Patent Grant
8137907
This invention provides a genetically tractable in situ non-human animal model for liver cancer and specifically hepatocellular carcinoma. The model is useful, inter alia, in understanding the molecular mechanisms of liver cancer, in understanding the genetic alterations that lead to chemoresistance or poor prognosis, and in identifying and evaluating new therapies against hepatocellular carcinomas.
This invention also relates to the use of RNA interference (RNAi) technology in vivo to efficiently identify genes associated with tumorigenesis.
Cancer is the second leading cause of death in industrial countries. More than 70% of all cancer deaths are due to carcinomas, i.e., cancers of epithelial organs. Most carcinoma tumors show initial or compulsory chemoresistance. This property makes it very difficult to cure these tumors when they are detected in progressed stages. Primary forms of liver cancers include hepatocellular carcinoma, biliary tract cancer and hepatoblastoma. Hepatocellular carcinoma is the fifth most common cancer worldwide but, owing to the lack of effective treatment options, constitutes the leading cause of cancer deaths in Asia and Africa and the third leading cause of cancer death worldwide. Parkin et al. “Estimating the world cancer burden: Globocan 2000.” Int. J. Cancer 94, 153-156 (2001).
The risk factors for liver cancer include excessive alcohol intake or other toxins, such as iron, aflatoxin B1 and also the presence of other infections such as hepatitis B and C. Alison & Lovell. “Liver cancer: the role of stem cells.” Cell Prolif. 38, 407-421 (2005). The only curative treatments for hepatocellular carcinoma are surgical resection or liver transplantation, but most patients present with advanced disease and are not candidates for surgery. To date, systemic chemotherapeutic treatment is ineffective against hepatocellular carcinoma, and no single drug or drug combination prolongs survival. Llovet. et al. “Hepatocellular carcinoma.” Lancet 362, 1907-1917. (2003). However, despite its clinical significance, liver cancer is understudied relative to other major cancers.
One of the difficulties in identifying appropriate therapeutics for tumor cells in vivo is the limited availability of appropriate test material. Human tumor lines grown as xenographs are unphysiological, and the wide variation between human individuals, not to mention treatment protocols, makes clinical studies difficult. Consequently, oncologists are often forced to perform correlative studies with a limited number of highly dissimilar samples, which can lead to confusing and unhelpful results.
Non-human animal models provide a useful alternative to studies in humans and to human tumor cell lines grown as xenographs, as large numbers of genetically-identical individuals can be treated with identical regimens. Moreover, the ability to introduce germline mutations that affect oncogenesis into these animals increases the power of the models.
To investigate the basic mechanisms of carcinogenesis and to test new potential cancer agents and therapies, however, realistic carcinoma-non-human animal models are urgently needed. So far there have been two major ways to create carcinoma non-human animal models: (i) the generation of transgenic or chimeric non-human animals that express oncogenes under the control of a tissue specific promoter and (ii) carcinomas that were induced by chemical carcinogens. Both approaches have several disadvantages.
Current animal models for cancer are based largely on classical transgenic approaches that direct expression of a particular oncogene to an organ of choice using a tissue specific promoter. See, e.g., Wang et al. “Activation of the Met receptor by cell attachment induces and sustains hepatocellular carcinomas in transgenic mice.” J. Cell Biol. 153, 1023-1034 (2001). Although such models have provided important insights into the pathogenesis of cancer, they express the active oncogene throughout the entire organ, a situation that does not mimic spontaneous tumorigenesis. Moreover, incorporation of additional lesions, such as a second oncogene or loss of a tumor suppressor, requires genetic crosses that are time consuming and expensive, and again produce whole tissues that are genetically altered. Finally, traditional transgenic and knockout strategies do not specifically target liver progenitor cells, which may be the relevant initiators of the disease.
