collagen, polymerized elastin, or other similarly suitable biological materials. Examples of synthetic materials suitable for use as a scaffold include, but are not limited to, various poly(alpha ester)s such as poly(lactic acid) (PLA), poly(glycolic acid) (PGA), poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), poly(.epsilon.-caprolactone) (PGA) and poly(ethylene glycol) (PEG), as well as poly(alpha ester)s, poly(ortho ester)s and poly(anhydrides).

In alternative embodiments, the scaffold is engineered for specific applications of the composite by adjusting one or more of its properties. For example, the scaffold includes a smooth surface. Alternatively or in addition, the scaffold includes an irregular surface. Key properties of the scaffold are surface regularity or irregularity, elasticity, strength, porosity, surface area, degradation rate, and flexibility.

For purposes of this disclosure, “irregular” means that at least a portion of a surface of the scaffold is discontinuous or uneven, whether due to inherent porosity, roughness or other irregularities, or as a result of custom-engineering performed to introduce irregularities or roughness onto the surface (for example, using drilling, punching, or molding manufacturing techniques).

In further embodiments of the present invention, the scaffold is engineered to allow it to function as a depot for various dopants or biologically-active materials, such as antibiotics, anesthetics, anti-inflammatories, bacteriostatic or bacteriocidals, chemotherapeutic agents, vitamins, anti- or pro- neovascular or tissue cell growth factors, hemostatic and thrombogenic agents. This is accomplished by altering the macromolecular structure of the scaffold in order to adjust, for example, its porosity and/or degradation rate.

EXAMPLE 1

Comparison of Scaffold-Enhanced Albumin and n-Butyl-Cyanoacrylate Adhesives for Joining of Tissue in a Porcine Model

An ex vivo study was conducted to compare the tensile strength of tissue samples repaired using three different techniques: (i) application of a scaffold-enhanced light-activated albumin protein solder (Group I), (ii) application of a scaffold-enhanced n-butyl-cyanoacrylate (non-light activated) adhesive composite (Group II), and (iii) repair via conventional suture technique (Group III).

1.1 Preparation of the Surgical Adhesive

Porous synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA), with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 85:15, using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 200 mg PLGA (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.) in 2 mL dichloromethane (Sigma Chemical Company). Sodium chloride (salt particle size: 106-150 nm) with a 70% weight fraction was added to the polymer mix. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.). The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate. The salt was leached out of the polymer scaffolds by immersion in filtered deionized water for 24 hours, to create the porous scaffolds. During this period the water was changed 3-4 times. The scaffolds were then air dried and stored at room temperature until required.

The PLGA scaffolds used for incision repair were cut into rectangular pieces with dimensions of 12±2 mm long by 5±1 mm wide. The scaffolds used for Group I were left to soak for a minimum of two hours before use in a protein solder mix comprised of 50% (w/v) bovine serum albumin (BSA) (Cohn Fraction V, Sigma Chemical Company) and Indocyanine Green (ICG) dye (Sigma Chemical Company) at a concentration of 0.5 mg/mL, mixed in deionized water. The thickness of the resulting scaffold-enhanced solders, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers (L. S. Starrett Co., Anthol, Mass.), was in the range of 200 to 205 μm. N-butyl-cyanoacrylate (Vetbond, 3M) was applied to the scaffolds used for Group II using a 22-G syringe immediately prior to application to the tissue.

1.2 Tissue Preparation

Porcine tissue specimens were harvested approximately 30 minutes after sacrificing the animals. Tissue specimens were stored in phosphate buffered saline for a maximum of two hours before they were prepared for experiments. Each tissue specimen was cut into small rectangular pieces with dimensions of about 2 cm long by 1 cm wide and a thickness of approximately 1.5±0.5 mm. Tissue specimens harvested included the small intestine, spleen, muscle, skin, atrium, ventricle, lung, pancreas, liver, gall bladder, kidney, ureter, sciatic nerve, carotid artery, femoral artery, splenic artery, coronary artery, pulmonary artery and aorta (both intima and adventitia). Ten repairs were performed for each tissue type and repair procedure investigated.

1.3 Incision Repair

A full thickness incision was cut through each specimen width using a scalpel, and opposing ends were placed together. All laser-assisted repairs were completed with a diode laser operating at a wavelength of 808-nm (Spectra Physics, Mountain View, Ca.). The laser light was coupled into a 660-μm diameter silica fiber bundle and focused onto the scaffold surface with an imaging hand-piece connected at the end of the fiber. The diode was operated in continuous mode with a spot size of approximately 1 mm at the surface of the scaffold-enhanced solder. An aiming beam was also incorporated into the system and was delivered through the same fiber as the 808-nm beam. The laser beam was scanned across the scaffold-enhanced solder twice, starting from the center and moving outwards in a spiral pattern with a total irradiation time of 80±2 seconds. Suture repairs were achieved using a single 4-0 nylon suture.

1.4 Strength Testing

Tensile strength measurements were performed to test the integrity of the resultant repairs immediately following the laser procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 100 gf/min until the repair failed. Complete separation at the tissue edges defined failure. The maximum load in Newton's was recorded at the breaking point. The strengths of corresponding native specimens were tested and used as references. Native tissue specimens were prepared for tensile testing in an identical manner to the experimental repair group specimens, with the exception that microscissors were used to cut in from each edge with care to leave a 5±1 mm bridge of tissue in the center. This spacing matched the width of the scaffold-enhanced adhesives used on specimens from Groups I and II.

1.5 Results

The tensile strengths recorded at the breaking point of the repaired organ specimens are recorded in Table 1 and displayed in FIG. 1. Table 2 and FIG. 2 list and display the tensile strengths recorded at the breaking point for the repaired vessel specimens. Tables A and B of the Appendix include more detailed data relating to Example 1. All measurements in FIGS. 1 and 2 are quoted as the percent strength of native tissue. In Group I and II, all repairs failed interfacially (at the solder/tissue interface), that is, the adhesive remained intact but detached from the tissue. In Group III, all repairs failed with the suture pulling through the tissue specimen.

Group I repairs formed on the ureter were the most successful followed by the small intestine, sciatic nerve, spleen, atrium, kidney, muscle, skin and ventricle. The repairs on the ureter, small intestine and sciatic nerve achieved 81-83% of the strength of native tissue while repairs on the spleen, atrium and kidney attained approximately 66-72% of the strength of native tissue. Group I repairs performed on the liver, pancreas, lung and gallbladder specimens resulted in a very weak bond between the scaffold-enhanced solder and tissue, at only approximately 24-33% of the strength of native specimens. The strongest Group I vascular repairs were achieved in the carotid arteries, aorta (adventitia) and femoral arteries where breaking strengths of approximately 83%, 78% and 77% of their native tissue specimens, respectively, were achieved.

Although, the weakest vascular repairs were made on the pulmonary artery, the repairs still achieved greater than 62% of the strength of the native tissue. The overall percentage repair strength of native tissue was equivalent between Groups I and III (Group I Organs: 58±21%; Group III Organs: 55±22%; Group I Vessels: 72±8%; Group III Vessels: 72±12%). This does not imply, however, that the strength of Group I and Group III repairs were equivalent for each tissue type (see FIGS. 1 and 2).

	TABLE 1
	Tensile Strength (N)
	Solder +	Cyanoacrylate +	Single 4-0
Tissue	Scaffold	Scaffold	Suture	Native Tissue
small intestine	0.87 ± 0.08	0.93 ± 0.09	0.49 ± 0.37	1.07 ± 0.09
spleen	0.65 ± 0.05	0.90 ± 0.08	0.52 ± 0.25	0.90 ± 0.05
skeletal muscle	1.20 ± 0.19	1.54 ± 0.13	1.21 ± 0.53	1.90 ± 0.08
skin	1.02 ± 0.10	1.50 ± 0.07	1.58 ± 0.44	1.64 ± 0.07
atrium	0.89 ± 0.05	1.20 ± 0.06	0.60 ± 0.32	1.34 ± 0.05
ventricle	0.83 ± 0.08	1.10 ± 0.06	0.94 ± 0.46	1.42 ± 0.07
lung	0.22 ± 0.06	0.50 ± 0.05	0.25 ± 0.21	0.72 ± 0.06
pancreas	0.36 ± 0.08	0.99 ± 0.15	0.40 ± 0.28	1.29 ± 0.06
liver	0.34 ± 0.09	1.32 ± 0.10	0.42 ± 0.26	1.37 ± 0.06
gall bladder	0.42 ± 0.06	0.92 ± 0.06	0.37 ± 0.34	1.29 ± 0.08
kidney	0.61 ± 0.11	0.97 ± 0.06	0.61 ± 0.41	0.93 ± 0.13
ureter	1.01 ± 0.10	1.18 ± 0.08	1.05 ± 0.31	1.23 ± 0.07
sciatic nerve	0.91 ± 0.06	0.85 ± 0.05	0.74 ± 0.51	1.10 ± 0.07

	TABLE 2
	Tensile Strength (N)
	Solder +	Cyanoacrylate +	Single 4-0
Tissue	Scaffold	Scaffold	Suture	Native Tissue
carotid artery	0.76 ± 0.05	1.01 ± 0.08	0.85 ± 0.34	0.92 ± 0.05
femoral artery	0.79 ± 0.04	1.02 ± 0.04	0.72 ± 0.24	1.02 ± 0.04
splenic artery	1.04 ± 0.07	1.40 ± 0.08	0.92 ± 0.42	1.49 ± 0.04
coronary artery	1.01 ± 0.07	1.39 ± 0.07	1.17 ± 0.25	1.55 ± 0.05
pulmonary artery	0.94 ± 0.08	1.34 ± 0.10	0.87 ± 0.23	1.52 ± 0.07
aorta (intima)	1.08 ± 0.11	1.48 ± 0.11	1.07 ± 0.39	1.59 ± 0.05
aorta (adventitia)	1.24 ± 0.12	1.42 ± 0.06	1.19 ± 0.19	1.59 ± 0.06

Group II repairs utilizing the cyanoacrylate-scaffold composite all performed extremely well. Bonds formed using the Group II composites were on average 34% stronger than Group I and III organ repairs and 24% stronger than Group I and III vascular repairs.

Group III repairs performed utilizing a single 4-0 suture revealed the high variability in tensile strength associated with this repair technique. This method is highly dependent upon operator skill and technique as indicated by the large standard deviations seen within each tissue group; as well as, tissue type. Considering organ repairs (FIG. 1) only: mean standard deviations for all tissue types in Group I, Group II and Group III, were 7%, 6% and 30%, respectively. Considering vascular repairs (FIG. 2) only: mean standard deviations for all tissue types in Group I, Group II and Group III, were 6%, 6% and 22%, respectively. Gall bladder, liver, lung, and pancreas suture repairs yielded particularly low tensile strengths compared to native tissue, 28%, 31%, 31%, and 35% respectively.

EXAMPLE 2

Scaffold Enhanced Use Of 2-Octyl-Cyanoacrylate Versus Sutures In Strabismus Surgery

Traditional strabismus surgery is time-consuming and technically demanding. Specialized spatulated needles must be passed mid-depth through a curved sclera that can be as little as 0.3 mm thick. Inadvertent ocular penetration during surgery can lead to blinding complications such as retinal detachment, vitreous hemorrhage and possibly endophthalmitis. A sutureless bioadhesive would eliminate many potential complications.

2.1 Surgical Procedure

Rabbit (n=12) superior rectus muscles (n=24) were isolated, severed from their scleral insertions and recessed to a point 4.0 mm from the corneoscleral limbus. Three experimental groups based on the method of repair were designated. The ‘Suture’ group utilized standard 6-0 polyglycolic acid sutures with spatulated needles to reattach muscles. The ‘Glue’ group utilized 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate applied directly to the sclera with the spread-out tendon (superior rectus muscle) held in the desired position (FIG. 3A) until the adhesive had set (approx. 20 seconds). The ‘Composite’ group utilized a porous poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) membrane to act as a scaffold for the glue between the muscle and sclera. The superior rectus muscles were isolated and the scaffold was glued in a predetermined position on the sclera using cyanoacrylate glue (FIG. 4A). Cyanoacrylate glue was then placed on the scaffold and the muscle was laid in the desired position (FIG. 4B).

2.2 Evaluation Techniques

Half of the animals were sacrificed at 2 days and the remainder were sacrificed at 14 days after surgery (FIGS. 3B and 4C). At each time point, half of the attachments immediately underwent tensile strength testing on an Instrom material strength testing machine and the other half were processed for histological examination.

2.3 Results

The results of the tensile strength analysis are shown below in Table 3.

	TABLE 3
	Tensile Strength (N)
				Cyanoacrylate
	Un-operated	Single 6-0	Cyanoacrylate	Glue + Scaffold
Evaluation Period	Controls	Suture	Glue	Composite
2 days	2.73 ± 1.23	298 ± 1.07	1.96 ± 1.35	1.88 ± 0.50
14 days	2.73 ± 1.23	2.02 ± 2.13	2.17 ± 0.13	2.36 ± 0.08

As shown in Table 3, preliminary experiments utilizing a glue+scaffold composite to reattach muscles following recession are encouraging. All attachments made using the composite maintained tensile strengths above that needed in humans following recession surgery. [Collins et al., Invest. Ophthal. Vis. Sci., 20:652-64, 1981] Additionally, the technique using the composite had improved ease of application which yielded more uniform results, as is reflected in the reduced variability compared to the other repair techniques evaluated. FIGS. 3B and 4C show the typical postoperative appearance of the eyes 14 days after strabismus surgery using cyanoacrylate glue alone (FIG. 3B) and scaffold-enhanced cyanoacrylate glue (FIG. 4C).

Histologic examination of muscle insertions at 14 days showed no significant signs of inflammation in any of the groups. Muscle-sclera attachments were histologically similar to control insertions. Clinically, all animals tolerated the surgery well with minimal clinical signs of inflammation. The ‘Composite’ group provided a more accurate placement of the muscle compared to ‘Glue’ alone. It also provided more consistent tensile strength than either ‘Suture’ or ‘Glue’ alone.

EXAMPLE 3

Composites Containing Cyanoacrylate Adhesives and Biodegradable Scaffolds: In Vivo Wound Closure Study in a Rat Model

3.1 Summary

Composites comprising biodegradable scaffolds doped with a cyanoacrylate adhesive were investigated for use in wound closure as an alternative to using cyanoacrylate adhesives alone. Two different scaffold materials were investigated: (i) a biological material, small intestinal submucosa (SIS), manufactured by Cook BioTech; and (ii) a synthetic biodegradable material fabricated from poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA). Ethicon's Dermabond™, a 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate, was used as the adhesive. The tensile strengths of skin incisions repaired in vivo in a rat model were measured at seven and fourteen days postoperatively, and the time to failure was recorded. Incisions closed by suture or by cyanoacrylate alone were also tested for comparison. Finally, a histological analysis was conducted to investigate variations in wound healing associated with each technique at seven and fourteen days postoperatively. Data relating to Example 3 is shown in Tables C, D, E, and F of the Appendix, and in FIGS. 6, 7, 8A-8C, 9 and 10, as described below.

3.2 Materials and Methods

3.2.1 Preparation of PLGA Scaffolds

Porous synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from PLGA, with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 50:50, using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 200 mg PLGA (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.) in 2 ml dichloromethane (Sigma Chemical Company). Sodium chloride (salt particle size: 106-150 μm) with a 70% weight fraction was added to the polymer mix. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.). The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate. The salt was leached out of the polymer scaffolds by immersion in filtered deionized water for 24 hours, to create the porous scaffolds. During this period the water was changed 3-4 times. The scaffolds were then air dried and stored at room temperature until required. The PLGA scaffolds were cut into rectangular pieces with dimensions of 15±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide. The average thickness of the scaffolds, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers, was 150±5 μm. Prior to use for tissue repair, the scaffolds were soaked in saline for a period of at least 10 minutes.

