Patent Grant
10920274
Nucleic acids have been permanently conjugated to metal oxides for use as biosensors and for biomedical diagnosis, therapy, and catalysis. Additionally, DNA has been used as a taggant for purposes of authenticating objects. For example, in U.S. Pat. No. 9,297,032, DNA is mixed with a perturbant and a polymer to coat an object. The DNA may be recovered from the object and PCR-based assays are performed to verify the taggant, thus authenticating the object.
However, there remains a need to incorporate nucleic acid taggants into materials that cannot be introduced into water, i.e., are water immiscible, materials which are not or cannot be produced using water, or materials in which the raw materials are often comprised of powders, e.g., pharmaceuticals and cosmetics. In addition there remains a further unmet need for a method of removably attaching a nucleic acid taggant to a submicron particle, such that the nucleic acid can be later readily removed from the submicron particle for the purpose of authentication.
The present inventors have found a means of removably affixing a monolayer of nucleic acid onto the surface of submicron particles so that the nucleic acid may be later readily recovered and isolated from the submicron particle.
In one embodiment, the invention relates to a composition including submicron particles covered by a monolayer of nucleic acid, wherein the nucleic acid may be recovered from the submicron particles. The nucleic acid is preferably affixed to the submicron particles.
The preferred nucleic acid is deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA). The preferred submicron particles are metal oxides. Preferred metal oxides are titanium dioxide and silicon dioxide.
The submicron particles may be exposed to a substance to optimize the desired level of adhesion of nucleic acid to submicron particles so the nucleic acid may be recovered from the submicron particles. Preferably, the substance is selected from the group consisting of sodium phosphate, borate, monopotassium phosphate, vanadate, citrate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and sodium lauryl sulfate.
In another embodiment, the invention relates to a method of attaching a nucleic acid to an object for authentication purposes comprising providing a plurality of submicron particles; adding an amount of nucleic acid suspended in a solvent to the submicron particles so that only enough nucleic acid is present to form a monolayer around each submicron particle; extracting the solvent to form a monolayer of nucleic acid covering each submicron particle; and attaching the nucleic acid covered submicron particles to an object to be authenticated using nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques for authentication. Preferably the solvent is water.
In another embodiment, the invention relates to a method of authenticating an object comprising providing a plurality of submicron particles; adding an amount of nucleic acid suspended in a solvent to the submicron particles so that only enough nucleic acid is present to form a monolayer around each submicron particle; extracting the solvent to form a monolayer of nucleic acid covering each submicron particle; attaching the nucleic acid covered submicron particles to an object to be authenticated; taking a sample of the object to recover the nucleic acid from the submicron particles; isolating the nucleic acid; amplifying and identifying the nucleic acid using nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques; and verifying the authenticity of the object by the presence of the nucleic acid.
A composition including submicron particles covered by a removably affixed monolayer of nucleic acid taggants is claimed. The nucleic acid taggant may be readily or otherwise removed from the submicron particles so the nucleic acid taggant may be amplified and identified using nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques.
Submicron particles measure under 1 μm (1,000 nm) in diameter. The submicron particles of the invention include any submicron particle that can be incorporated within an object or attached to an object. Preferred submicron particles are spherical, have known circumferences, disburse well in water, and provide advantageous binding conditions for a nucleic acid.
Examples of submicron particles include metal oxides, metal carbides, metal nitrides, and metal sulfates. The preferred submicron particles are metal oxides. Preferred metal oxides such as silicon dioxide, titanium dioxide, and aluminum dioxide may be incorporated into pharmaceuticals, foods, and cosmetics as excipients or active ingredients. In addition, the metal oxide submicron particles can be incorporated into most commercially available materials including, for example, thermoplastics, acrylics, textiles, and polymers, without causing adverse structural effects.
The nucleic acid is used as a taggant, i.e., a substance that is affixed to an object to provide information about the object such as the source of manufacture, national origin, or authenticity. “Nucleic acid” and “nucleic acid taggant” are used interchangeably throughout the application. Nucleic acid includes DNA and ribonucleic acid (RNA). Preferably, the nucleic acid taggant is a non-naturally occurring sequence that is adapted for use in authentication. The preferred nucleic acid is DNA.