Cancer therapies that directly target oncogenes are based on the premise that cancer cells require continuous oncogenic signaling for survival and proliferation. Non-human animal models expressing oncogenes in genetic backgrounds that lack, or have down-regulated, tumor suppressor genes can thus serve as valuable tools to study tumor initiation, maintenance, progression, treatment and regression. However, responses to the targeting drugs are often heterogeneous, and chemoresistance and other resistance is a problem. Because most anticancer agents were discovered through empirical screens, efforts to overcome resistance are hindered by a limited understanding of why these agents are effective and when and how they become less or non-effective.
Furthermore, although cancer usually arises from a combination of mutations in oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes, the extent to which tumor suppressor gene loss is required for the maintenance of established tumors is poorly understood.
Variations in both non-human animal strains and promoters used to drive expression of oncogenes complicate the interpretation of cancer mechanistics and treatment analyses. Firstly, intercrossing strategies to obtain non-human animals of the desired genetic constellation are extremely time consuming and costly. Secondly, the use of certain cell-selective promoters can result in a cell-bias for tumor initiation. For example, the mouse mammary tumor virus (MMTV) promoter and the Whey Acidic Protein (WAP) promoter are commonly used to model breast cancer development in mice, and yet may not target all subtypes of mammary epithelia, i.e., stem cell and non-stem cells. Finally, a homogenous expression of the respective oncogene in all epithelial cells of an organ creates an unphysiological condition, as tumors are known to originate within genetic-mosaics.
An additional difficulty in identifying and evaluating the efficacy of cancer agents on tumor cells and understanding the molecular mechanisms of the cancers and their treatment in the current non-human animal models in vivo is the limited availability of appropriate material.
It is therefore important to use a valid model to identify new therapeutics for the treatment of liver cancer.
Investigation of the role of oncogenes or tumor suppressor genes in tumorigenesis can be facilitated by specifically silencing, or preventing from exerting its presence, the particular gene of interest. One such silencing means is through “RNA interference” or “RNAi.” RNAi stems from a phenomenon observed in plants and worms whereby double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) blocks gene expression in a specific and post-transcriptional manner. The dsRNA is cleaved by an RNAse III enzyme “DICER” into a 21-23 nucleotide small interfering RNA (siRNA). These siRNAs are incorporated into a RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC) that identifies and silences RNA complimentary to the siRNA. Without being bound by theory, RNAi appears to involve silencing of cytoplasmic mRNA by triggering an endonuclease cleavage, promoting translation repression, or possibly accelerating mRNA decapping (Valencia-Sanchez et al., 2006, Genes & Development 20: 515-524). Biochemical mechanisms of RNAi are currently an active area of research.
Three mechanisms of utilizing RNAi in mammalian cells have been described. The first is cytoplasmic delivery of siRNA molecules, which are either chemically synthesized or generated by DICER-digestion of dsRNA. These siRNAs are introduced into cells using standard transfection methods. The siRNAs enter the RISC complex to silence target mRNA expression.
The second mechanism is nuclear delivery, via viral vectors, of gene expression cassettes expressing a short hairpin RNA (shRNA). The shRNA is modeled on micro interfering RNA (miRNA), an endogenous trigger of the RNAi pathway (Lu et al., 2005, Advances in Genetics 54: 117-142, Fewell et al., 2006, Drug Discovery Today 11: 975-982). The endogenous RNAi pathway is comprised of three RNA intermediates: a long, largely single-stranded primary miRNA transcript (pri-mRNA), a precursor miRNA transcript having a stem-and-loop structure and derived from the pri-mRNA (pre-miRNA), and a mature miRNA. The miRNA gene is transcribed by an RNA polymerase II promoter into the pri-mRNA transcript, which is then cleaved to form the pre-miRNA transcript (Fewell et al., supra). The pre-miRNA is transported to the cytoplasm and is cleaved by DICER to form mature miRNA. miRNA then interacts with the RISC in the same manner as siRNA. shRNAs, which mimic pre-miRNA, are transcribed by RNA Polymerase II or III as single-stranded molecules that form stem-loop structures. Once produced, they exit the nucleus, are cleaved by DICER, and enter the RISC complex as siRNAs.