3.2.2 Preparation of SIS Scaffolds

SIS is prepared from decellularized porcine submucosa, which essentially contains intact extracellular matrix proteins, of which collagen is the most prevalent. Sheets of SIS, with surface dimensions of 50×10 cm and an average thickness of 100 μm, were provided by Cook BioTech (Lafayette, Ind.). The sheets were cut into rectangular pieces with dimensions of 15±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide, and rehydrated in saline for at least 10 minutes prior to being using for tissue repair.

3.2.3 Surgical Repair

Eighteen Wistar rats, weighing 450±50 g, were anesthetized with a mixture of ketamine and xylazine. Four 15 mm long incisions were then made on the dorsal skin of each rat using a #15 scalpel blade: (1) left rostral parasagital; (2) right rostral parasagital; (3) left caudal parasagital; and (4) right caudal parasagital. Each incision site was randomly assigned to a one of the four repair techniques to be investigated.

The “Suture” group utilized three, equally spaced interrupted 5-0 polyglycolic acid (Vicryl) sutures. The “Cyanoacrylate alone” group was closed in accordance with the directions provided in the packaging by Ethicon, Inc. One-half an ampoule (˜0.175 mL) was used for each closure. For the “Cyanoacrylate+PLGA” group, five drops of Dermabond (˜0.035 mL) were applied to the irregular surface of the scaffolding using a 26G syringe to create the composite. The composite was then placed across the incision and allowed to air dry (˜10-20s). Finally, for the “Cyanoacrylate+SIS” group, the hydrated SIS specimens were observed to easily fold over on themselves, and were difficult to unravel afterwards. Thus, five drops of Dermabond (˜0.035 mL) were first applied to the incision site, and a piece of hydrated SIS scaffolding was then laid across the Dermabond with its irregular surface against the tissue. FIG. 5 shows a photograph of the incision sites on the dorsal skin of a rat taken immediately following the repair of each incision using one of the four techniques described above. In FIG. 5, the incision on the left rostral parasagital was repaired using a composite including cyanoacrylate and SIS; the incision on the right rostral parasagital was repaired using sutures; the incision on the left caudal parasagital was repaired using a composite including cyanoacrylate and PLGA; and the incision on the right caudal parasagital was repaired using cyanoacrylate alone.

Following the surgical procedure, all animals received a post-operative analgesic dose of buprenorphine. All animals were divided into two groups. Group I (n=13) were observed for seven days after surgery and Group II (n=5) were observed for fourteen days after surgery. At the end of the observation period, all animals were euthanized with pentobarbital and the surgical sites were excised for evaluation. Ten repairs for each wound closure technique from Group I and three repairs for each wound closure technique from Group II were prepared for tensile strength testing. The remaining incision sites that did not undergo strength testing were subjected to histological examination. A summary of incision treatments is given in Table 4:

TABLE 4
#	Evaluation	Repair	Repair	Repair	Repair
Animals	Technique	Technique #1	Technique #2	Technique #3	Technique #4
10	7 days -	single 5-0	cyanoacrylate	cyanoacrylate +	cyanoacrylate +
	tensile strength	nylon suture	alone	SIS	PLGA
3	7 days -	single 5-0	cyanoacrylate	cyanoacrylate +	cyanoacrylate +
	histology	nylon suture	alone	SIS	PLGA
3	14 days -	single 5-0	cyanoacrylate	cyanoacrylate +	cyanoacrylate +
	tensile strength	nylon suture	alone	SIS	PLGA
2	14 days -	single 5-0	cyanoacrylate	cyanoacrylate +	cyanoacrylate +
	histology	nylon suture	alone	SIS	PLGA

3.2.4 Tensile Strength Analysis

The integrity of the resultant repairs were determined by tensile strength measurements performed immediately following the repair procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength-testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 1 gf/sec until the repair failed. Complete separation of the two pieces of tissue defined failure. The maximum load in Newton's was recorded at the breaking point, as well as the time in seconds to failure. In order to avoid variations in repair strength associated with drying, the tissue specimens were kept moist during the procedure.

3.2.5 Histological Analysis

Light microscopy was used to assess the histological characteristics of wound healing associated with each technique at seven and fourteen days postoperatively. Harvested specimens were immediately fixed in formalin and stored at 6° C. until they could be prepared for staining and mounting. Hematoxylin and Eosin (H&E) was used as the staining agent.

3.3 Results

3.3.1 Wound Healing at Seven Days Postoperatively

The tensile strengths of the repair sites using the four different repair techniques harvested at seven days postoperatively are shown in FIG. 6. The time to failure for each repair procedure at 7 days postoperatively is shown in FIG. 7. All values are expressed as the mean and standard deviation for a total of ten repairs.

Typical photomicrographs of rat dorsal skin 7 days after standardized full-thickness incision and repair with: (i) 5-0 Nylon suture; (ii) standard external application of cyanoacrylate (Dermabond™); and (iii) external application of PLGA scaffold combined with cyanoacrylate, are shown in FIGS. 8A-8C. Histological examination of repairs made with 5-0 Nylon suture showed minimal inflammation (FIG. 8A). The repair was evidenced by a narrow tract of granulation tissue in the wound bed (*). Inflammation was limited to a low-grade granulomatous type reaction around the suture and suture tract seen at the dermal-subdermal junction. Repairs made with external application of cyanoacrylate alone (FIG. 8B) exhibited a localized superficial inflammatory reaction (SIR). Minimal inflammation was noted in the dermis and wound bed, however, the wound tract and repair was significantly widened. The granulation tissue and width of the repair were increasingly large with progression into the deeper dermis. Finally, repairs made by external application of a PLGA scaffold combined with cyanoacrylate (FIG. 8C) exhibited a minimal superficial inflammatory reaction (keratinized debris, few inflammatory cells). Of note, the wound tract was well apposed with a narrow band of granulation tissue. There was also minimal inflammation in the superficial, middle or deep dermis.

3.3.2 Wound Healing at Fourteen Days Postoperatively

The tensile strengths of the repair sites using the four different repair techniques harvested at fourteen days postoperatively are shown in FIG. 9. The time to failure for each repair procedure at fourteen days postoperatively is shown in FIG. 10. All values are expressed as the mean and standard deviation for a total of three repairs.

3.4 Discussion

Differences in wound healing and tensile strength observed at 7 and 14 days post-operative can likely be explained by the properties of the different techniques.

SUTURES: Wound fixation by interrupted sutures creates a physical apposition of the dermis along the entire length of the wound. However, with any applied forces (including simply the movement and stretch of the skin as the animal moves and performs activities of daily living), the force is concentrated on the individual sutures. This allows differential movement of dermis between sutures and the contact away from the sutures is constantly being stressed, lost and reestablished with the alleviation of stress. In these areas, wound healing will be different and delayed from areas where dermis is kept in constant contact. Therefore, the wound healing between the sutures—which is the majority of the wound area—falls somewhere between true primary intention and secondary intention. Secondary intention healing always results in a longer time to restoration of wound integrity. Although it is sufficient, it is not optimal and at 7 and 14 days there are large areas of the wound that have not healed as well as they would if they were in constant physical apposition and were able to move in concert with externally applied stress.

CYANOACRYLATE: Cyanoacrylate alone performed comparably to that of suture repair. Early on it had less variability than that of sutures. This is likely due to the technical simplicity with which it is effectively applied versus that of the skill required and inherent variability in suture placement. Dermabond acts as a brittle scaffold that bridges the entire wound. This theoretically keeps the wound edges in apposition at all points along the closure. However, as our ex vivo and immediate tensile strength tests have shown, the tensile strength of cyanoacrylate alone is less than for the cyanoacrylate+scaffold composite. Cyanoacrylate is brittle and tends to lose adhesion either through cracking or a separation from the epithelium as an entire sheet when external stress is applied. In this study, early cracking and loss of tight continuous apposition along the entire length of the wound was noted within 24 hours with normal rat daily living activities. Since the animal will twist and bend and stretch the wound, cyanoacrylate is not an optimum method of skin wound closure. When the glue cracks and loses adhesion in focal areas, the healing replicates that of suture healing in that sections of the dermis are separated and must heal by something between true primary and secondary intention. With time, as adhesions are significantly lost, enough native tensile strength has returned to prevent significant numbers of dehiscences, but wound stretching and less cosmetic scar formation occurs along with a decrease in potential wound tensile strength early on.

COMPOSITE: The composite acts to keep the dermis in tight apposition throughout the critical early phase of wound healing when tissue gaps are bridged by scar and granulation tissue. It has the property of being more flexible than cyanoacrylate and may allow the apposed edges to move in conjunction with each other as a unit for a longer period of time and over a greater range of stresses than cyanoacrylate alone. This permits more rapid healing and establishment of integrity since the microgaps between the dermis edges are significantly reduced. By the time the scaffolds are sloughed (by either the animal scratching them off or loss of adhesion to the epithelium) there is greater strength and healing than that produced by cyanoacrylate alone and in wounds following suture removal.

EXAMPLE 4

Composites Containing Cyanoacrylate Adhesives and Biodegradable Scaffolds: Acute Wound Closure Study in a Rat Model

4.1 Summary

Composites comprising biodegradable scaffolds doped with cyanoacrylate adhesive were investigated for use in wound closure as an alternative to using cyanoacrylate adhesives alone. Two different scaffold materials were investigated: (i) a biological material, small intestinal submucosa (SIS), manufactured by Cook BioTech; and (ii) a synthetic biodegradable material fabricated from poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA). Ethicon's Dermabond™, a 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate, was used as the adhesive. The tensile strengths of skin incisions repaired ex vivo in a rat model were measured, and the time to failure was recorded.

Data relating to Example 4 is shown in Tables G and H of the Appendix, and FIGS. 11-12, as described below.

4.2 Materials and Methods

4.2.1 Preparation of PLGA Scaffolds

Porous synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from PLGA, with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 50:50, using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 200 mg PLGA (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.) in 2 ml dichloromethane (Sigma Chemical Company). Sodium chloride (salt particle size: 106-150 μm) with a 70% weight fraction was added to the polymer mix. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.). The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate. The salt was leached out of the polymer scaffolds by immersion in filtered deionized water for 24 hours, to create the porous scaffolds. During this period the water was changed 3-4 times. The scaffolds were then air dried and stored at room temperature until required. The PLGA scaffolds were cut into square pieces with dimensions of 10±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide. The average thickness of the scaffolds, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers, was 150±5 μm. Prior to use for tissue repair, the scaffolds were soaked in saline for a period of at least 10 minutes.

4.2.2 Preparation of SIS Scaffolds

SIS is prepared from decellularized porcine submucosa, which essentially contains intact extracellular matrix proteins, of which collagen is the most prevalent. Sheets of SIS, with surface dimensions of 50×10 cm and an average thickness of 100 μm, were provided by Cook BioTech (Lafayette, Ind.). The sheets were cut into square pieces with dimensions of 10±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide, and rehydrated in saline for at least 10 minutes prior to being using for tissue repair.

4.2.3 Tissue Preparation and Incision Repair

The dorsal skin from thirteen Wistar rats was excised immediately after sacrificing the animals. Rectangular tissue specimens were cut from the skin samples with dimensions of about 20 mm long by 10 mm wide.

A full thickness incision was made with a scalpel across the width of the tissue specimen. Four drops of Dermabond™ were then applied to the irregular surface of the scaffolding using a 27G syringe and the adhesive material was placed across the incision and allowed to air dry. A sample size of ten was used for all experimental groups.

4.2.4 Tensile Strength Analysis

The integrity of the resultant repairs were determined by tensile strength measurements performed immediately following the repair procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength-testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 1 gf/sec until the repair failed. Complete separation of the two pieces of tissue defined failure. The maximum load in Newton's was recorded at the breaking point, as well as the time profiles for failure of the repairs. In order to avoid variations in repair strength associated with drying, the tissue specimens were kept moist during the procedure. The strengths of corresponding specimens repaired with cyanoacrylate alone, in accordance with the directions provided by Ethicon, Inc., were tested and used as references.

4.3 Results

The tensile strength of the repairs performed in this acute wound closure study using cyanoacrylate alone and a composite including cyanoacrylate enhanced by a scaffold fabricated from either SIS or PLGA, are shown in FIG. 11. All values are expressed as the mean and standard deviation for a total of ten repairs. A comparison of typical time profiles for failure of the repairs is shown in FIG. 12. Each plot represents the mean and standard deviation for ten repairs.

4.4 Discussion

Successful wound closure will occur when dermal edges are kept in physical contact (or with as little gap as possible) so that granulation and scar tissue can result in a continuous integrated matrix from edge to edge. This principle of unobstructed apposition also applies to any non-dermal tissues/surfaces where physical attachment (or reattachment) to another dermal or non-dermal surface is desired. When cyanoacrylate is applied externally to a wound and not allowed to penetrate the reticular dermal level or deeper, it provides a consistent low strength bonding of epidermal surfaces. This keeps the dermal edges in apposition so that wound healing can progress unobstructed. Failure of cyanoacrylate surface closure occurs when either the epithelium (which is loosely attached to the papillary dermis) sloughs off, or the glue loses adhesion to the epithelium for various reasons. These reasons include oil secretion and sloughing of dead surface cells.

The composite formed of either a biocompatible (i.e. PLGA) or biological (i.e. SIS) scaffold and an adhesive provided significantly enhanced tensile strength of the adhesion. This produced a consistently stronger adhesion under standardized constantly increasing tensile strength testing conditions.

The combination of either a biocompatible (i.e. PLGA) or biological (i.e. SIS) scaffold and adhesive also produced different physical characteristics of the adhesion—in a favorable manner. Under constantly increasing tensile stress, force generation curves were prolonged in reaching their peaks. This indicates that adhesions resulting from application of the composite could distribute the forces better and withstand stress for longer periods of time.

The composite including either a biocompatible (i.e. PLGA) or biological (i.e. SIS) scaffold and adhesive also produced different peak-trough behavior of the length-tension curves than the adhesive alone. With the composite, adhesions frequently displayed many mini peaks, without significant troughs, with quick recovery of functional tensile strength. Cyanoacrylate alone almost always produced a single (or infrequently a doublet) peak followed by complete failure of strength and complete physical separation of tissues.

Thus, the composite provides a stronger, more durable and consistent adhesion than the adhesive alone. This theory is also supported by several ex vivo experiments demonstrating enhanced tensile strength of irregular porous versus smooth surface scaffolds in identical tissue repairs (refer to Example 5).

EXAMPLE 5

Composites Containing Cyanoacrylate Adhesives and Biodegradable Scaffolds: Surface Selection for Enhanced Tensile Strength in Wound Repair

5.1 Summary

An ex vivo study was conducted to determine the effect of the irregularity of the scaffold surface on the tensile strength of repairs formed using a composite comprising a scaffold and a biological adhesive. Two different scaffold materials were investigated: (i) a synthetic biodegradable material fabricated from poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA); and (ii) a biological material, small intestinal submucosa (SIS), manufactured by Cook BioTech. Ethicon's Dermabond™, a 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate, was used as the adhesive. The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine and lung, using both the smooth and irregular surfaces of the above materials were measured and the time to failure was recorded.