Nucleic acid taggants useful in the invention include any suitable nucleic acid taggant, including DNA taggants. In one example, the DNA taggant is a double stranded DNA molecule having a length of between about 20 base pairs and about 1000 base pairs. In another example, the DNA taggant is a double-stranded DNA molecule with a length of between about 80 and 500 base pairs. In another example, the DNA taggant is a double-stranded DNA molecule having a length of between about 100 and about 250 base pairs. Alternatively, the DNA taggant can be single-stranded DNA of any suitable length, such as between about 20 bases and about 1000 bases; between about 80 bases and 500 bases; or between about 100 bases and about 250 bases. The DNA taggant can be a naturally-occurring DNA sequence, whether isolated from natural sources or synthetic; or the DNA taggant can be a non-naturally occurring sequence produced from natural or synthetic sources. All or a portion of the DNA may comprise an identifiable sequence. The preferred DNA is double-stranded DNA of a non-naturally occurring sequence.
Preferably, the DNA taggant is identifiable by any suitable nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection technique. Nucleic acid amplification may be accomplished via any technique known in the art, such as, for example, polymerase chain reaction (PCR), loop mediated isothermal amplification, rolling circle amplification, nucleic acid sequence base amplification, ligase chain reaction, or recombinase polymerase amplification. In addition, any known sequence detection and/or identification technique may be used to detect the presence of the nucleic acid taggant such as, for example, hybridization with a taggant-sequence specific nucleic acid probe, an in situ hybridization method (including fluorescence in situ hybridization: FISH), as well as amplification and detection via PCR, such as quantitative (qPCR)/real time PCR (RT-PCR). Isothermal amplification and taggant sequence detection may also be performed with the aid of an in-field detection device such as the T-16 Isothermal Device manufactured by TwistDX, Limited (Hertfordshire, United Kingdom).
In order to identify the nucleic acids, and thus authenticate an associated object, it is important that the nucleic acids be readily removable from the object to which they are applied. In other words, enough nucleic acid must be removable from the object to enable nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques. Removal of nucleic acids from an object may be performed via the removal of nucleic acids from the surface of the object without the removal of the nucleic acids' associated submicron particle. Removal of nucleic acids may also be accomplished via the removal of one or more nucleic acid-coated submicron particles attached to an object. The nucleic acid is then disassociated from the recovered submicron particle(s), as described herein, so that the nucleic acids can be amplified and identified using nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques.
“Readily removing the nucleic acid from the object to which it was applied” is defined as removing the nucleic acid and/or DNA-coated submicron particles in a manner that is not laborious. For example, “readily removing the nucleic acid from the object to which it was applied” includes wiping the surface of the object the nucleic acid-covered submicron particles are attached to with a wet cotton swab. In another example, “readily removing the nucleic acid from the object to which it was applied” includes using a cotton swab with methyl ethyl ketone to wipe the object. In an additional example, “readily removing the nucleic acid from the object to which it was applied” includes using a competitive binding substance to detach the nucleic acids- or DNA-coated submicron particles from the object.
In order to allow the nucleic acid to be readily removed from the submicron particles, the submicron particles may be treated with a competitive binding substance to optimize the desired level of adhesion of nucleic acid to the submicron particles before the nucleic acid is affixed to the submicron particles. The submicron particles may be treated with the competitive binding substance before or after the nucleic acid is affixed to the submicron particles. Optimal adhesion would allow for the nucleic acid taggant to adhere to the submicron particles so that the taggant remains affixed throughout the submicron particles' lifecycle, but the adhesion cannot be so strong that not enough nucleic acid taggant can be removed from the submicron particles to allow for the use of nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques when authentication is later desired.
For example, titanium dioxide is known to bond strongly to a nucleic acid. As a result, it is difficult to remove the nucleic acid affixed to an untreated titanium dioxide submicron particle when authentication is desired. In addition, due to the high level of adhesion between nucleic acid and untreated titanium dioxide, the nucleic acid can be damaged during the removal process. To address this problem, a titanium dioxide submicron particle may be treated with a competitive binding substance to reduce the submicron particle's bonding strength vis a vis nucleic acid such that when the titanium dioxide submicron particles are exposed to the nucleic acid taggant, the bonding forces between the nucleic acid and the titanium dioxide submicron particles will be permanently weakened, thus allowing for the ready removal of the nucleic acids when authentication is desired.