The third mechanism is identical to the second mechanism, except that the shRNA is modeled on pri-miRNA (shRNAmir), rather than pre-miRNA transcripts (Fewell et al., supra). An example is the miR-30 miRNA construct. The use of this transcript produces a more “physiological” shRNA that reduces toxic effects. The shRNAmir is first cleaved to produce shRNA, and then cleaved again by DICER to produce siRNA. The siRNA is then incorporated into the RISC for target mRNA degradation.
RNAi has been used to successfully identify and suppress target genes associated with tumorigenesis. For example, expression of microRNA-based shRNA specific to Trp53 produces “potent, stable, and regulatable gene knock-down in cultured cells . . . even when present at a single copy in the genome” (Dickins et al., 2005, Nature Genetics 37: 1289-1295). The tumors induced by the p53 knockdown regress upon re-expression of Trp53. Id. The suppression of the Trp53 gene expression by shRNA is also possible in stem cells and reconstituted organs derived from those cells (Hemann et al., 2003, Nature Genetics 33: 396-400). Moreover, the extent of inhibition of p53 function by the shRNA correlates with the type and severity of subsequent lymphomagenesis. Id.
However, there are conflicting views on which method of introducing and using RNAi mechanism is most effective. Some studies emphasize siRNA's several drawbacks, including transient effects, difficulty in delivery to nondividing primary cells, and concentration-dependent off-target effects. shRNAs expressed from viral vectors “are more versatile, allowing . . . stable integration, germline transmission, and the creation of in vivo animal models (Fewell et al., supra). shRNA is also more suitable for hard-to-transfect cells, due to its infection-based delivery, and has decreased concentration-dependent off-target effects. Id. In comparison with shRNA, shRNAmir is more efficiently processed into siRNA and produces a more consistent silencing of mRNA than shRNA. Id.
Despite the advantages of shRNA, other studies maintain that use of siRNA for RNAi purposes is emerging more rapidly than the use of shRNA (Lu et al., supra), partly because of the “increased effort required to construct shRNA expression systems before selection of active sequences and verification of biological activity are obtained.” Id. It is often time consuming and expensive to both construct shRNA expression cassettes and incorporate them into viral delivery systems. Id. On the contrary, use of synthetic oligonucleotides allows for rapid screening and studying of siRNA sequences and matching genes. Id. Moreover, recent studies investigating in vivo applications of RNAi focus on non-viral delivery of siRNA constructs as opposed to viral delivery of shRNA constructs, as viral vectors often raise concerns about safety and immunogenecity (Lu et al., supra; Vohies et al., 2007, Expert Rev. Anticancer Ther. 7: 373-382). In sum, there is no established method of RNAi that consistently produces the most effective RNA silencing.
Studies also vary in their use of genome-wide collections of pooled shRNA vectors versus small sets of shRNA vectors that target a specific gene family. The use of large shRNA libraries may lead to difficulties in measuring the relative abundance of each individual shRNA vector in a complex population of cells infected with thousands of vectors. In addition, the smaller scaled experiments allow “screening for relatively labor-intensive phenotypes.” Id. Pooled screens also pose several technological hurdles, such as obtaining uniform pools of viruses, creating robust design algorithms that enable gene knockdown at a single-copy level, and preventing large numbers of false positives (Fewell et al., supra). On the other hand, the use of barcodes, or unique sequence of nucleotides incorporated into each shRNA vector, allows for more accurate quantification of specific shRNAs in pooled analyses (Bernards et al., 2006, Nature Methods 3: 701-706). Moreover, larger shRNA library screens can be used to select for long-term phenotypes while smaller shRNA screens are mainly limited to “short-term” readouts. Id. Given the various benefits and drawbacks of both large and small scale screens, there is no suggestion that use of one method or the other is the most effective strategy for successful RNAi.