Data relating to Example 5 is shown in Tables I-1, I-2, I-3, I-4, and I-5 of the Appendix, and FIGS. 13A-13B, 14A-14B, 15 and 16, as described below.

5.2 Materials and Methods

5.2.1 Preparation of PLGA Scaffolds

Porous synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from PLGA, with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 50:50, using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 200 mg PLGA (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.) in 2 ml dichloromethane (Sigma Chemical Company). Sodium chloride (salt particle size: 106-150 nm) with a 70% weight fraction was added to the polymer mix. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.). The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate. The salt was leached out of the polymer scaffolds by immersion in filtered deionized water for 24 hours, to create the porous scaffolds. During this period the water was changed 3-4 times. The scaffolds were then air dried and stored at room temperature until required. The PLGA scaffolds were cut into square pieces with dimensions of 10±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide. The average thickness of the scaffolds, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers, was 150±5 mm. Prior to use for tissue repair, the scaffolds were soaked in saline for a period of at least 10 minutes.

5.2.2 Preparation of SIS Scaffolds

SIS is prepared from decellularized porcine submucosa, which essentially contains intact extracellular matrix proteins, of which collagen is the most prevalent. Sheets of SIS, with surface dimensions of 50×10 cm and an average thickness of 100 μm, were provided by Cook BioTech (Lafayette, Ind.). The sheets were cut into square pieces with dimensions of 10±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide, and rehydrated in saline for at least 10 minutes prior to being using for tissue repair.

5.2.3 Surface Analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Prior to conducting any tissue repairs, sample surfaces of all scaffolds to be investigated were viewed with a Hitachi S-3000N scanning electron microscope (SEM) to characterize the degree and nature of their smoothness or irregularity.

5.2.4 Tissue Preparation and Incision Repair

Bovine tissue specimens were harvested approximately 30 minutes after sacrificing the animals. Tissue specimens were stored in phosphate buffered saline for a maximum of two hours before they were prepared for experiments. Each tissue specimen was cut into small rectangular pieces with dimensions of about 20 mm long by 10 mm wide and a thickness of approximately 1.5±0.5 mm. Tissue specimens harvested included the thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine, and lung.

A full thickness incision was made with a scalpel across the width of the tissue specimen. Four drops of Dermabond™ were then applied to the desired surface of the scaffolding (smooth or irregular) using a 26G syringe and the adhesive material was placed across the incision and allowed to air dry. A sample size of ten was used for all experimental groups.

5.2.5 Tensile Strength Analysis

The integrity of the resultant repairs were determined by tensile strength measurements performed immediately following the repair procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength-testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 1 gf/sec until the repair failed. Complete separation of the two pieces of tissue defined failure. The maximum load in Newton's was recorded at the breaking point, as well as the time in seconds to failure. In order to avoid variations in repair strength associated with drying, the tissue specimens were kept moist during the procedure. The strengths of corresponding native specimens and incisions repaired with cyanoacrylate alone were tested and used as references.

5.3 Results

Electron micrographs of both the smooth (intimal) and irregular surfaces of the SIS scaffolds are shown in FIGS. 13A and 13B, respectively. Electron micrographs of both the smooth and irregular surfaces of the PLGA polymer scaffolds are shown in FIGS. 14A and 14B, respectively. The smooth surface of the SIS scaffolds represents the luminal side of the small intestine. The smooth surface of the PLGA scaffolds represents the side of the scaffold that was cast against the surface of the glass Petri dish.

The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine and lung, by applying either the smooth or the irregular surfaces of the composites to the tissue surface, are shown in FIG. 15. The time to failure for each repair procedure is shown in FIG. 16. All values are expressed as the mean and standard deviation for a total of ten repairs. The results for incisions repaired with cyanoacrylate alone and for native tissue are also shown.

5.4 Discussion

Several key points are immediately noted from FIGS. 15 and 16.

The irregular, rough surface of the composite provides a greater tensile strength immediately after the adhesion is initiated than does the cyanoacrylate alone, approximating the native tissue strength.

The smooth surface of the composite provides a small increase in tensile strength over cyanoacrylate alone; however, the rough surface of the composite provides a consistently high tensile strength, approximating the native tensile strength of all tissues tested. These results suggest that distributing or dispersing the adhesive forces over an increased surface area of the scaffold, either smooth or rough, can produce better results than cyanoacrylate alone. However, an irregular, rough, or porous surface can significantly increase tensile strength. This presumably occurs by distributing the forces between thousands or millions of independent “microadhesion”.

The clinical relevance of these results is significant. Surgical repairs are more likely to fail in the first hours-to-days after surgery as a result of several factors: a) wound edges are only apposed by whatever artificial means was employed to repair the incision; these methods are subject to the limitations of how they grasp the tissues and anchor them together; b) during the early surgical period, there has not been significant time enough for primary or secondary intention wound healing to provide any native tensile strength to the apposition itself; c) postoperatively edema (which contributes increased forces on the wound, greater than that seen at the time of repair) is greatest in the first 24 hours after surgery (often increasing over this period of time); and d) certain tissues will immediately be subject to high forces after repair/surgery, i.e. aortic pulsatile blood pressure, muscle/tendon contractions against insertions, etc.

All the above factors may contribute to the early postoperatively failure of suture or other methods of repair, such as adhesives or staples. If a tissue repair can achieve a tensile strength approximating the native tensile strength of the tissue in the immediate postoperatively period, the likelihood of failure is markedly diminished and it is certainly much less likely to fail than would a system characterized by more variability and lower tensile strengths.

EXAMPLE 6

Composites Containing Cyanoacrylate Adhesives and Biodegradable Scaffolds: Effect of Scaffold Surface Area on Tensile Strength of Repairs

6.1 Summary

An ex vivo study was conducted to determine the effect of varying the area of the scaffold surface in contact with the tissue on the tensile strength of repairs formed using a scaffold-enhanced biological adhesive composite. Biodegradable polymer scaffolds of controlled porosity were fabricated with poly(L-lactic-co-glycolic acid) and salt particles using a solvent-casting and particulate-leaching technique. The scaffolds were doped with Ethicon's Dermabond™, a 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate adhesive. The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta and small intestine were measured and the time to failure was recorded.

Data relating to Example 6 is shown in Tables J-1 and J-2 of the Appendix, and in FIGS. 17-18, as described below.

6.2 Materials and Methods

6.2.1 Preparation of PLGA Scaffolds

Porous synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from PLGA, with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 50:50, using a solvent-casting and particulate leaching technique. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 200 mg PLGA (Sigma Chemical Company, St. Louis, Mo.) in 2 ml dichloromethane (Sigma Chemical Company). Sodium chloride (salt particle size: 106-150 μm) with a 70% weight fraction was added to the polymer mix. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water (Fisher Scientific, Pittsburgh, Pa.). The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate. The salt was leached out of the polymer scaffolds by immersion in filtered deionized water for 24 hours, to create the porous scaffolds. During this period the water was changed 3-4 times. The scaffolds were then air dried and stored at room temperature until required. The PLGA scaffolds were cut into rectangular pieces with the desired surface dimensions (length by width): (i) 10±0.5 mm by 10±0.5 mm; (ii) 10±0.5 mm by 5±0.5 mm; (iii) 5±0.5 mm by 10±0.5 mm; (iv) 15±0.5 mm by 10±0.5 mm; and (v) 15±0.5 mm by 5±0.5 mm. The average thickness of the scaffolds, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers, was 150±5 μm. Prior to use for tissue repair, the scaffolds were soaked in saline for a period of at least 10 minutes.

6.2.2 Tissue Preparation and Incision Repair

Bovine tissue specimens were harvested approximately 30 minutes after sacrificing the animal. Tissue specimens were stored in phosphate buffered saline for a maximum of two hours before they were prepared for experiments. Each tissue specimen was cut into small rectangular pieces with dimensions of about 20 mm long by 10 mm wide and a thickness of approximately 1.5±0.5 mm. Tissue specimens harvested included the thoracic aorta and small intestine.

A full thickness incision was made with a scalpel across the width of the tissue specimen. Four drops of Dermabond™ were then applied to the irregular surface of the scaffold using a 26G syringe, and the composite was placed across the incision and allowed to air dry. A sample size of ten was used for all experimental groups.

6.2.3 Tensile Strength Analysis

The integrity of the resultant repairs was determined by tensile strength measurements performed immediately following the repair procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength-testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 1 gf/sec until the repair failed. Complete separation of the two pieces of tissue defined failure. The maximum load in newtons was recorded at the breaking point, as well as the time in seconds to failure. In order to avoid variations in repair strength associated with drying, the tissue specimens were kept moist during the procedure.

6.3 Results

The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta and small intestine by applying the irregular surface of the cyanoacrylate-PLGA scaffold composites to the tissue surface, are shown in FIG. 17, as a function of surface area. The time to failure for each repair procedure is shown in FIG. 18. All values are expressed as the mean±standard deviation for a total of ten repairs.

6.4 Discussion

As shown in FIG. 17, there is an increase in the tensile strength of the repairs with increasing surface area. However, geometric dimensions appear to be less important than total surface area. These results are not unexpected. Since there are probably millions of microadhesions that provide the increased tensile strength and the prolonged time to failure, it is simply a matter of supplying enough microadhesions on both sides of the wound. In contrast, in other types of closures (i.e., suture repairs) geometry and precision placement are crucial to maintenance of strength in the repair since (during early wound healing) all forces are concentrated on a very limited number of small focal points in the repair. The composite structure allows for distribution of forces across the entire repair site including beyond the tissue edges, which further reinforces the wound closure. Thus, the same amount of force applied to a sutured wound and to a composite-closed wound will have much less effect on any given area of the composite-repaired wound. This is most likely why the cosmesis of the composite-closed skin incisions was better than for suture or glue alone.

With the composite, a butterfly-bandage effect occurs, i.e., reinforcement of the wound by the combination of the scaffold and glue brought the edges of the incision, along its entire length, into better apposition for an extended period of time, which contributed to a more satisfactory cosmetic healing.

Geometry may not be completely unimportant (as one would expect when dealing with vector forces). However, it may be clinically insignificant. As seen in small intestine repair, less surface area (oriented differently) had a statistically significant effect (p<0.05): 10×10 mm versus 15×5 mm. This is, however, the only result like this and, depending on the size and orientation of the actual tissue in the experiment, it may be a clinically insignificant isolated result. While the rest of the time points reveal that surface area is likely proportional to the increased time to failure, as would be expected, further studies are needed to confirm these results.

EXAMPLE 7

Composites Containing Cyanoacrylate Adhesives and Biodegradable Scaffolds: Custom Manufactured Scaffold Surfaces for Improved Tissue Repair

7.1. Summary

An ex vivo study was conducted to determine the effect of using several different custom modified scaffold surfaces on the tensile strength of repairs formed using our scaffold-adhesive composite. Porous PLGA scaffolds were fabricated using four different manufacturing techniques: (i) a computer-controlled drilling technique; (ii) a punching technique utilizing an arbor press; (iii) a polymer molding technique, and (iv) 220 grit sandpaper. FIGS. 19A-19D show electron micrographs of the irregularities added to the scaffold surface using each of these techniques, respectively. Ethicon's Dermabond™, a 2-octyl-cyanoacrylate, was used as the bioadhesive. The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine and lung were measured and the time to failure was recorded. The results of this study were compared with those obtained in a previous study (Example 3 above) using PLGA scaffolds manufactured with a particulate-leaching technique.

Data relating to this Example 7 is shown in Tables K-1, K-2, K-3, K-4 and K-5 of the Appendix, and in FIGS. 19A-19D, 20 and 21, as described below.

7.2 Materials and Methods

7.2.1 Preparation of PLGA Using Various Mechanical Manufacturing Techniques

Synthetic polymer scaffolds were prepared from PLGA, with a lactic:glycolic acid ratio of 50:50. The scaffolds were cast by dissolving 250 mg PLGA in 2.5 ml dichloromethane. The polymer solution was then spread to cover the bottom surface of a 60 mm diameter Petri dish that was cleaned first with dichloromethane, then ethanol, then ultra-filtered deionized water. The polymer was left in a fume hood for 24 hours to allow the dichloromethane to evaporate, and then allowed to soak in filtered deionized water for a period of 2 hours prior to removing from the Petri dish.

Upon drying of the polymer scaffolds, an irregularity was added to the scaffold surfaces using one of four mechanical techniques:

• • a) Use of a computer numeric control (CNC) machine to punch holes in the scaffold in accordance with a preprogrammed staggered layout. The diameter of each needle was 0.020 in. (500 μm) (FIG. 19A);
  • b) A punch was created utilizing hundreds of 0.020 in (500 μm) diameter needles, and the punch was then inserted into an arbor press apparatus. Hard rubber was used as a base for the punch (FIG. 19B);
  • c) A silicone mold was made to provide a textured surface during the casting stage of scaffold manufacture (FIG. 19C); and
  • d) Use of 220 grit sandpaper to give the scaffold surface a rough texture (FIG. 19D).

The PLGA scaffolds were cut into square pieces with dimensions of 10±0.5 mm long by 10±0.5 mm wide. The average thickness of the scaffolds, determined by scanning electron microscopy and measurement with precision calipers, was 150±10 μm. Prior to use for tissue repair, the scaffolds were soaked in saline for a period of at least 10 minutes.

7.2.2 Surface Analysis using Scanning Electron Microscopy

Prior to conducting any tissue repairs, the surfaces of samples of all scaffolds to be investigated were viewed with a Hitachi S-3000N scanning electron microscope (SEM) to allow characterization of their irregularity.

7.2.3 Tissue Preparation and Incision Repair

Bovine tissue specimens were harvested approximately 30 minutes after sacrificing the animal. Tissue specimens were stored in phosphate buffered saline for a maximum of two hours before they were prepared for experiments. Each tissue specimen was cut into small rectangular pieces with dimensions of about 20 mm long by 10 mm wide and a thickness of approximately 1.5±0.5 mm. Tissue specimens harvested included the thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine, and lung.

A full thickness incision was made with a scalpel across the width of the tissue specimen. Four drops of Dermabond™ were then applied to the rough surface of the scaffolding using a 26G syringe, and the adhesive material was placed across the incision and allowed to air dry. A sample size of five was used for all experimental groups.

7.2.4 Tensile Strength Analysis

The integrity of the resultant repairs was determined by tensile strength measurements performed immediately following the repair procedure using a calibrated MTS Material Strength Testing Machine (858 Table Top System, MTS, Eden Prairie, Minn.). This system was interfaced with a personal computer to collect the data. Each tissue specimen was clamped to the strength-testing machine using a 100N load cell with pneumatic grips. The specimens were pulled apart at a rate of 1 gf/sec until the repair failed. Complete separation of the two pieces of tissue defined failure. The maximum load in Newton's was recorded at the breaking point, as well as the time in seconds to failure. In order to avoid variations in repair strength associated with drying, the tissue specimens were kept moist during the procedure.

7.3 Results

Electron micrographs of the PLGA polymer scaffolds given an irregular surface using one of the four mechanical techniques described above are shown in FIGS. 19A-19D. All photomicrographs were taken of the rough (most irregular) surface of the scaffolds.

The tensile strength of repairs performed on bovine thoracic aorta, liver, spleen, small intestine and lung, using the cyanoacrylate-scaffold composites described above, are shown in FIG. 20. The time to failure for each repair procedure is shown in FIG. 21. The tensile strength and the time of failure for repairs formed using the irregular surface of the PLGA scaffolds manufactured with the particulate leaching technique of Example 3 are also included for comparison.