Nucleic acids bind to metal oxide submicron particles via the non-covalent bonding of the nucleic acid's phosphate backbone to the metal oxides' surface hydroxyl groups. An advantageous competitive binding substance to pre-treat the metal oxide submicron particles to aid in nucleic acid recovery for authentication may be any substance that will competitively bond to the surface hydroxyl groups of the metal oxide submicron particles, thus reducing overall non-covalent bonding strength between the nucleic acid and the metal oxide submicron particle. Preferred competitive binding substances include sodium phosphate, borate, vanadate, citrate, ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid, monopotassium phosphate, sodium dodecyl sulfate, and sodium lauryl sulfate. The competitive binding substances may be used before or after a submicron particle is introduced to nucleic acids. A submicron particle may also be treated with a competitive binding substance after the formation of the nucleic acid monolayer to facilitate the removal of the nucleic acid from the submicron particle, and to also inhibit the nucleic acid from rebinding to a submicron particle at the time of authentication.
A substance may also be used to pre-treat submicron particles that do not bond well to nucleic acids, or if the binding strength of nucleic acids needs to be increased. In one embodiment titanium dioxide submicron particles may be treated with hydrochloric acid or other acids to increase binding strength by protonating oxygen.
The method of covering submicron particles with a monolayer of nucleic acid involves providing a plurality of uniform submicron particles. The submicron particles may be treated with a competitive binding substance to optimize the desired level of adhesion of nucleic acid to submicron particles as discussed above. Alternatively, the submicron particles may be treated with an acid such as hydrochloric acid to increase nucleic acid binding strength. Then, nucleic acid suspended in a solvent, preferably water at a pH<4, is added to the submicron particles. The nucleic acid solution and submicron particles may be combined by methods known in the art such as stirring, vortexing, agitating, or centrifuging. Adding the correct amount of nucleic acid molecules to the solution is important for creating a monolayer of nucleic acid around each submicron particle. The correct amount of nucleic acid molecules in the solution is the exact amount of nucleic acid molecules necessary to form a monolayer of nucleic acid around each submicron particle, based upon the calculated surface area of the submicron particles and the nucleic acid molecules. These surface areas may be calculated by the methods described below. The competitive binding substance may also be applied after the nucleic acid is introduced to the submicron particles.
The total surface area of a known mass of spherical submicron particles may be calculated by using the size, i.e., diameter of the submicron particles. The surface area of a sphere is 4πr2, where r is the radius of the submicron particle, i.e., half of the diameter. If the mass of an individual submicron particle is known, the total number of submicron particles in the total mass can then be calculated. Therefore, the total surface area of a mass of uniform spherical submicron particles can be calculated.
Likewise, the surface area of a nucleic acid molecule can be calculated based upon the number of base pair in a specific sequence. In regards to B-DNA (the most common form of DNA), a base pair is 3.4 Å in length. The approximate width of double stranded B-DNA is 20 Å. The length and width of all other forms of nucleic acids are also known. Therefore, the number of nucleic acid molecules necessary to create a monolayer around each submicron particle can be calculated by dividing the surface area of the submicron particle by the surface area of the nucleic acid sequence. This number of nucleic acids can then be multiplied by the number of submicron particles in a given mass. The calculated number of nucleic acid molecules can then be converted into a mass quantity via known methods of calculation or by directly measuring with known devices.
The precise number of nucleic acid molecules in a solution can be accurately measured using known methods and devices. Devices such as the Bioanalyzer (Agilent Technologies, United States), the Qubit (ThermoFisher Scientific, United States) and/or the Nanodrop (Thermo Scientific, United States) can precisely measure nucleic acid concentrations in a solution, and thus, the number of nucleic acid molecules in a solution. In addition, qPCR can be used to determine the absolute quantification of the number of nucleic acid molecules in a solution through known methods.
The duration and extent of combining the nucleic acid solution with the submicron particles may be determined by a person having ordinary skill in the art so that the nucleic acid may form a monolayer about each submicron particle.
After a monolayer of nucleic acid is formed about each submicron particle, the solvent may be removed by known techniques such as vacuum, centrifuge, heating, evaporation, use of a desiccant, and the like. The resulting product is a monolayer of nucleic acid covering each submicron particle.