Finally, although certain tumor suppressors such as p53 are well-studied, the importance of other individual tumor suppressors is still unknown. As such, the extent of overall tumor suppressor gene loss required for maintaining tumors is poorly understood. Moreover, although there is potential to utilize Myc overexpression to investigate novel tumor suppressor genes, few scientists have so far been able to do so.
Established approaches for the investigation of novel oncogenes and tumor suppressor genes using RNAi are thus unavailable. As such, the invention described herein will further elucidate the mechanism of tumorigenesis and promote the development of treatment methods based on such understanding.
The invention provides in vivo and in vitro systems and methods for the study of the effects of tumorigenesis, tumor maintenance, tumor regression and altered expression of a gene activity, on the descendants of embryonic liver progenitor cells, or primary hepatocytes, that have been engineered to produce hepatocellular carcinomas.
The liver cancer model of this invention is made by altering hepatocytes to increase oncogene expression, to reduce tumor suppressor gene expression or both and by transplanting the resulting hepatocytes into a recipient non-human animal. The spontaneous mutations arising in tumors initiated by different oncogenic lesions are compared to alterations observed in human cancers. Preferably, the transplanting is carried out so that the hepatocytes engraft the liver of the animal and a liver cancer tumor develops there from at least one of the altered hepatocytes. Less preferably, the altered hepatocytes are transplanted subcutaneously into a non-human animal so as to develop a tumor.
The non-human animal model of hepatocellular carcinoma embodied herein is useful for identifying molecular targets for drug screening, for identifying interacting gene activities, for identifying therapeutic treatments and for identifying candidates for new therapeutic treatments. The invention also provides methods and non-human animals produced by the methods that are useful for understanding liver cancer and its treatments, and in particular, for identifying and studying inhibitors and activators associated with liver tumor cell growth and growth inhibition, cell death through apoptotic pathways, and changes in apoptotic pathway components that affect drug sensitivity and resistance in tumorigenic cells.
The genetically tractable, transplantable in situ liver cancer model of this invention is characterized by genetically defined hepatocellular carcinomas that are preferably traceable by external green fluorescent protein (GFP) imaging. To further characterize the genetic defects in these tumors, gene expression profiling, e.g., representational oligonucleotide microarray analysis (ROMA), can be used to scan the carcinomas for spontaneous gains and losses in gene copy number. Detecting genomic copy number changes through such high resolution techniques can be useful to identify oncogenes (amplifications or gains) or tumor suppressor genes (deletions or losses). Identification of overlapping genomic regions altered in both human and mouse gene array datasets may further aid in pinpointing of regions of interest that can be further characterized for alterations in RNA and protein expression to identify candidates are most likely to contribute to the disease phenotype and to be the “driver gene” for amplification.
Using “forward genetics” in combination with gene expression profiling (e.g., ROMA) and the non-human animal models of this invention, important insights into the molecular mechanisms of hepatocarcinogenesis, growth, maintenance, regression and remission can be obtained. The models of the invention can directly evaluate the potency of various oncogenes in producing anti-apoptotic phenotypes, and various tumor suppressor genes in producing apoptotic phenotypes. Candidate oncogenes or tumor suppressors can be rapidly validated in the mouse model of the invention by overexpression, or by using stable RNAi technology, respectively. The invention is also useful in analyzing and evaluating genetic constellations that confer chemoresistance or poor prognosis. Furthermore, the invention is useful for identifying and evaluating new therapies for the treatment of carcinomas.
Another aspect of the instant invention is a method of identifying a novel gene that is associated with tumorigenesis, such as a tumor suppressor gene. The method comprises (1) transfecting a plurality of hepatocytes with a library of RNAi molecules, wherein each of the RNAi molecule inhibits expression of a target gene, (2) transplanting the transfected cells into a recipient non-human animal, and (3) identifying the RNAi molecule that give rise to liver cancer in the recipient animal. The RNAi molecule may be identified, for example, by isolating the genomic DNA from the cancer cells, amplifying the transfected RNAi molecule by PCR, and sequencing the amplified DNA.