7.4 Discussion

As can be seen in the photomicrographs, irregular scaffold surfaces can be manufactured to different specifications of irregularity and porosity, in order to suit various surgical requirements. The photomicrographs of the PLGA scaffolds produced using the punch and sandpaper techniques show the greatest areas of troughs, where the tissue would be in direct contact with the adhesive rather than the scaffold material. Repairs formed using scaffolds manufactured using the punch and sandpaper techniques were the strongest of the four custom manufactured scaffolds investigated (FIG. 20). The strength of these repairs were statistically equivalent (p<0.05) to the strength of repairs formed using scaffolds manufactured with the particulate-leaching technique described in Example 3, with a tendency seen for an increase in tensile strength with the use of the punch technique. The photomicrograph of the computer-drilled PLGA appears to have a smoother surface than the silicone mold PLGA product, while the individual pore sizes are approximately the same. As can be seen in FIG. 20, there is less tensile strength for the computer-drilled scaffold than the scaffold formed with the silicone mold, which is much more irregular and possibly more porous. The above findings support our hypothesis that irregularity and possibly (irregular) porosity contribute to the previously unrecognized synergistic increase in tensile strength of the irregular scaffold over both smooth scaffolds and adhesive alone.

Clinical relevance is less apparent here, other than as support to our theory described in Example 3. However, this finding suggests that many aspects of these scaffolds may be custom manufactured, including porosity (including pore size and distribution), roughness, non-geometric topography (irregularity), to ensure reproducibility of results and to meet the needs of specific applications.

Future studies may be directed at determining whether different surfaces actually work better with one type of adhesive versus another or with adhesives of different viscosity allowing deeper penetration into the depth of the surface irregularities.

As a result of these and other studies, it has been found that a non-light activated adhesive-scaffold composite, incorporating a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable adhesive and a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable scaffold, exhibits significantly enhanced tensile strength and consistently stronger adhesion under constantly increasing time periods of tensile strength testing. Also, the composite exhibits more favorable adhesion characteristics. When subjected to constantly increasing loads, the composites exhibited force generation curves that were prolonged in reaching their peaks, indicating better distribution of forces. This allowed the composites to withstand stress for longer periods of time.

Additionally, length-tension curves for the composites are remarkably different than those for bioadhesives alone (e.g., cyanoacrylate). While the bioadhesive alone frequently produced a single peak followed by a trough (indicating complete failure of strength and complete physical separation of tissues), the composite curve showed many peaks without significant troughs (indicating quick recovery of functional tensile strength and little-to-no tissue separation) (FIG. 12).

The specifications of the composite of the present invention can be tailored to meet the specific requirements of a range of clinical applications, such as wound closure from trauma or at surgical incision sites, repair of liver, spleen, or pancreas lacerations from trauma, dural laceration/incision closure, pneumothorax repair during thoracotomy, sealing points of vascular access following endovascular procedures, vascular anastomoses, tympanoplasty, endoscopic treatment of gastrointestinal ulcers/bleeds, dental applications for mucosal ulcerations or splinting of injured teeth, ophthalmologic surgeries, tendon and ligament repair in orthopedics, and episiotomy/vaginal tear repair in gynecology. Patches prepared using the adhesive composites can be used in a non-surgical setting as a simple, quick, and effective wound closure solution, for example, in emergency situations.

FIGS. 22A-22G show photographs of exemplary embodiments of a scaffold suitable for use in the composite discussed above. In the illustrated embodiment, the scaffold has a rectangular or square shape. FIG. 22A shows that the scaffold may take the form of a thin wafer or sheet. FIG. 22B shows that at least a portion of the scaffold's surface may be irregular, and FIG. 22C shows that at least a portion of the scaffold surface may be smooth. As discussed above, it is understood that different embodiments of the composite may take a variety of forms and/or shapes.

FIGS. 22D and 22E show that the scaffold may be rolled in a tight roll (FIG. 22D) or a loose or wide roll (FIG. 22E) to adapt to various applications, without any damage to its structural integrity. FIG. 22F shows how the scaffold may retain its rolled shape after an elapse of time. FIG. 22G shows that the scaffold may be unrolled after being rolled, and still retain its structural integrity. Additionally, the scaffold may be bent or folded as may be suitable for a particular application. FIG. 23 shows a schematic representation of the some of the above-listed embodiments.

The composite of the present invention may be created by a variety of methods or techniques. For example, a physician or other health care provider may place the scaffold in the desired position for tissue repair, sealing, or adhesion, then apply the adhesive to the scaffold. Alternatively, the adhesive may be applied to the scaffold and then the device containing both scaffold and adhesive placed in position. As another alternative, the adhesive may be placed at the repair site first and then the scaffold applied. Additional adhesive material may be applied to the site before or after the scaffold is positioned. It is understood that the terms “placed” and “positioned” include applying an adhesive and/or scaffold on a wound, tissue, or repair site, across edges of a wound or incision, and/or across a juncture between tissue and a biocompatible implant to be joined or adhered.

The composite of the present invention may be designed and packaged in a variety of different ways. For example, in one embodiment, the composite is packaged in an inert cellophane-like material. The inert material peels off the surface of the composite to allow immediate use. The packaged item may be made available in a variety of sizes and shapes as appropriate for various uses or applications.

In another embodiment, the composite is supported by one or two rollers made of an inert material. The rollers may be configured to be disposable or reusable. The composite is wrapped around the roller or rollers to form a scroll. The scroll is unrolled to apply the composite to a wound or repair site; for example, a curved or irregular surface. A double roller scroll is particularly advantageous in a non-sterile setting (such as an emergency setting, where surgical/sterile gloves are not available), since it avoids the need for a person to directly handle the composite. A single roller scroll is particularly suitable for sterile environments, for example, during surgery, where a gloved hand may be used to position the edge of the composite prior to unrolling.

Yet another alternative packaging technique involves positioning a thin, expendable, fracturable membrane on top of the composite in such a way that the thin membrane protects the composite until it is ready to be used. Upon application of the composite to a wound or repair site, the expendable membrane ruptures or fractures, for example, to expose the adhesive to the desired tissue site.

Further alternative embodiments involve the use of a separator, such as an inert tab made of plastic, paper, or other suitable material, to which a grip, for example a ring (similar to that used in laser printer cartridges), is attached. In one such alternative embodiment, a separator is positioned between the scaffold and the adhesive to isolate the scaffold from the adhesive until the composite is needed for application to a wound or repair site (FIG. 24A). Exertion of force on the grip, e.g., in the direction of the arrows shown in FIG. 24A, removes the separator (FIG. 24B), enabling immediate use of the composite.

In another such alternative embodiment, the separator is positioned between the adhesive and an adhesive activator to isolate the adhesive from its activator until the composite is needed for use (FIG. 25). In the embodiment of FIG. 25, a saline or protein, e.g., VEGF, is also included in the composite as shown. The right-hand side of FIG. 25 shows how the packaged composite may be stacked for storage.

In yet another such alternative embodiment, two separators may be provided. A first separator may be positioned between the scaffold and the adhesive, and a second separator positioned between the adhesive and the activator. In this embodiment, one grip may be provided to remove the separator between the activator and adhesive in order to activate the adhesive, and then a second grip may be provided to remove the separator between the adhesive and scaffold, to enable contact between the adhesive and the scaffold. This design may be useful in situations where it may be necessary or desirable to activate the adhesive a certain amount of time prior to application of the composite to the wound or repair site. Alternatively, one grip may be provided, which operates to remove both separators at once.

The composite can be modified to provide biologically active materials to biological tissue. The controlled release of various dopants including hemostatic and thrombogenic agents, antibiotics, anesthetics, various growth factors, enzymes, anti-inflammatories, bacteriostatic or bacteriocidal factors, chemotherapeutic agents, anti-angiogenic agents and vitamins can be added to the composite to assist in the therapeutic goal of the procedure. The degradation rate of the composite, and consequently the drug delivery rate, can be controlled by altering the macromolecular structure of the device or a portion thereof.

FIGS. 26A and 26B show an example of how the composite may be used to deliver VEGF to heart tissue after surgery. It is understood that similar techniques may be used in the repair of other internal or external wounds. FIG. 26A shows one embodiment in which the scaffold is immersed in VEGF protein. As a result, the scaffold absorbs the VEGF. When combined with the adhesive to form the composite, the composite is then able to release the VEGF to biological tissue when used to repair a wound, for example, as shown in FIG. 26B. It is understood that variations exist in the way the biologically active material is combined with the composite and that such variations are within the scope and spirit of the present invention.

Furthermore, the elasticity, strength, and flexibility of the composite can be modified to meet the demands of and enhance clinical applicability in a wide range of applications. For example, alteration of composition and pore size modifies pliability and elasticity, making it easier to process and fabricate the composite, for example, into different forms and shapes for different applications.

Although specific illustrated embodiments of the invention have been disclosed, it is understood by those skilled in the art that changes in form and details may be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The present invention is not limited to the specific details disclosed herein, but is to be defined by the appended claims.

TABLE A
Data relating to Example 1, summarized in Table 1 and FIG. 1
	Tensile Strength (N)
	Solder +	Cyanoacrylate +	Single 4-0	Native
Tissue	Scaffold	Scaffold	Suture	Tissue
small intestine	0.91	0.96	0.16	1.06
	0.79	1.04	0.47	1.13
	0.84	0.88	0.04	1.02
	1.00	0.87	0.57	1.20
	0.90	0.80	0.76	1.11
	0.75	1.02	0.12	0.90
	0.78	0.89	0.96	1.16
	0.90	0.94	0.25	1.05
	0.94	0.85	1.13	1.01
	0.83	1.00	0.41	1.08
spleen	0.72	0.93	0.37	0.86
	0.57	0.83	0.27	0.83
	0.62	0.78	0.67	0.92
	0.65	1.00	0.80	0.88
	0.69	0.90	0.84	0.94
	0.61	0.86	0.21	0.97
	0.63	0.98	0.75	0.95
	0.70	0.94	0.48	0.81
	0.68	0.84	0.18	0.90
	0.64	0.96	0.60	0.94
skeletal muscle	1.28	1.47	1.60	1.91
	1.10	1.62	1.55	1.78
	0.94	1.72	1.08	1.85
	1.16	1.39	1.75	1.99
	1.53	1.56	0.50	1.95
	1.06	1.43	1.87	1.88
	1.26	1.39	0.61	1.80
	0.95	1.56	0.46	1.93
	1.38	1.59	1.24	2.01
	1.29	1.66	1.46	1.93
skin	1.06	1.43	1.68	1.67
	1.22	1.46	1.83	1.59
	0.95	1.50	1.19	1.50
	0.97	1.60	1.06	1.63
	1.03	1.58	0.99	1.70
	0.91	1.48	1.99	1.72
	1.01	1.40	2.12	1.64
	1.10	1.59	1.40	1.69
	1.03	1.50	2.18	1.67
	0.89	1.44	1.36	1.60
atrium	1.02	1.25	0.34	1.29
	0.78	1.27	0.94	1.36
	0.98	1.16	0.18	1.42
	0.94	1.14	0.78	1.33
	0.75	1.18	1.01	1.29
	0.97	1.20	0.44	1.44
	0.91	1.23	0.90	1.36
	0.85	1.26	0.34	1.32
	0.80	1.13	0.82	1.34
	0.91	1.19	0.26	1.29
ventricle	0.90	1.01	0.41	1.42
	0.82	1.11	0.59	1.38
	0.94	1.17	1.12	1.33
	0.80	1.11	0.97	1.48
	0.73	1.15	1.53	1.39
	0.83	1.06	1.70	1.58
	0.70	1.16	0.30	1.39
	0.78	1.19	1.24	1.46
	0.86	1.12	0.80	1.34
	0.89	0.96	0.74	1.45
lung	0.18	0.46	0.07	0.75
	0.21	0.53	0.37	0.74
	0.25	0.55	0.11	0.71
	0.34	0.52	0.08	0.73
	0.16	0.42	0.48	0.72
	0.19	0.51	0.55	0.75
	0.22	0.60	0.21	0.68
	0.17	0.45	0.54	0.70
	0.24	0.57	0.04	0.66
	0.27	0.41	0.10	0.69
pancreas	0.27	0.99	1.43	1.27
	0.35	1.20	1.21	1.32
	0.42	1.14	0.91	1.38
	0.25	1.22	0.52	1.25
	0.45	1.19	0.80	1.24
	0.48	1.22	1.36	1.37
	0.41	1.23	1.24	1.33
	0.27	1.23	1.28	1.23
	0.34	1.22	0.66	1.27
	0.37	1.20	1.12	1.26
liver	0.31	0.82	1.35	1.37
	0.42	0.85	1.20	1.43
	0.51	0.90	0.27	1.29
	0.25	0.80	0.25	1.32
	0.26	0.76	0.39	1.45
	0.30	0.79	0.15	1.34
	0.41	0.86	0.31	1.43
	0.25	0.87	1.43	1.36
	0.27	0.93	0.99	1.41
	0.35	0.91	1.10	1.31
gall bladder	0.44	0.85	0.94	1.21
	0.38	0.97	0.06	1.32
	0.39	0.96	0.61	1.23
	0.56	0.88	0.11	1.38
	0.36	0.99	0.07	1.35
	0.41	0.80	0.03	1.39
	0.39	0.87	0.15	1.29
	0.35	0.92	0.75	1.25
	0.50	1.00	0.68	1.16
	0.44	0.94	0.26	1.34
kidney	0.73	0.95	0.08	0.86
	0.80	0.89	0.66	1.01
	0.53	1.00	0.21	1.21
	0.57	0.87	1.29	0.92
	0.73	1.02	1.16	0.81
	0.61	1.04	0.75	0.87
	0.54	0.99	0.40	0.91
	0.46	0.90	0.26	0.86
	0.59	0.98	0.40	1.03
	0.57	1.07	0.88	0.79
ureter	0.96	1.13	0.42	1.16
	1.10	1.19	0.13	1.26
	0.90	0.90	0.66	1.21
	1.04	1.02	0.74	1.15
	1.01	0.85	0.25	1.32
	0.88	0.93	0.08	1.26
	1.16	1.00	0.54	1.27
	0.92	0.90	0.85	1.33
	1.13	1.10	0.13	1.22
	0.97	0.93	0.21	1.16
sciatic nerve	0.90	1.35	0.12	1.00
	0.92	1.37	0.07	1.17
	1.03	1.20	0.81	1.11
	0.99	1.51	0.45	1.15
	0.87	1.30	0.56	1.09
	0.91	1.25	0.60	1.03
	0.85	1.28	0.37	1.01
	0.87	1.37	0.31	1.22
	0.94	1.31	0.74	1.12
	0.84	1.29	0.19	1.14