The nucleic acid covered submicron particles may then be attached to an object. The relative quantity of nucleic acid submicron particles attached to an object may vary based upon the target object's material, manufacturing process, storage conditions, use conditions, exposure to ultra violate light, or other variables that may affect the integrity of nucleic acids. Any means of attaching the nucleic acid covered submicron particles to an object may be employed, including any known method of attaching submicron particles to an object. For example, the nucleic acid covered submicron particles may be included in a pharmaceutical composition as an excipient. In another example, the nucleic acid covered submicron particles may be included in a cosmetic composition as an active ingredient. The nucleic acid covered submicron particles may also be included into the master batch of thermoplastic or acrylic based materials such that the final product contains the submicron particles. Furthermore, the nucleic acid covered submicron particles may be included into any water immiscible solutions and/or water prohibitive materials such as cyanoacrylates, polyurethane, lacquers, shellacs, epoxy based-compounds, and acrylic compounds. Alternatively, the nucleic acid covered submicron particles may be attached to the outside of an object or incorporated into the material that comprises the object.
The object may then be authenticated at a later time. Authentication of the object may involve removing a quantity of nucleic acid from the submicron particles attached to the object. As mentioned above, it is preferable that the nucleic acid is readily removed from the submicron particles and the object. Methods of removing the nucleic acid from the submicron particles are known. Some methods of removing the nucleic acid are discussed above. In one embodiment, the material of the object may be dissolved by a solvent in order to remove one or more submicron particles from the object. The nucleic acid on the recovered submicron particles may then be removed from the particle(s) and isolated. In one embodiment, the nucleic acid is removed from the submicron particles by using a solution containing a high concentration of a competitive binding substance. The high concentration of competitive binding substance causes the nucleic acids to release from the submicron particles and inhibits the nucleic acids from rebinding to the particles, thus allowing the nucleic acids to stay in solution. The solution is then utilized for identifying the nucleic acid via nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques.
Once the nucleic acid is removed from the submicron particles and isolated, nucleic acid amplification and/or taggant sequence detection techniques may be employed to amplify and identify the nucleic acid taggant. For example, in a PCR-based identification method, the nucleic acid, e.g., DNA taggants recovered from the object are isolated and then amplified by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) and resolved by gel electrophoresis, capillary electrophoresis, or the like. Since the nucleic acid sequence of the nucleic acid taggants of the present invention are unique and specific to the tagged object, the nucleic acid taggant will be amplified during PCR only by use of primers having specific sequences complementary to a portion of the unique taggant sequence. Through this procedure, if the examined object carries the nucleic acid taggant, the PCR procedure will amplify the extracted nucleic acid to produce known and detectable amplicons of a predetermined size and a sequence. In contrast, if the sample recovered from the examined object does not include the unique nucleic acid sequence corresponding to the taggant of the authentic object, there will likely be no amplified nucleic acid product, or if the primers do amplify the recovered nucleic acid to produce one or more random amplicons, these one or more amplicons cannot have the unique taggant nucleic acid sequence from the authentic object. Furthermore, the random amplicons derived from counterfeit articles are also of random lengths and the likelihood of producing amplicons of the exact lengths specified by the taggant-specific primers is very small. Therefore, by comparing the length and quantity of PCR amplicons, the authenticity of labeled objects can be verified, non-authentic objects can be screened and rejected, and anti-counterfeit screening purposes are then achieved. The DNA may also be amplified by any known isothermal amplification technique.
The quantity of amplicons and the lengths of the amplicons can be determined after any molecular weight or physical dimension-based separation, such as for instance and without limitation, gel electrophoresis in any suitable matrix medium for example in agarose gels, polyacrylamide gels or mixed agarose-polyacrylamide gels, or the electrophoretic separation can be in a slab gel or by capillary electrophoresis. RT-PCR and/or qPCR may also be used to detect the presence of the nucleic acid taggant via interrogation of amplicon quantity and length during amplification. In addition, the nucleic acid taggant may be identified by amplification in conjunction with any suitable specific marker sequence detection methods.
Examples have been set forth below for the purpose of illustration and to describe the best mode of the invention at the present time. The scope of the invention is not to be in any way limited by the examples set forth herein.