In certain embodiments, the RNAi library comprises RNAi molecules that inhibit the expression of genes known to be up-regulated or down-regulated in human cancers, such as liver cancer. In certain embodiments, the RNAi library comprises RNAi molecules that inhibit the expression of genes that are deleted in a cancer genome. In particular, the RNAi library may comprise RNAi molecules that inhibit the expression of genes that are located within a recurrent genomic deletion found in two or more cancer genomes.
In another aspect, the invention discloses tumor suppressor genes whose down-regulation is associated with liver cancer, as listed in Table 1, Example 2.
Another aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising the steps of determining the status in cancerous tissue of one or more of the tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, and if any of the tumor suppressors shows a decreased expression or activity in cancerous tissue in comparison to a control (such as a normal tissue), increasing the expression of said tumor suppressor(s).
In one embodiment, the expression or activity of a tumor suppressor is increased by introducing the tumor suppressor into the cancerous tissue. In a particular embodiment, the tumor suppressor protein or a physiologically active fragment, analog, or mutant thereof is administered. In another particular embodiment, the tumor suppressor gene or a fragment or mutant thereof that encodes a physiologically active polypeptide is introduced into the cancer tissue and expressed. In yet another embodiment, known upstream factors of an identified tumor suppressor is modulated to increase the tumor suppressor expression.
Another aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising determining in cancerous tissue the expression of one or more tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, the expression of which gene or genes are increased or decreased in comparison to a control (e.g., a normal tissue), and administering a therapeutic agent that is known to be effective in treating such cancers that are associated with the increased or decreased expression of such gene or genes. Alternatively, an aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising the steps of determining in cancerous tissue the expression of one or more tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, the expression of which gene or genes are decreased in comparison to a control (e.g., a normal tissue), and administering a therapeutic agent that is known not to antagonize the gene or genes identified herein.
In another aspect, the invention discloses a method for identifying a subject who is suffering from or susceptible to liver cancer, comprising: determining the expression level of one or more identified tumor suppressor genes. A decrease in the expression level of the tumor suppressor gene, as compared to a control, is indicative of a subject suffering from or susceptible to liver cancer.
Yet another aspect of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer, which composition has specific utility to treat such cancer that has certain status regarding one or more tumor suppressors identified using the method described herein.
One embodiment of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of cancer in which the expression or activity of said tumor suppressor is less than a control (e.g., in normal tissue), comprising a tumor suppressor protein or a physiologically active fragment, analog, or mutant thereof. Another particular embodiment is a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of cancer in which the expression or activity of a tumor suppressor is less than a control (e.g., in normal tissue), comprising a tumor suppressor gene or a fragment or mutant thereof that encodes a physiologically active polypeptide is introduced into the cancer tissue and expressed. In yet another embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more therapeutic agents that modulate known upstream factors of an identified tumor suppressor to increase the tumor suppressor expression.
The invention further relates to a hepatocyte transfected with an RNAi molecule, wherein the expression of the RNAi molecule transforms the hepatocyte into a cancer cell. In certain embodiments, the hepatocyte is a c-myc/p53−/− embryonic hepatocyte.
The invention further relates a non-human animal model comprising: (1) a hepatocyte transfected with an RNAi molecule, wherein the expression of the RNAi molecule causes the animal to develops liver cancer.
Single probe resolution of chromosome 15 reveals increased copy number for Rnf19 and myc. (c) Genome-wide profiles of three independent HCCs (Tu-7, Tu-9, Tu-13) derived from p53−/−; myc embryonic hepatoblasts are overlaid and reveal a recurrent overlapping DNA amplification on chromosome 9. (d) Single probe resolution of the amplicon on chromosome 9qA1; minimal overlap region contains genes indicated.