TABLE B
Data relating to Example 1, summarized in Table 2 and FIG. 2
	Tensile Strength (N)
	Solder +	Cyanoacrylate +	Single 4-0	Native
Tissue	Scaffold	Scaffold	Suture	Tissue
carotid artery	0.83	1.04	1.06	0.95
	0.74	0.95	0.67	1.00
	0.80	1.07	0.64	0.92
	0.68	0.87	1.27	0.89
	0.80	1.00	0.55	0.86
	0.73	0.93	0.50	1.02
	0.70	1.04	0.41	0.90
	0.81	1.08	0.97	0.88
	0.77	0.99	1.21	0.87
	0.75	1.10	1.27	0.91
femoral artery	0.84	0.99	0.44	1.01
	0.76	0.94	0.96	1.05
	0.80	1.02	0.86	1.00
	0.73	1.06	0.34	1.11
	0.83	0.97	0.71	1.04
	0.80	1.00	0.65	0.98
	0.74	1.07	0.91	1.03
	0.77	1.10	1.02	1.00
	0.82	1.03	0.85	1.02
	0.77	1.00	0.49	1.00
splenic artery	1.02	1.43	1.29	1.53
	1.02	1.48	0.61	1.48
	1.08	1.34	0.47	1.51
	1.04	1.31	1.38	1.45
	1.14	1.45	1.51	1.54
	1.09	1.36	1.33	1.49
	0.97	1.39	0.35	1.55
	1.12	1.34	0.63	1.41
	1.03	1.47	0.74	1.45
	0.90	1.46	0.85	1.47
coronary artery	0.92	1.29	0.96	1.49
	1.01	1.46	1.47	1.60
	1.06	1.35	1.12	1.56
	0.99	1.32	1.16	1.55
	0.94	1.39	1.23	1.66
	0.97	1.44	1.43	1.50
	1.11	1.46	0.74	1.54
	1.05	1.43	0.90	1.51
	1.09	1.30	1.33	1.58
	0.92	1.44	1.40	1.49
pulmonary artery	0.93	1.38	0.99	1.59
	1.06	1.22	0.75	1.43
	1.03	1.40	1.18	1.55
	0.79	1.44	0.61	1.49
	0.86	1.35	0.97	1.40
	0.93	1.33	0.51	1.45
	0.91	1.39	0.67	1.52
	0.88	1.23	1.02	1.54
	1.02	1.32	0.87	1.59
	0.99	1.30	1.14	1.61
aorta (intima)	1.12	1.59	1.40	1.64
	1.00	1.47	0.69	1.60
	1.25	1.33	1.24	1.66
	0.92	1.64	0.87	1.59
	1.06	1.44	1.36	1.60
	0.97	1.39	1.56	1.55
	1.22	1.50	0.60	1.51
	1.08	1.43	0.46	1.56
	1.02	1.56	1.11	1.64
	1.14	1.50	1.43	1.55
aorta (adventitia)	1.20	1.29	1.03	1.59
	1.23	1.42	1.29	1.50
	1.08	1.44	1.38	1.54
	1.29	1.36	1.23	1.65
	1.33	1.33	1.21	1.60
	1.35	1.39	1.19	1.66
	1.26	1.44	1.32	1.51
	1.00	1.50	0.95	1.56
	1.23	1.46	1.44	1.48
	1.40	1.54	0.87	1.57

TABLE C
Data relating to Example 3, summarized in FIG. 6
	Tensile Strength (N)
		Cyanoacrylate	Cyanoacrylate +	Cyanoacrylate +
Rat	Suture	Alone	SIS	PLGA
1	6.2	3.5	8.5	6.8
2	4.7	5.3	7.0	7.8
3	6.3	3.7	8.0	6.3
4	2.5	5.8	5.5	8.1
5	2.0	6.5	9.0	8.1
6	4.5	4.9	8.4	7.2
7	5.2	3.2	6.6	8.6
8	2.4	5.0	6.2	6.7
9	6.2	5.9	9.1	7.1
10	5.5	4.3	7.0	6.5
Mean	4.3	5.0	7.6	7.4
St Dev	1.6	1.0	1.2	0.8

TABLE D
Data relating to Example 3, summarized in FIG. 7
	Time to Failure (s)
		Cyanoacrylate	Cyanoacrylate +	Cyanoacrylate +
Rat	Suture	Alone	SIS	PLGA
1	40	65	160	125
2	55	40	150	150
3	95	30	75	55
4	65	70	90	110
5	60	85	85	100
6	60	60	95	120
7	55	45	105	135
8	45	50	80	80
9	70	75	140	115
10	65	60	135	95
Mean	61	58	112	108
St Dev	13	17	27	27

TABLE E
Data relating to Example 3, summarized in FIG. 9
	Tensile Strength (N)
		Cyanoacrylate	Cyanoacrylate +	Cyanoacrylate +
Rat	Suture	Alone	SIS	PLGA
1	7.0	5.6	8.0	8.9
2	6.5	6.3	9.2	8.7
3	4.2	4.8	8.3	7.9
Mean	5.9	5.6	8.5	8.5
St Dev	1.2	0.8	0.5	0.4

TABLE F
Data relating to Example 3, summarized in FIG. 10
	Time to Failure (s)
		Cyanoacrylate	Cyanoacrylate +	Cyanoacrylate +
Rat	Suture	Alone	SIS	PLGA
1	54	56	128	136
2	73	69	143	152
3	88	60	125	127
Mean	72	62	132	138
St Dev	9	5	9	13

TABLE G
Data relating to Example 4, summarized in FIG. 11
	Tensile Strength (N)
	Cyanoacrylate	Cyanoacrylate +	Cyanoacrylate +
Specimen	alone	SIS	PLGA
1	1.34	3.32	2.64
2	2.55	2.20	2.05
3	0.71	2.77	2.28
4	0.89	1.83	2.09
5	1.15	1.77	2.17
6	0.72	2.27	1.63
7	1.42	2.10	2.94
8	1.79	2.32	2.62
9	1.80	1.99	2.29
10	1.54	2.45	2.19
Mean	1.39	2.30	2.29
St Dev	0.57	0.46	0.37