DNA Monolayer Calculation for a 300 nm Spherical Titanium Dioxide Particle
The number of nucleic acid molecules needed to cover a mass of 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particles was calculated. In this example, the nucleic acid was double-stranded DNA comprised of a known 400 base pair sequence.
The surface area of a single 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particle is calculated by the formula SA=4πr2, where SA equals the surface area of a sphere and r is the sphere's radius. Applied to the subject 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particle, the following calculation can be made: 4×3.14×(300 nm/2)2. This calculation reveals that each individual 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particle has a surface area of 2,826,000 Å. The total surface area of any mass 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particle can be calculated based upon the known weight of each particle.
Since DNA is a rod-like shape, the area of a DNA molecule can be calculated by multiplying its length by its width. Here, the subject DNA molecule is 400 base pairs in length. It is known that each base pair is equal to 3.4 Å. Thus, the subject DNA molecule has a length of 1,360 Å. It is also known that double stranded DNA is 20 Å in width. Based upon these figures, the subject 400 base pair double stranded DNA molecule has a surface area of 27,200 Å.
Therefore, the number of DNA molecules necessary to create a monolayer around a single 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide particle is equal to 2,826,000 Å/27,200 Å, which is equal to 103.90 DNA molecules. With this value known, a solution containing the precise number of DNA molecules to form a monolayer around any mass of 300 nm diameter titanium dioxide submicron particles can be calculated using the methods outlined above.
Attaching and Releasing a DNA Monolayer to 300 nm Diameter Titanium Dioxide Particles with HCl Pretreatment
A stock suspension containing 20 mg of 300 nm titanium dioxide particles per mL suspended in 10 mM hydrochloric acid and water solution at pH 2 was prepared. From this stock suspension, a 500 μL amount was removed. The number of DNA molecules necessary to create a monolayer around the titanium dioxide submicron particles contained in the 500 μL suspension was calculated as described above.
The number of DNA molecules necessary to form a monolayer around every 300 nm titanium dioxide particle contained in the 500 μL suspension was calculated and added. The combined titanium dioxide particle suspension and DNA was then vortexed for 20 seconds and then centrifuged at 10 k for one minute. The resultant supernatant was removed. The remaining solid residue comprised the titanium dioxide submicron particles contained in the 500 μL suspension coated with a monolayer of DNA. The DNA coated titanium dioxide submicron particles were allowed to completely dry. Due to the pre-treatment of the 300 nm titanium dioxide particles with hydrochloric acid at a low pH, the DNA is extremely tightly bound to the titanium dioxide particles.
For DNA extraction, the DNA-coated titanium dioxide particles were re-suspended in 10 μL of 100 mM KH2PO4 (monopotassium phosphate) at a pH of approximately 9.5. The sample was vortexed and heated at 95° C. for three minutes. The sample was then centrifuged at 10 k for one minute. The resultant supernatant was removed and used for PCR-based analyses. After the PCR run, the PCR products were analyzed via capillary electrophoreses. DNA was successfully recovered from four different samples of DNA-coated titanium dioxide particles.
Attaching DNA Taggant to Food-Grade TiO2 and Incorporating it into a Dry Powder Film Coating System
Food-grade TiO2 powder was provided. The TiO2 was pre-treated with a competitive binding substance, i.e., a phosphate in a weak acid. The amount of DNA taggant needed to cover the TiO2 particles was calculated as in Example 1. The DNA was combined with the pre-treated TiO2 as in Example 2. The resultant DNA-TiO2 complex was mixed with untagged TiO2 and then incorporated into a dry powder film coating system containing polymer, plasticizer, and pigment.
A series of DNA-tagged powder film coating and un-tagged powder film coating were prepared and sent to the laboratory for blind testing.
Protocol: The samples were labeled as samples #34, #36, #40, #41, #47, #49, #51, #57, #62, #63, #65, #66 and Placebo. Five different aliquots of each sample were taken and prepared for analysis at the laboratory. For each sample preparation, 50 mg of powder was weighed into a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube and 5000 of DNA desorption solution (monopotassium phosphate at a pH of approximately 9.5) was added to each tube. The samples were vortexed for approximately 30 seconds, incubated at room temperature for 45 minutes, heated to 95° C. for 3 minutes and then centrifuged at 17,000 g for 5 minutes. The supernatant of each preparation was then tested using the lab-scale Step One Plus™ Real-Time PCR System (qPCR).