TABLE H
Data relating to Example 4, summarized in FIG. 12
	Tensile		Tensile		Tensile
	Strength (N) −		Strength (N) −		Strength (N) −
	Cyanoacrylate		Cyanoacrylate +		Cyanoacrylate +
Time (s)	Alone	Time (s)	SIS	Time (s)	PLGA
0.5662	−0.0091	0.5254	0.0565	0.6558	0.0635
1.0662	0.0111	1.0254	0.0930	1.1558	−0.0600
1.5662	0.0272	1.5254	−0.0260	1.6558	0.0025
2.0662	−0.0024	2.0254	0.0490	2.1558	0.0786
2.5662	−0.0013	2.5254	0.0945	2.6558	−0.0486
3.0662	0.0257	3.0254	−0.0230	3.1558	0.0026
3.5662	−0.0057	3.5254	0.0544	3.6558	0.0646
4.0662	0.0008	4.0254	0.0890	4.1558	−0.0443
4.5662	0.0236	4.5254	−0.0171	4.6558	0.0063
5.0662	−0.0095	5.0254	0.0564	5.1558	0.0693
5.5662	0.0034	5.5254	0.0873	5.6558	−0.0490
6.0662	0.0258	6.0254	−0.0227	6.1558	0.0108
6.5662	−0.0096	6.5254	0.0596	6.6558	0.0736
7.0662	0.0076	7.0254	0.0849	7.1558	−0.0493
7.5662	0.0195	7.5254	−0.0290	7.6558	0.0167
8.0662	−0.0054	8.0254	0.0525	8.1558	0.0673
8.5662	0.0129	8.5254	0.0892	8.6558	−0.0494
9.0662	0.0213	9.0254	−0.0281	9.1558	0.0114
9.5662	0.0003	9.5254	0.0678	9.6558	0.0641
10.0662	0.0110	10.0254	0.0888	10.1558	−0.0497
10.5662	0.0207	10.5254	−0.0282	10.6558	0.0018
11.0662	−0.0086	11.0254	0.0645	11.1558	0.0716
11.5662	0.0070	11.5254	0.0869	11.6558	−0.0540
12.0662	0.0194	12.0254	−0.0324	12.1558	0.0043
12.5662	−0.0093	12.5254	0.0650	12.6558	0.0608
13.0662	0.0026	13.0254	0.0844	13.1558	−0.0581
13.5662	0.0245	13.5254	−0.0252	13.6558	0.0261
14.0662	0.0021	14.0254	0.0553	14.1558	0.0598
14.5662	0.0033	14.5254	0.0890	14.6558	−0.0586
15.0662	0.0201	15.0254	−0.0227	15.1558	0.0074
15.5662	−0.0061	15.5254	0.0691	15.6558	0.0670
16.0662	0.0071	16.0254	0.0854	16.1558	−0.0553
16.5662	0.0207	16.5254	−0.0301	16.6558	0.0227
17.0662	−0.0085	17.0254	0.0672	17.1558	0.0690
17.5662	0.0111	17.5254	0.0922	17.6558	−0.0505
18.0662	0.0245	18.0254	−0.0173	18.1558	0.0126
18.5662	−0.0057	18.5254	0.0709	18.6558	0.0719
19.0662	0.0115	19.0254	0.0899	19.1558	−0.0388
19.5662	0.0241	19.5254	−0.0284	19.6558	0.0217
20.0662	−0.0024	20.0254	0.0709	20.1558	0.0671
20.5662	0.0107	20.5254	0.0825	20.6558	−0.0414
21.0662	0.0235	21.0254	−0.0286	21.1558	0.0370
21.5662	−0.0032	21.5254	0.0662	21.6558	0.0711
22.0662	0.0077	22.0254	0.0896	22.1558	−0.0435
22.5662	0.0235	22.5254	−0.0217	22.6558	0.0466
23.0662	−0.0041	23.0254	0.0746	23.1558	0.0701
23.5662	0.0089	23.5254	0.0835	23.6558	−0.0435
24.0662	0.0243	24.0254	−0.0274	24.1558	0.0437
24.5662	0.0064	24.5254	0.0753	24.6558	0.0747
25.0662	0.0130	25.0254	0.0860	25.1558	−0.0515
25.5662	0.0264	25.5254	−0.0171	25.6558	0.0425
26.0662	0.0037	26.0254	0.0655	26.1558	0.0810
26.5662	0.0139	26.5254	0.0955	26.6558	−0.0442
27.0662	0.0241	27.0254	−0.0116	27.1558	0.0448
27.5662	0.0002	27.5254	0.0843	27.6558	0.0817
28.0662	0.0158	28.0254	0.0841	28.1558	−0.0311
28.5662	0.0304	28.5254	−0.0131	28.6558	0.0498
29.0662	0.0089	29.0254	0.0809	29.1558	0.0793
29.5662	0.0143	29.5254	0.0857	29.6558	−0.0282
30.0662	0.0269	30.0254	−0.0193	30.1558	0.0573
30.5662	0.0013	30.5254	0.0775	30.6558	0.0808
31.0662	0.0164	31.0254	0.0838	31.1558	−0.0199
31.5662	0.0278	31.5254	−0.0119	31.6558	0.0588
32.0662	0.0042	32.0254	0.0849	32.1558	0.0840
32.5662	0.0203	32.5254	0.0946	32.6558	−0.0228
33.0662	0.0401	33.0254	0.0004	33.1558	0.0748
33.5662	0.0064	33.5254	0.0974	33.6558	0.0835
34.0662	0.0202	34.0254	0.0888	34.1558	−0.0071
34.5662	0.0338	34.5254	−0.0031	34.6558	0.0831
35.0662	−0.0001	35.0254	0.0928	35.1558	0.1080
35.5662	0.0250	35.5254	0.1016	35.6558	0.0004
36.0662	0.0419	36.0254	0.0051	36.1558	0.0943
36.5662	0.0134	36.5254	0.1034	36.6558	0.1213
37.0662	0.0284	37.0254	0.0973	37.1558	0.0184
37.5662	0.0410	37.5254	0.0068	37.6558	0.1110
38.0662	0.0133	38.0254	0.1090	38.1558	0.1209
38.5662	0.0361	38.5254	0.1072	38.6558	0.0260
39.0662	0.0432	39.0254	0.0132	39.1558	0.1284
39.5662	0.0119	39.5254	0.1233	39.6558	0.1465
40.0662	0.0398	40.0254	0.1120	40.1558	0.0379
40.5662	0.0383	40.5254	0.0282	40.6558	0.1439
41.0662	0.0164	41.0254	0.1363	41.1558	0.1589
41.5662	0.0410	41.5254	0.1353	41.6558	0.0625
42.0662	0.0488	42.0254	0.0490	42.1558	0.1546
42.5662	0.0297	42.5254	0.1528	42.6558	0.1818
43.0662	0.0440	43.0254	0.1431	43.1558	0.0780
43.5662	0.0535	43.5254	0.0582	43.6558	0.1762
44.0662	0.0355	44.0254	0.1680	44.1558	0.2017
44.5662	0.0545	44.5254	0.1634	44.6558	0.0915
45.0662	0.0620	45.0254	0.0752	45.1558	0.2031
45.5662	0.0423	45.5254	0.1862	45.6558	0.2126
46.0662	0.0726	46.0254	0.1739	46.1558	0.1311
46.5662	0.0801	46.5254	0.0900	46.6558	0.2274
47.0662	0.0516	47.0254	0.2173	47.1558	0.2379
47.5662	0.0822	47.5254	0.1934	47.6558	0.1582
48.0662	0.0904	48.0254	0.1243	48.1558	0.2486
48.5662	0.0598	48.5254	0.2412	48.6558	0.2522
49.0662	0.0873	49.0254	0.2264	49.1558	0.1682
49.5662	0.1030	49.5254	0.1412	49.6558	0.2759
50.0662	0.0784	50.0254	0.2571	50.1558	0.2871
50.5662	0.1137	50.5254	0.2453	50.6558	0.1933
51.0662	0.1229	51.0254	0.1610	51.1558	0.2939
51.5662	0.1026	51.5254	0.3027	51.6558	0.3078
52.0662	0.1381	52.0254	0.2935	52.1558	0.2265
52.5662	0.1524	52.5254	0.2153	52.6558	0.3188
53.0662	0.1321	53.0254	0.3471	53.1558	0.3242
53.5662	0.1725	53.5254	0.3322	53.6558	0.2489
54.0662	0.1852	54.0254	0.2531	54.1558	0.3463
54.5662	0.1705	54.5254	0.3860	54.6558	0.3477
55.0662	0.2095	55.0254	0.3812	55.1558	0.2729
55.5662	0.2245	55.5254	0.3050	55.6558	0.3698
56.0662	0.2080	56.0254	0.4264	56.1558	0.3797
56.5662	0.2470	56.5254	0.4006	56.6558	0.3092
57.0662	0.2689	57.0254	0.3451	57.1558	0.3952
57.5662	0.2602	57.5254	0.4732	57.6558	0.3968
58.0662	0.3262	58.0254	0.4389	58.1558	0.3451
58.5662	0.3497	58.5254	0.3866	58.6558	0.4444
59.0662	0.3354	59.0254	0.5191	59.1558	0.4252
59.5662	0.3799	59.5254	0.5147	59.6558	0.3365
60.0662	0.4002	60.0254	0.4365	60.1558	0.4531
60.5662	0.4047	60.5254	0.5677	60.6558	0.4646
61.0662	0.4626	61.0254	0.5392	61.1558	0.3788
61.5662	0.4843	61.5254	0.4821	61.6558	0.5118
62.0662	0.4841	62.0254	0.6078	62.1558	0.5079
62.5662	0.5096	62.5254	0.5869	62.6558	0.4284
63.0662	0.5346	63.0254	0.5103	63.1558	0.5610
63.5662	0.5401	63.5254	0.6340	63.6558	0.5560
64.0662	0.6048	64.0254	0.6051	64.1558	0.4850
64.5662	0.6434	64.5254	0.5433	64.6558	0.6229
65.0662	0.6466	65.0254	0.6627	65.1558	0.5912
65.5662	0.7034	65.5254	0.6489	65.6558	0.5206
66.0662	0.7319	66.0254	0.5903	66.1558	0.6515
66.5662	0.7296	66.5254	0.7124	66.6558	0.6560
67.0662	0.7812	67.0254	0.6868	67.1558	0.5663
67.5662	0.8245	67.5254	0.6226	67.6558	0.6745
68.0662	0.8143	68.0254	0.7311	68.1558	0.6949
68.5662	0.8697	68.5254	0.6968	68.6558	0.5977
69.0662	0.8950	69.0254	0.6694	69.1558	0.7006
69.5662	0.8903	69.5254	0.7460	69.6558	0.7167
70.0662	0.9447	70.0254	0.7182	70.1558	0.6466
70.5662	0.9580	70.5254	0.6671	70.6558	0.7853
71.0662	0.9722	71.0254	0.7869	71.1558	0.7667
71.5662	1.0043	71.5254	0.7528	71.6558	0.6706
72.0662	1.0323	72.0254	0.7061	72.1558	0.7699
72.5662	1.0003	72.5254	0.8182	72.6558	0.7282
73.0662	1.0034	73.0254	0.7819	73.1558	0.6681
73.5662	1.0202	73.5254	0.7247	73.6558	0.7883
74.0662	0.9740	74.0254	0.8305	74.1558	0.7932
74.5662	0.9786	74.5254	0.7982	74.6558	0.7392
75.0662	0.9916	75.0254	0.7542	75.1558	0.8474
75.5662	0.9799	75.5254	0.8685	75.6558	0.8278
76.0662	0.9983	76.0254	0.8127	76.1558	0.7282
76.5662	0.9970	76.5254	0.7563	76.6558	0.8575
77.0662	0.9838	77.0254	0.8622	77.1558	0.7959
77.5662	0.9859	77.5254	0.8337	77.6558	0.7446
78.0662	0.9690	78.0254	0.7886	78.1558	0.8550
78.5662	0.9315	78.5254	0.9194	78.6558	0.8127
79.0662	0.9622	79.0254	0.8416	79.1558	0.7529
79.5662	0.9899	79.5254	0.8144	79.6558	0.8798
80.0662	0.9726	80.0254	0.9137	80.1558	0.8644
80.5662	0.9978	80.5254	0.8873	80.6558	0.8303
81.0662	0.9357	81.0254	0.8639	81.1558	0.9743
81.5662	0.8981	81.5254	0.9849	81.6558	0.9309
82.0662	0.8623	82.0254	0.9298	82.1558	0.8491
82.5662	0.7964	82.5254	0.9306	82.6558	0.9989
83.0662	0.7561	83.0254	1.0418	83.1558	0.9567
83.5662	0.7497	83.5254	0.9784	83.6558	0.9116
84.0662	0.7104	84.0254	0.9776	84.1558	1.0292
84.5662	0.6552	84.5254	1.0905	84.6558	1.0169
85.0662	0.6317	85.0254	1.0160	85.1558	0.9501
85.5662	0.4368	85.5254	1.0025	85.6558	1.0932
86.0662	0.4109	86.0254	1.0888	86.1558	1.0846
86.5662	0.4253	86.5254	0.9953	86.6558	1.0228
87.0662	0.4164	87.0254	0.9726	87.1558	1.1636
87.5662	0.3940	87.5254	1.0686	87.6558	1.1369
88.0662	0.3914	88.0254	0.9988	88.1558	1.0708
88.5662	0.1006	88.5254	0.9735	88.6558	1.2250
89.0662	0.0791	89.0254	1.1150	89.1558	1.2148
89.5662	0.1035	89.5254	1.0385	89.6558	1.1490
90.0662	0.0934	90.0254	1.0114	90.1558	1.3004
90.5662	0.0609	90.5254	1.1318	90.6558	1.2924
91.0662	0.0901	91.0254	1.0501	91.1558	1.2294
91.5662	0.0795	91.5254	1.0027	91.6558	1.3589
92.0662	0.0477	92.0254	1.1004	92.1558	1.3312
92.5662	0.0818	92.5254	1.0152	92.6558	1.2635
93.0662	0.0717	93.0254	0.9960	93.1558	1.3822
93.5662	0.0554	93.5254	1.1032	93.6558	1.3359
94.0662	0.0753	94.0254	1.0304	94.1558	1.2581
94.5662	0.0754	94.5254	0.9952	94.6558	1.3693
95.0662	0.0525	95.0254	1.0993	95.1558	1.3083
95.5662	0.0433	95.5254	1.0268	95.6558	1.2484
96.0662	0.0216	96.0254	1.0040	96.1558	1.3356
96.5662	−0.0002	96.5254	1.1117	96.6558	1.2691
97.0662	0.0216	97.0254	1.0142	97.1558	1.1935
97.5662	0.0167	97.5254	0.9717	97.6558	1.3079
98.0662	0.0071	98.0254	1.0963	98.1558	1.2440
98.5662	0.0238	98.5254	1.0002	98.6558	1.1641
99.0662	0.0128	99.0254	0.9735	99.1558	1.2714
99.5662	0.0116	99.5254	1.0762	99.6558	1.1953
100.0662	0.0328	100.0254	0.9837	100.1558	1.1641
100.5662	0.0255	100.5254	0.9627	100.6558	1.2371
101.0662	0.0198	101.0254	1.0702	101.1558	1.1685
101.5662	0.0189	101.5254	0.9871	101.6558	1.1014
102.0662	0.0067	102.0254	0.9567	102.1558	1.1958
102.5662	−0.0121	102.5254	1.0603	102.6558	1.1316
103.0662	0.0127	103.0254	0.9650	103.1558	1.0533
103.5662	0.0058	103.5254	0.9274	103.6558	1.1714
104.0662	0.0004	104.0254	1.0448	104.1558	1.0882
104.5662	0.0123	104.5254	0.9637	104.6558	1.0081
105.0662	0.0035	105.0254	0.9281	105.1558	1.1301
105.5662	−0.0105	105.5254	1.0257	105.6558	1.0427
106.0662	0.0165	106.0254	0.9495	106.1558	0.9803
106.5662	0.0021	106.5254	0.9351	106.6558	1.0825
107.0662	−0.0057	107.0254	1.0271	107.1558	1.0183
107.5662	0.0173	107.5254	0.9369	107.6558	0.9506
108.0662	0.0054	108.0254	0.9235	108.1558	1.0779
108.5662	−0.0061	108.5254	1.0173	108.6558	0.9794
109.0662	0.0160	109.0254	0.9315	109.1558	0.9463
109.5662	0.0031	109.5254	0.9225	109.6558	1.0473
110.0662	−0.0055	110.0254	1.0246	110.1558	0.9756
110.5662	0.0073	110.5254	0.9408	110.6558	0.9154
111.0662	0.0007	111.0254	0.9238	111.1558	1.0425
111.5662	−0.0063	111.5254	1.0217	111.6558	0.9925
112.0662	0.0151	112.0254	0.9648	112.1558	0.9371
112.5662	0.0048	112.5254	0.9459	112.6558	1.0297
113.0662	−0.0111	113.0254	1.0614	113.1558	0.9714
113.5662	0.0142	113.5254	0.9684	113.6558	0.9519
114.0662	0.0033	114.0254	0.9527	114.1558	1.0538
114.5662	−0.0074	114.5254	1.0556	114.6558	0.9820
115.0662	0.0169	115.0254	0.9729	115.1558	0.9400
115.5662	0.0059	115.5254	0.9484	115.6558	1.0619
116.0662	−0.0094	116.0254	1.0482	116.1558	0.9704
116.5662	0.0154	116.5254	0.9606	116.6558	0.9587
117.0662	0.0007	117.0254	0.9581	117.1558	1.0770
117.5662	−0.0078	117.5254	1.0623	117.6558	0.9903
118.0662	0.0149	118.0254	0.9700	118.1558	0.9483
118.5662	−0.0019	118.5254	0.9716	118.6558	1.0798
119.0662	−0.0056	119.0254	1.0570	119.1558	0.9804
119.5662	0.0209	119.5254	0.9815	119.6558	0.9520
120.0662	0.0004	120.0254	0.9812	120.1558	1.0850
120.5662	−0.0097	120.5254	1.0638	120.6558	0.9978
121.0662	0.0124	121.0254	0.9834	121.1558	0.9458
121.5662	0.0052	121.5254	0.9871	121.6558	1.0709
122.0662	−0.0065	122.0254	1.0778	122.1558	0.9864
122.5662	0.0148	122.5254	0.9988	122.6558	0.9773
123.0662	0.0003	123.0254	0.9992	123.1558	1.0836
123.5662	−0.0092	123.5254	1.0677	123.6558	1.0040
124.0662	0.0194	124.0254	1.0043	124.1558	0.9886
124.5662	−0.0035	124.5254	1.0137	124.6558	1.1052
125.0662	−0.0098	125.0254	1.1097	125.1558	1.0077
125.5662	0.0151	125.5254	1.0558	125.6558	1.0127
126.0662	0.0010	126.0254	1.0592	126.1558	1.1126
126.5662	−0.0044	126.5254	1.1658	126.6558	1.0206
127.0662	0.0183	127.0254	1.0812	127.1558	1.0242
127.5662	−0.0001	127.5254	1.0895	127.6558	1.1280
128.0662	−0.0022	128.0254	1.1711	128.1558	1.0523
128.5662	0.0120	128.5254	1.0802	128.6558	1.0318
		129.0254	1.1171	129.1558	1.1481
		129.5254	1.2157	129.6558	1.0756
		130.0254	1.1282	130.1558	1.0429
		130.5254	1.1378	130.6558	1.1728
		131.0254	1.2270	131.1558	1.1039
		131.5254	1.1425	131.6558	1.0691
		132.0254	1.1632	132.1558	1.1731
		132.5254	1.2470	132.6558	1.0991
		133.0254	1.1461	133.1558	1.0742
		133.5254	1.1660	133.6558	1.2086
		134.0254	1.2594	134.1558	1.0867
		134.5254	1.1567	134.6558	1.0952
		135.0254	1.1904	135.1558	1.2207
		135.5254	1.2565	135.6558	1.1233
		136.0254	1.1689	136.1558	1.1081
		136.5254	1.1970	136.6558	1.2359
		137.0254	1.2888	137.1558	1.1756
		137.5254	1.1667	137.6558	1.1398
		138.0254	1.2043	138.1558	1.2702
		138.5254	1.2745	138.6558	1.1769
		139.0254	1.1801	139.1558	1.1765
		139.5254	1.1982	139.6558	1.2667
		140.0254	1.2596	140.1558	1.1985
		140.5254	1.1590	140.6558	1.1905
		141.0254	1.2049	141.1558	1.2736
		141.5254	1.2720	141.6558	1.1891
		142.0254	1.1880	142.1558	1.1953
		142.5254	1.2258	142.6558	1.2958
		143.0254	1.3077	143.1558	1.1958
		143.5254	1.2122	143.6558	1.1882
		144.0254	1.2288	144.1558	1.3123
		144.5254	1.3213	144.6558	1.2290
		145.0254	1.2364	145.1558	1.2235
		145.5254	1.2691	145.6558	1.3367
		146.0254	1.3469	146.1558	1.2463
		146.5254	1.2800	146.6558	1.2479
		147.0254	1.3131	147.1558	1.3480
		147.5254	1.3980	147.6558	1.2488
		148.0254	1.2787	148.1558	1.2773
		148.5254	1.3219	148.6558	1.3719
		149.0254	1.4038	149.1558	1.2705
		149.5254	1.3058	149.6558	1.2849
		150.0254	1.3435	150.1558	1.3786
		150.5254	1.4282	150.6558	1.2698
		151.0254	1.3252	151.1558	1.2759
		151.5254	1.3688	151.6558	1.3885
		152.0254	1.4159	152.1558	1.2786
		152.5254	1.3090	152.6558	1.2968
		153.0254	1.3378	153.1558	1.3819
		153.5254	1.4103	153.6558	1.2831
		154.0254	1.2855	154.1558	1.3039
		154.5254	1.3340	154.6558	1.4115
		155.0254	1.4151	155.1558	1.2880
		155.5254	1.3076	155.6558	1.3021
		156.0254	1.3545	156.1558	1.4125
		156.5254	1.4471	156.6558	1.3162
		157.0254	1.3450	157.1558	1.3283
		157.5254	1.4047	157.6558	1.4228
		158.0254	1.4631	158.1558	1.3359
		158.5254	1.3631	158.6558	1.3380
		159.0254	1.4150	159.1558	1.4404
		159.5254	1.4740	159.6558	1.3516
		160.0254	1.3650	160.1558	1.3666
		160.5254	1.3987	160.6558	1.4505
		161.0254	1.4800	161.1558	1.3330
		161.5254	1.3543	161.6558	1.3832
		162.0254	1.3875	162.1558	1.4469
		162.5254	1.4435	162.6558	1.3547
		163.0254	1.3313	163.1558	1.3792
		163.5254	1.3386	163.6558	1.4480
		164.0254	1.3879	164.1558	1.3617
		164.5254	1.2757	164.6558	1.3907
		165.0254	1.3099	165.1558	1.5113
		165.5254	1.3773	165.6558	1.4053
		166.0254	1.2621	166.1558	1.4040
		166.5254	1.3001	166.6558	1.5089
		167.0254	1.3716	167.1558	1.4075
		167.5254	1.2621	167.6558	1.4319
		168.0254	1.3177	168.1558	1.5345
		168.5254	1.3990	168.6558	1.4371
		169.0254	1.3097	169.1558	1.4636
		169.5254	1.3492	169.6558	1.5517
		170.0254	1.4388	170.1558	1.4529
		170.5254	1.3552	170.6558	1.4708
		171.0254	1.4291	171.1558	1.5767
		171.5254	1.4757	171.6558	1.4623
		172.0254	1.3934	172.1558	1.5162
		172.5254	1.4594	172.6558	1.5952
		173.0254	1.5054	173.1558	1.4814
		173.5254	1.4260	173.6558	1.5150
		174.0254	1.4967	174.1558	1.6018
		174.5254	1.5615	174.6558	1.4697
		175.0254	1.4691	175.1558	1.5124
		175.5254	1.5155	175.6558	1.6151
		176.0254	1.5755	176.1558	1.5009
		176.5254	1.4786	176.6558	1.5527
		177.0254	1.5610	177.1558	1.6275
		177.5254	1.6044	177.6558	1.5192
		178.0254	1.5219	178.1558	1.5530
		178.5254	1.5954	178.6558	1.6408
		179.0254	1.6321	179.1558	1.5225
		179.5254	1.5354	179.6558	1.5530
		180.0254	1.6005	180.1558	1.6510
		180.5254	1.6334	180.6558	1.5523
		181.0254	1.5508	181.1558	1.5947
		181.5254	1.6327	181.6558	1.6629
		182.0254	1.6559	182.1558	1.5604
		182.5254	1.5468	182.6558	1.5933
		183.0254	1.6326	183.1558	1.6603
		183.5254	1.6804	183.6558	1.5601
		184.0254	1.5876	184.1558	1.5978
		184.5254	1.6614	184.6558	1.6606
		185.0254	1.6881	185.1558	1.5627
		185.5254	1.5912	185.6558	1.6132
		186.0254	1.6797	186.1558	1.6717
		186.5254	1.7023	186.6558	1.5769
		187.0254	1.5935	187.1558	1.6131
		187.5254	1.6758	187.6558	1.6851
		188.0254	1.7277	188.1558	1.5700
		188.5254	1.6279	188.6558	1.6318
		189.0254	1.7077	189.1558	1.6833
		189.5254	1.7240	189.6558	1.5731
		190.0254	1.6213	190.1558	1.6335
		190.5254	1.7187	190.6558	1.6893
		191.0254	1.7655	191.1558	1.5955
		191.5254	1.6705	191.6558	1.6786
		192.0254	1.7436	192.1558	1.7255
		192.5254	1.7744	192.6558	1.6290
		193.0254	1.6555	193.1558	1.6715
		193.5254	1.7525	193.6558	1.7537
		194.0254	1.7811	194.1558	1.6415
		194.5254	1.6889	194.6558	1.6925
		195.0254	1.7507	195.1558	1.7606
		195.5254	1.7907	195.6558	1.6744
		196.0254	1.7014	196.1558	1.7331
		196.5254	1.7733	196.6558	1.7759
		197.0254	1.8069	197.1558	1.6775
		197.5254	1.7218	197.6558	1.7357
		198.0254	1.8102	198.1558	1.8097
		198.5254	1.8339	198.6558	1.6983
		199.0254	1.7534	199.1558	1.7760
		199.5254	1.8338	199.6558	1.8225
		200.0254	1.8508	200.1558	1.7212
		200.5254	1.7513	200.6558	1.7968
		201.0254	1.8314	201.1558	1.8481
		201.5254	1.8462	201.6558	1.7391
		202.0254	1.7543	202.1558	1.7993
		202.5254	1.8409	202.6558	1.8730
		203.0254	1.8356	203.1558	1.7623
		203.5254	1.7418	203.6558	1.8052
		204.0254	1.8243	204.1558	1.8747
		204.5254	1.8439	204.6558	1.7571
		205.0254	1.7414	205.1558	1.8324
		205.5254	1.8041	205.6558	1.8813
		206.0254	1.8078	206.1558	1.7485
		206.5254	1.7207	206.6558	1.8279
		207.0254	1.8006	207.1558	1.8907
		207.5254	1.7941	207.6558	1.7626
		208.0254	1.6834	208.1558	1.8148
		208.5254	1.7788	208.6558	1.8817
		209.0254	1.7940	209.1558	1.7612
		209.5254	1.7011	209.6558	1.8422
		210.0254	1.8042	210.1558	1.8905
		210.5254	1.8011	210.6558	1.7620
		211.0254	1.7164	211.1558	1.8461
		211.5254	1.8084	211.6558	1.8846
		212.0254	1.8052	212.1558	1.7685
		212.5254	1.7209	212.6558	1.8454
		213.0254	1.8319	213.1558	1.9100
		213.5254	1.8460	213.6558	1.7857
		214.0254	1.7495	214.1558	1.8548
		214.5254	1.8703	214.6558	1.9146
		215.0254	1.8675	215.1558	1.8002
		215.5254	1.7855	215.6558	1.8762
		216.0254	1.9008	216.1558	1.9314
		216.5254	1.8923	216.6558	1.8195
		217.0254	1.8102	217.1558	1.9027
		217.5254	1.9152	217.6558	1.9401
		218.0254	1.9114	218.1558	1.8314
		218.5254	1.8395	218.6558	1.9102
		219.0254	1.9534	219.1558	1.9487
		219.5254	1.9470	219.6558	1.8409
		220.0254	1.8684	220.1558	1.9111
		220.5254	1.9911	220.6558	1.9523
		221.0254	1.9693	221.1558	1.8487
		221.5254	1.8862	221.6558	1.9326
		222.0254	1.9889	222.1558	1.9816
		222.5254	1.9789	222.6558	1.8854
		223.0254	1.8981	223.1558	1.9658
		223.5254	2.0190	223.6558	1.9924
		224.0254	2.0009	224.1558	1.8873
		224.5254	1.9335	224.6558	1.9611
		225.0254	2.0602	225.1558	2.0019
		225.5254	2.0320	225.6558	1.8895
		226.0254	1.9499	226.1558	1.9872
		226.5254	2.0551	226.6558	2.0050
		227.0254	2.0533	227.1558	1.8831
		227.5254	1.9590	227.6558	1.9927
		228.0254	2.0655	228.1558	2.0100
		228.5254	2.0333	228.6558	1.9058
		229.0254	1.9713	229.1558	2.0139
		229.5254	2.0943	229.6558	2.0155
		230.0254	2.0807	230.1558	1.9264
		230.5254	2.0033	230.6558	2.0332
		231.0254	2.1218	231.1558	2.0326
		231.5254	2.0882	231.6558	1.9549
		232.0254	2.0158	232.1558	2.0577
		232.5254	2.1266	232.6558	2.0667
		233.0254	2.1168	233.1558	1.9527
		233.5254	2.0288	233.6558	2.0684
		234.0254	2.1615	234.1558	2.1051
		234.5254	2.1209	234.6558	1.9946
		235.0254	2.0342	235.1558	2.0944
		235.5254	2.1576	235.6558	2.1156
		236.0254	2.1104	236.1558	2.0121
		236.5254	2.0504	236.6558	2.1214
		237.0254	2.1821	237.1558	2.1237
		237.5254	2.1576	237.6558	2.0462
		238.0254	2.0781	238.1558	2.1243
		238.5254	2.2120	238.6558	2.1624
		239.0254	2.1832	239.1558	2.0607
		239.5254	2.0997	239.6558	2.1630
		240.0254	2.2105	240.1558	2.1561
		240.5254	2.1847	240.6558	2.0758
		241.0254	2.0996	241.1558	2.1805
		241.5254	2.2095	241.6558	2.1460
		242.0254	2.1748	242.1558	2.0474
		242.5254	2.1067	242.6558	2.1601
		243.0254	2.2154	243.1558	2.1840
		243.5254	2.1630	243.6558	2.0732
		244.0254	2.1123	244.1558	2.1663
		244.5254	2.2160	244.6558	2.1612
		245.0254	2.1759	245.1558	2.0596
		245.5254	2.1262	245.6558	2.1745
		246.0254	2.2252	246.1558	2.1748
		246.5254	2.1804	246.6558	2.0797
		247.0254	2.1103	247.1558	2.1881
		247.5254	2.2170	247.6558	2.1772
		248.0254	2.1452	248.1558	2.0921
		248.5254	2.0774	248.6558	2.2105
		249.0254	2.1826	249.1558	2.2258
		249.5254	2.1333	249.6558	2.1231
		250.0254	2.0735	250.1558	2.2371
		250.5254	2.1764	250.6558	2.2271
		251.0254	2.1189	251.1558	2.1210
		251.5254	2.0632	251.6558	2.2510
		252.0254	2.1832	252.1558	2.2371
		252.5254	2.0532	252.6558	2.1452
		253.0254	1.9346	253.1558	2.2658
		253.5254	2.0401	253.6558	2.2824
		254.0254	1.9773	254.1558	2.1720
		254.5254	1.8949	254.6558	2.2722
		255.0254	2.0064	255.1558	2.2611
		255.5254	1.9560	255.6558	2.1583
		256.0254	1.8667	256.1558	2.2602
		256.5254	2.0311	256.6558	2.2697
		257.0254	1.9797	257.1558	2.1603
		257.5254	1.9255	257.6558	2.2737
		258.0254	2.0564	258.1558	2.2901
		258.5254	2.0008	258.6558	2.2074
		259.0254	1.9624	259.1558	2.2977
		259.5254	2.0827	259.6558	2.2875
		260.0254	2.0420	260.1558	2.2040
		260.5254	1.9898	260.6558	2.3003
		261.0254	2.1291	261.1558	2.2962
		261.5254	2.0910	261.6558	2.2146
		262.0254	2.0601	262.1558	2.3218
		262.5254	2.1896	262.6558	2.2964
		263.0254	2.1543	263.1558	2.1895
		263.5254	2.1267	263.6558	2.3387
		264.0254	2.2577	264.1558	2.3021
		264.5254	2.2201	264.6558	2.2278
		265.0254	2.1899	265.1558	2.3541
		265.5254	2.3228	265.6558	2.3289
		266.0254	2.2765	266.1558	2.2480
		266.5254	2.2261	266.6558	2.3671
		267.0254	2.3383	267.1558	2.3553
		267.5254	2.2868	267.6558	2.2719
		268.0254	2.2679	268.1558	2.3912
		268.5254	2.3975	268.6558	2.3553
		269.0254	2.3547	269.1558	2.2976
		269.5254	2.3070	269.6558	2.4005
		270.0254	2.4417	270.1558	2.3858
		270.5254	2.3943	270.6558	2.3029
		271.0254	2.3529	271.1558	2.4296
		271.5254	2.4853	271.6558	2.4008
		272.0254	2.4283	272.1558	2.3293
		272.5254	2.3973	272.6558	2.4491
		273.0254	2.5266	273.1558	2.4343
		273.5254	2.4716	273.6558	2.3292
		274.0254	2.4122	274.1558	2.4637
		274.5254	2.5432	274.6558	2.4168
		275.0254	2.5007	275.1558	2.3518
		275.5254	2.4427	275.6558	2.4974
		276.0254	2.5660	276.1558	2.4818
		276.5254	2.4859	276.6558	2.3975
		277.0254	2.4453	277.1558	2.4887
		277.5254	2.5922	277.6558	2.4597
		278.0254	2.5098	278.1558	2.4029
		278.5254	2.4590	278.6558	2.4916
		279.0254	2.5882	279.1558	2.4325
		279.5254	2.5346	279.6558	2.3618
		280.0254	2.4800	280.1558	2.4868
		280.5254	2.5965	280.6558	2.4467
		281.0254	2.5274	281.1558	2.3860
		281.5254	2.4749	281.6558	2.5083
		282.0254	2.5947	282.1558	2.4607
		282.5254	2.5277	282.6558	2.3806
		283.0254	2.4743	283.1558	2.5314
		283.5254	2.6008	283.6558	2.4902
		284.0254	2.5157	284.1558	2.4134
		284.5254	2.4548	284.6558	2.5331
		285.0254	2.5784	285.1558	2.5019
		285.5254	2.4773	285.6558	2.4172
		286.0254	2.4420	286.1558	2.5232
		286.5254	2.5503	286.6558	2.5068
		287.0254	2.4662	287.1558	2.4570
		287.5254	2.4604	287.6558	2.5734
		288.0254	2.5592	288.1558	2.5172
		288.5254	2.4704	288.6558	2.4776
		289.0254	2.4369	289.1558	2.5863
		289.5254	2.5689	289.6558	2.5013
		290.0254	2.4834	290.1558	2.4638
		290.5254	2.4720	290.6558	2.5865
		291.0254	2.5764	291.1558	2.5428
		291.5254	2.4805	291.6558	2.5023
		292.0254	2.4416	292.1558	2.6203
		292.5254	2.5697	292.6558	2.5493
		293.0254	2.5057	293.1558	2.4638
		293.5254	2.5011	293.6558	2.5798
		294.0254	2.6170	294.1558	2.5052
		294.5254	2.5309	294.6558	2.0632
		295.0254	2.5112	295.1558	2.1721
		295.5254	2.6163	295.6558	2.0955
		296.0254	2.5635	296.1558	2.0095
		296.5254	2.5429	296.6558	2.0905
		297.0254	2.6351	297.1558	2.0161
		297.5254	2.5610	297.6558	1.9522
		298.0254	2.5458	298.1558	2.0462
		298.5254	2.6412	298.6558	1.9930
		299.0254	2.5664	299.1558	1.9365
		299.5254	2.5613	299.6558	2.0350
		300.0254	2.6732	300.1558	1.9640
		300.5254	2.5768	300.6558	1.7419
		301.0254	2.5568	301.1558	1.7372
		301.5254	2.6677	301.6558	1.5418
		302.0254	2.5964	302.1558	0.9940
		302.5254	2.5977	302.6558	1.1658
		303.0254	2.6903	303.1558	0.9812
		303.5254	2.6075	303.6558	0.7103
		304.0254	2.6128	304.1558	0.1776
		304.5254	2.7134	304.6558	0.1481
		305.0254	2.6334	305.1558	0.1361
		305.5254	2.6194	305.6558	0.2479
		306.0254	2.7265	306.1558	0.1973
		306.5254	2.6468	306.6558	0.1861
		307.0254	2.6302	307.1558	0.2868
		307.5254	2.7372	307.6558	0.2230
		308.0254	2.6450	308.1558	0.1816
		308.5254	2.6419	308.6558	0.2231
		309.0254	2.7451	309.1558	0.1387
		309.5254	2.6627	309.6558	0.0610
		310.0254	2.6647	310.1558	0.0952
		310.5254	2.7727	310.6558	−0.0079
		311.0254	2.6867	311.1558	−0.0414
		311.5254	2.6656	311.6558	0.0509
		312.0254	2.7429	312.1558	−0.0144
		312.5254	2.6512	312.6558	−0.0244
		313.0254	2.6651	313.1558	0.0577
		313.5254	2.7690	313.6558	−0.0187
		314.0254	2.6754	314.1558	−0.0304
		314.5254	2.6662	314.6558	0.0388
		315.0254	2.7691	315.1558	−0.0219
		315.5254	2.6489	315.6558	−0.0232
		316.0254	2.6608	316.1558	0.0362
		316.5254	2.7697	316.6558	−0.0197
		317.0254	2.6422
		317.5254	2.6413
		318.0254	2.7117
		318.5254	2.6159
		319.0254	2.6176
		319.5254	2.7053
		320.0254	2.6409
		320.5254	2.5910
		321.0254	2.6024
		321.5254	2.4789
		322.0254	2.4800
		322.5254	2.5932
		323.0254	2.5110
		323.5254	2.5604
		324.0254	2.6756
		324.5254	2.5841
		325.0254	2.6312
		325.5254	2.7175
		326.0254	2.6349
		326.5254	2.5801
		327.0254	2.5359
		327.5254	2.3188
		328.0254	2.0659
		328.5254	1.8042
		329.0254	1.6719
		329.5254	1.1505
		330.0254	0.9770
		330.5254	0.5587
		331.0254	0.5329
		331.5254	0.3621
		332.0254	0.2898
		332.5254	0.3210
		333.0254	0.3846
		333.5254	0.3106
		334.0254	0.3642
		334.5254	0.4598
		335.0254	0.2938
		335.5254	0.2393
		336.0254	0.3910
		336.5254	0.3488
		337.0254	0.0204
		337.5254	0.0866
		338.0254	0.0033
		338.5254	0.0242
		339.0254	0.0755
		339.5254	0.0013
		340.0254	0.0229
		340.5254	0.0819
		341.0254	0.0003
		341.5254	0.0181
		342.0254	0.0707
		342.5254	−0.0061
		343.0254	0.0260
		343.5254	0.0746
		344.0254	0.0010
		344.5254	0.0276
		345.0254	0.0683

TABLE I-1
Data relating to Example 5, summarized in FIGS. 15 and 16
	PLGA (rough)	PLGA (smooth)	SIS (rough)	SIS (smooth)	Dermabond Alone	Native
Aorta	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.60	90	0.78	43	1.81	84	0.89	32	0.85	43	1.53	84
2	1.55	93	0.67	50	1.57	105	0.66	44	0.96	56	1.65	72
3	1.64	83	1.17	36	1.32	97	1.07	29	0.72	27	1.41	63
4	1.56	132	0.70	22	1.46	65	1.13	63	0.43	21	1.93	121
5	1.43	102	0.95	37	1.83	81	1.26	28	0.78	35	1.58	90
6	1.44	120	1.13	55	1.50	62	0.61	22	0.96	42	2.04	74
7	1.35	105	0.98	38	1.85	90	1.37	50	0.84	29	1.62	82
8	1.99	88	1.17	32	1.71	75	0.94	65	0.95	54	2.17	134
9	1.44	79	0.98	25	1.43	55	0.69	42	0.57	14	1.42	63
10	1.61	98	1.17	62	1.66	56	0.71	54	0.72	18	1.62	121
Mean	1.56	99	0.97	40	1.61	77	0.93	43	0.78	34	1.70	90
St Dev	0.18	17	0.20	13	0.19	17	0.27	15	0.18	15	0.26	26