Results: Ct (threshold cycle) values were obtained for all reactions and the average of the five sample preparations was calculated for each sample. Based on the well-known log base two relationship between Ct and input DNA concentration, one-Ct decrease in the qPCR data corresponds to a two-fold increase in input DNA. Ct values in the 35 range are near to the detection limit relative to background. Thus, placebo controls should display Ct values of approximately 35.
Thus, the data suggest that the DNA-free placebo, plus samples #36, #49, #63 and #65 do not display significant DNA in the present assay. At the other extreme, samples #34, #40, #41, #47, #51, #57, #62 and #66 (with Ct values near to 25) display a difference in Ct between 5-9 units, indicative of a 100-fold to 1000-fold higher-input DNA concentration.
Conclusion: Samples #36, #49, #63, #65 and Placebo are indistinguishable from each other and as a set, are generally indistinguishable from background. Samples #34, #40, #41, #47, #51, #57, #62 and #66 are readily distinguishable from background and appear to contain higher amounts of DNA, with samples #62 and #66 having the highest apparent DNA concentration, reflective of 10× more DNA (3-4 fold lower Ct) than samples #34, #40 and #41 and approximately 2× more DNA (1 fold lower Ct) than samples #47, #51 and #57.
DNA was detected in the appropriate samples via qPCR and no DNA was detected in the untagged samples.
Attaching DNA Taggant to Food-Grade TiO2 and Incorporating it into a Dry Powder Film Coating System Applied to Tablet Dosage Form
The tagged powder film coating formulations made according Example 3 were used to coat tablet dosage forms. Control samples were also prepared in which un-tagged powder film coatings were used to coat tablets. The resulting samples of tablets and tagged powder film coating were sent to the laboratory for blind testing.
A) Testing of Tagged Powder Film Coating Formulations
Protocol: Powder film coating samples were labeled as sample #68, #69 and #70. Five different aliquots of each sample were taken and prepared for analysis at the laboratory. For each sample preparation, 50 mg of powder was weighed into a 1.5 ml Eppendorf tube and 5000 of DNA desorption solution (monopotassium phosphate at a pH of approximately 9.5) was added to each tube. The samples were vortexed for approximately 30 seconds, incubated at room temperature for 45 minutes, heated to 95° C. for 3 minutes then centrifuged at 17,000 g for 5 minutes. The supernatant of each preparation was then tested using the lab-scale StepOnePlus™ Real-Time PCR System (qPCR).
Results: Ct (threshold cycle) values were obtained for all reactions and the average of the five sample preparations was calculated for each sample. Average Ct values for each sample were obtained. Based on the well-known log base two relationship between Ct and input DNA concentration, a one-Ct decrease in the qPCR data corresponds to a two-fold increase in input DNA. Ct values in the 35 range are near to the detection limit relative to background, thus Ct values around 35 and above can be considered to contain no measurable DNA.
Conclusion: Samples #68, #69 and #70 are all readily distinguishable from background and appear to contain high amounts of DNA, with sample #69 having the highest apparent concentration, reflective of 10× more DNA (i.e. a 3-4 fold lower Ct) than sample #68 which appears to contain the lowest DNA concentration.
B) Testing of Tablet Samples
Protocol: Tablet samples were labeled as sample #71, #72 and #73. Five different tablets were taken from each sample pack and prepared for analysis at the laboratory. Sterile cotton tipped applicators were dipped in deionized water and used to swab one side of each tablet ten times. The tip of the cotton swab was removed and placed into the PCR reaction mixture. The samples were then tested using the MyGo Pro Real-Time PCR (qPCR) Instrument.
Results: Ct (threshold cycle) values were obtained for all reactions and the average of the five sample preparations was calculated for each sample.
Conclusion: All three samples, #71-#73 appear to contain measurable amounts of DNA taggant. DNA was detected in the appropriate powder and tablets samples via qPCR and no DNA was detected in the untagged powder and tablet samples.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application No. 62/461,312, filed on Feb. 21, 2017, which is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
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