TABLE I-2
Data relating to Example 5, summarized in FIGS. 15 and 16
	PLGA (rough)	PLGA (smooth)	SIS (rough)	SIS (smooth)	Dermabond Alone	Native
Small Intestine	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.96	55	0.85	35	1.25	22	0.80	52	0.54	29	1.16	94
2	1.21	82	0.60	70	1.10	61	0.86	41	0.24	10	1.42	82
3	0.79	67	0.55	50	0.72	50	0.69	22	0.77	32	1.36	93
4	0.95	33	0.85	60	1.41	73	0.55	25	0.52	12	1.11	45
5	1.22	48	0.50	45	1.25	50	0.67	18	0.58	15	0.58	76
6	1.29	81	0.45	5	1.08	72	0.46	12	0.21	8	1.24	89
7	0.87	75	0.55	45	0.87	55	0.77	41	0.83	36	0.68	77
8	0.88	71	0.40	5	1.14	40	0.62	15	0.38	14	1.24	56
9	1.21	45	0.95	50	1.30	35	0.93	32	0.16	6	0.77	86
10	0.80	66	1.04	55	0.70	65	0.50	8	0.48	24	1.30	39
Mean	1.02	62	0.67	42	1.08	52	0.69	27	0.47	19	1.09	74
St Dev	0.19	16	0.23	22	0.24	16	0.16	14	0.23	11	0.30	20

TABLE I-3
Data relating to Example 5, summarized in FIGS. 15 and 16
	PLGA (rough)	PLGA (smooth)	SIS (rough)	SIS (smooth)	Dermabond Alone	Native
Liver	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.26	52	1.01	36	1.41	37	1.06	38	0.85	35	1.24	70
2	1.28	64	1.08	50	1.34	52	1.08	32	0.53	18	1.27	54
3	1.25	60	0.94	44	1.08	23	1.03	35	0.65	32	1.14	44
4	1.23	47	1.03	58	1.11	47	0.95	27	1.04	39	1.45	64
5	1.42	42	1.15	24	1.12	32	0.82	20	0.47	13	1.48	85
6	1.10	38	1.19	35	1.07	45	0.88	33	0.59	30	1.42	43
7	1.17	42	1.00	22	0.92	12	0.90	36	0.82	47	1.30	68
8	1.22	58	1.18	32	1.44	57	0.99	42	0.52	32	1.28	37
9	1.30	55	1.25	46	1.25	63	0.75	25	0.56	36	1.21	47
10	1.42	74	0.86	18	1.16	37	1.02	57	0.41	22	1.43	72
Mean	1.27	53	1.07	37	1.19	41	0.95	35	0.64	30	1.32	58
St Dev	0.10	11	0.12	13	0.17	16	0.11	10	0.20	10	0.12	16

TABLE I-4
Data relating to Example 5, summarized in FIGS. 15 and 16
	PLGA (rough)	PLGA (smooth)	SIS (rough)	SIS (smooth)	Dermabond Alone	Native
Spleen	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.90	45	0.95	63	0.92	43	0.81	41	0.51	31	0.90	58
2	0.78	50	0.64	43	1.21	64	0.89	52	0.69	42	1.18	70
3	0.90	55	0.88	55	1.28	57	0.55	33	0.83	36	1.52	83
4	0.62	55	0.86	47	1.03	61	1.17	60	0.63	28	0.97	45
5	1.00	65	0.47	36	0.60	52	0.61	27	0.43	20	1.46	77
6	1.32	72	0.53	41	1.05	67	0.94	55	0.24	6	1.06	49
7	1.16	58	0.42	24	0.87	42	1.03	54	0.49	14	1.04	63
8	0.95	63	0.59	38	0.84	39	0.74	48	0.36	18	0.69	60
9	1.14	75	1.24	52	0.73	36	0.78	40	0.77	43	1.33	67
10	1.27	67	1.08	49	0.95	55	0.65	29	0.27	8	0.84	41
Mean	1.00	61	0.77	45	0.95	52	0.82	44	0.52	25	1.10	61
St Dev	0.22	10	0.28	11	0.21	11	0.19	12	0.20	13	0.27	14

TABLE I-5
Data relating to Example 5, summarized in FIGS. 15 and 16
	PLGA (rough)	PLGA (smooth)	SIS (rough)	SIS (smooth)	Dermabond Alone	Native
Lung	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.46	34	0.32	26	0.46	43	0.30	27	0.20	22	0.57	43
2	0.32	22	0.40	42	0.35	36	0.37	36	0.00	1	0.66	52
3	0.38	26	0.36	32	0.42	45	0.28	15	0.09	6	0.56	38
4	0.58	48	0.29	27	0.40	43	0.44	32	0.28	15	0.65	48
5	0.51	45	0.31	24	0.29	25	0.30	24	0.34	28	0.68	45
6	0.40	31	0.48	38	0.36	41	0.26	26	0.18	16	0.63	36
7	0.36	39	0.28	26	0.32	36	0.45	36	0.22	21	0.54	46
8	0.63	52	0.32	28	0.48	46	0.28	24	0.29	19	0.43	32
9	0.55	48	0.19	20	0.54	45	0.33	29	0.31	24	0.51	46
10	0.50	42	0.24	22	0.44	40	0.47	35	0.21	18	0.72	52
Mean	0.47	39	0.32	29	0.41	40	0.35	28	0.21	17	0.60	44
St Dev	0.10	10	0.08	7	0.08	6	0.08	7	0.10	8	0.09	7

TABLE J-1
Data relating to Example 6, summarized in FIGS. 17 and 18
	10 mm ×	10 mm ×	5 mm ×	5 mm ×	15 mm ×	15 mm ×
	10 mm	5 mm	10 mm	5 mm	10 mm	5 mm
Aorta	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.60	90	1.30	94	1.22	103	0.76	32	2.02	132	1.44	83
2	1.55	93	0.86	87	1.36	96	0.55	40	1.88	89	1.32	72
3	1.64	83	0.77	92	1.27	93	0.71	25	1.93	94	1.39	104
4	1.56	132	0.93	77	0.75	67	0.35	15	2.10	106	1.50	121
5	1.43	102	0.74	45	0.96	75	0.39	12	2.24	156	1.17	90
6	1.44	120	0.77	56	0.84	54	0.57	27	1.74	80	1.37	96
7	1.35	105	1.17	82	1.07	66	0.83	48	2.32	141	1.32	85
8	1.99	88	1.09	85	1.14	99	0.64	33	2.16	120	1.45	112
9	1.44	79	0.90	64	0.88	71	0.59	38	1.96	102	1.48	108
10	1.61	98	0.98	80	0.79	62	0.79	21	2.15	98	1.53	87
Mean	1.56	99	0.95	76	1.03	79	0.62	29	2.05	112	1.40	96
St Dev	0.18	17	0.19	16	0.21	18	0.16	11	0.18	25	0.11	15

TABLE J-2
Data relating to Example 6, summarized in FIGS. 17 and 18
	10 mm ×	10 mm ×	5 mm ×	5 mm ×	15 mm ×	15 mm ×
Small	10 mm	5 mm	10 mm	5 mm	10 mm	5 mm
Intestine	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.96	55	0.80	74	0.67	55	0.34	15	1.21	99	1.17	78
2	1.21	82	0.92	69	0.82	83	0.27	20	1.27	117	0.94	61
3	0.79	67	0.63	34	0.71	61	0.48	35	1.36	92	0.82	65
4	0.95	33	0.74	53	0.94	69	0.51	44	1.47	111	0.88	73
5	1.22	48	0.55	51	0.54	42	0.22	24	1.33	96	0.73	56
6	1.29	81	0.60	44	0.60	49	0.28	27	1.36	103	0.80	79
7	0.87	75	0.52	41	0.63	61	0.43	39	1.39	104	1.00	85
8	0.88	71	0.46	32	0.57	58	0.36	32	1.90	151	0.92	81
9	1.21	45	0.58	66	0.51	40	0.18	8	1.52	125	0.62	71
10	0.80	66	0.64	56	0.59	53	0.41	32	1.42	88	0.90	93
Mean	1.02	62	0.64	52	0.66	57	0.35	28	1.42	109	0.88	74
St Dev	0.19	16	0.14	15	0.13	13	0.11	11	0.19	19	0.15	11

TABLE K-1
Data relating to Example 7, summarized in FIGS. 20 and 21
	Sandpaper	Computer-Drilling	Punch	Mold
Aorta	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.47	78	1.04	84	1.59	132	1.42	113
2	1.82	118	0.83	79	1.63	126	0.98	72
3	1.55	97	0.99	93	1.92	137	1.06	94
4	1.57	125	1.15	112	1.47	96	1.36	132
5	1.32	69	0.87	66	1.33	100	1.25	99
Mean	1.55	97	0.98	87	1.59	118	1.21	102
St Dev	0.18	24	0.13	17	0.22	19	0.19	22

TABLE K-2
Data relating to Example 7, summarized in FIGS. 20 and 21
	Computer-
Small	Sandpaper	Drilling	Punch	Mold
Intestine	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.07	60	0.47	40	1.00	72	0.75	64
2	0.94	48	0.72	62	1.03	69	0.63	44
3	1.00	74	0.55	44	1.26	83	0.81	77
4	1.23	89	0.69	65	1.32	81	0.77	59
5	0.92	44	0.43	45	0.75	53	0.90	72
Mean	1.03	63	0.57	51	1.07	72	0.77	63
St Dev	0.13	19	0.13	11	0.23	12	0.10	13

TABLE K-3
Data relating to Example 7, summarized in FIGS. 20 and 21
	Computer-
	Sandpaper	Drilling	Punch	Mold
Liver	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	1.32	57	1.26	55	1.42	57	0.92	55
2	1.46	55	1.19	61	1.29	53	1.01	58
3	1.10	39	0.82	52	1.11	49	1.06	67
4	1.29	47	0.37	23	1.53	66	0.82	43
5	1.33	67	0.55	46	1.58	68	0.90	48
Mean	1.30	53	0.84	47	1.39	59	0.94	54
St Dev	0.13	11	0.39	15	0.19	8	0.09	9

TABLE K-4
Data relating to Example 7, summarized in FIGS. 20 and 21
	Computer-
	Sandpaper	Drilling	Punch	Mold
Spleen	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.99	60	0.72	61	1.01	55	0.78	55
2	0.82	49	0.64	58	0.97	49	0.53	60
3	0.90	53	0.57	40	1.15	62	0.66	63
4	1.04	62	0.81	73	1.32	76	0.87	66
5	1.25	74	0.6	44	1.09	67	0.99	71
Mean	1.00	60	0.67	55	1.11	62	0.77	63
St Dev	0.16	10	0.10	13	0.14	10	0.18	6

TABLE K-5
Data relating to Example 7, summarized in FIGS. 20 and 21
	Computer-
	Sandpaper	Drilling	Punch	Mold
Lung	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)	T (N)	t (s)
1	0.48	36	0.29	27	0.62	48	0.29	31
2	0.75	46	0.38	35	0.51	51	0.41	42
3	0.43	32	0.43	38	0.43	37	0.33	37
4	0.50	43	0.23	31	0.47	32	0.38	46
5	0.37	31	0.25	30	0.60	45	0.44	39
Mean	0.51	38	0.32	32	0.53	43	0.37	39
St Dev	0.15	7	0.09	4	0.08	8	0.06	6

Claims

1. A composition suitable for medical and surgical applications, comprising: a scaffold including at least one of a biological material, biocompatible material, and biodegradable material, and a non-light activated adhesive including at least one of a biological material, biocompatible material, and biodegradable material, coupled to the scaffold to form a composite that, when used to repair biological tissue, has a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone.

2. The composition of claim 1, wherein the scaffold is selected from the group consisting of poly(glycolic acid), poly (L-lactic-co-glycolic acid,) poly (epsilon-caprolactoma), poly(ethyleneglycol), poly (alpha ester)s, poly (ortho ester)s, poly (anhydride)s, small intestine submucosa, polymerized collagen, polymerized elastin.

3. The composition of claim 1, wherein the adhesive is selected from the group consisting of serum albumin, collagen, fibrin, fibrinogen, fibronectin, thrombin, barnacle glues, marine algae, cyanoacrylates.

4. The composition of claim 1, wherein the scaffold has an, at least partially, irregular surface.

5. The composition of claim 1, wherein the scaffold has a pore size in the range of about 100-500 μm.

6. The composition of claim 1, further comprising an activator.

7. The composition of claim 1, further comprising a dopant.

8. The composition of claim 1, wherein the composite, when used to repair biological tissue, exhibits a substantially constant tensile strength in response to a substantially constant application of force for a period at least about 130% longer than the adhesive alone.

9. The composition of claim 1, wherein the scaffold has a surface area, and the scaffold is selected for a medical or surgical application based on the surface area.

10. A method for repairing, joining, aligning, or sealing biological tissue, comprising the steps of: combining a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable scaffold and a non-light activated biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable adhesive to form a composition having a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone, and applying the composite to an adhesion site.

11. The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of combining an activator with the composite.

12. The method of claim 11, wherein the step of combining an activator with the composite is performed prior to the applying step.

13. The method of claim 10, further comprising the step of combining a dopant with the composite.

14. The method of claim 13, wherein the step of combining a dopant with the composite is performed prior to the applying step.

15. The method of claim 10, wherein the adhesion site is a portion of biological tissue.

16. The method of claim 10, wherein the adhesion site is a portion of a biocompatible implant.

17. The method of claim 10 wherein the applying step is performed as part of an internal surgical procedure.

18. The method of claim 10, wherein the applying step is performed as part of an external surgical procedure.

19. The method of claim 10, wherein the applying step is performed during an emergency medical procedure.

20. The method of claim 10, wherein the applying step includes the step of placing the composite over edges of severed tissue.

21. A product for joining, repairing, aligning or sealing biological tissue, comprising: a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable scaffold, a biological, biocompatible, or biodegradable non-light activated adhesive, and a device that facilitates combination of the scaffold and the adhesive to form a composite having a tensile strength of at least about 120% of the tensile strength of the adhesive alone.

22. The product of claim 21, further comprising instructions for coupling the scaffold and the adhesive.

23. The product of claim 21, further comprising an applicator suitable to apply the composite to an adhesion site.

24. The product of claim 21, further comprising instructions for applying the composite to an adhesion site.

25. The product of claim 21, further comprising an inert, removable material covering the scaffold and adhesive.

26. The product of claim 21, further comprising a fracturable membrane coupled to the adhesive.

27. The product of claim 21, further comprising a separator positioned between the scaffold and the adhesive.

28. The product of claim 27, further comprising a grip coupled to the separator such that exertion of force on the grip removes the separator from between the scaffold and the adhesive.

29. The product of claim 21, further comprising an activator and a first separator positioned between the activator and the adhesive.

30. The product of claim 29, further comprising a grip coupled to the separator such that exertion of a force on the grip causes the separator to be removed from between the activator and the adhesive.

31. The product of claim 29, further comprising a second separator positioned between the scaffold and the adhesive.

32. The product of claim 31, further comprising a grip coupled to the first separator and the second separator such that exertion of a force on the grip causes the first and second separators to be removed.

33. The product of claim 31, further comprising a first grip coupled to the first separator and a second grip coupled to the second separator.

34. The product of claim 31, further comprising a grip coupled to the second separator such that exertion of a force on the grip causes the second separator to be removed from between the scaffold and the adhesive.