Unless otherwise defined herein, scientific and technical terms used in connection with the present invention shall have the meanings that are commonly understood by those of ordinary skill in the art. Further, unless otherwise required by context, singular terms shall include pluralities and plural terms shall include the singular. Generally, nomenclatures used in connection with, and techniques of, cell and tissue culture, molecular biology, cell and cancer biology, virology, immunology, microbiology, genetics and protein and nucleic acid chemistry described herein are those well known and commonly used in the art.
The methods and techniques of the present invention are generally performed according to conventional methods well known in the art and as described in various general and more specific references that are cited and discussed throughout the present specification, unless otherwise indicated. See, e.g., Sambrook et al., Molecular Cloning: A Laboratory Manual, 2d ed., Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1989); Ausubel et al., Current Protocols in Molecular Biology, Greene Publishing Associates (1992, and Supplements to 2003); Harlow and Lane, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press, Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1990); Coffin et al., Retroviruses, Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press; Cold Spring Harbor, N.Y. (1997); Bast et al., Cancer Medicine, 5th ed., Frei, Emil, editors, BC Decker Inc., Hamilton, Canada (2000); Lodish et al., Molecular Cell Biology, 4th ed., W. H. Freeman & Co., New York (2000); Griffiths et al., Introduction to Genetic Analysis, 7th ed., W.H. Freeman & Co., New York (1999); Gilbert et al., Developmental Biology, 6th ed., Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass. (2000); and Cooper, The Cell—A Molecular Approach, 2nd ed., Sinauer Associates, Inc., Sunderland, Mass. (2000). All of the above and any other publications, patents and published patent applications referred to in this application are specifically incorporated by reference herein.
I. Animal Models for Liver Cancer
The genetically tractable, transplantable in situ liver or hepatocellular cancer model of the invention offers unique advantages. This invention employs the proliferative capacity of the liver to enable the altered hepatocytes to reconstitute liver tissue. Large amounts of primary epithelial cells can be isolated according to standardized protocols either from adult mouse livers or from embryonic mouse livers. The primary culture conditions for embryonic, as well as adult primary hepatocytes, are based on well-established protocols and are less complex compared to other epithelial primary cultures. A sample of the primary cells can be used for RT-PCR characterization for liver specific markers to rule out overgrowing by non-parenchymal cells.
Primary adult or embryonic hepatocyte cultures can be genetically modified by infection with lentiviral- or retroviral vectors carrying various genetic alterations, including oncogenes or short hairpin RNAs against tumor suppressor genes. Virally transduced primary hepatocytes can efficiently engraft the livers of non-human animals after transplantation into their portal vein or spleen. In the case of certain genetic configurations, mice developed hepatocellular carcinomas that could be visualized by whole body fluorescence imaging. For example, introduction of a myc retrovirus into p53 deficient hepatocytes produced highly aggressive tumors that show many features of human hepatocellular carcinoma. Overall, it provides rapid generation of genetically defined hepatocellular carcinomas.
The invention embodies a method of making a non-human animal bearing a liver cancer using transplanted hepatocytes altered to increase oncogene expression, to reduce tumor suppressor gene expression or both. Preferably, the hepatocytes are virally transduced with a vector expressing an oncogene or a short hairpin RNA against a tumor suppressor gene and subsequently transplanted into a recipient non-human animal wherein the animal develops liver cancer tumors from at least one of the hepatocytes with altered gene expression.
As used herein, a non-human animal includes any animal, other than a human. Examples of such non-human animals include without limitation: aquatic animals, e.g., fish, sharks, dolphins and the like; farm animals, e.g., pigs, goats, cows, horses, rabbits and the like; rodents, e.g., rats, guinea pigs and mice; non-human primates, e.g., baboons, chimpanzees and monkeys; and domestic animals, e.g., cats and dogs. Rodents are preferred. Mice are more preferred.
The non-human animals can be wild type or can carry genetic alterations. For example, they may be immunocompromised or immunodeficient, e.g., a severe combined immunodeficiency (SCID) animal.
As used herein, hepatocytes include all descendants of embryonic liver progenitor cells. Preferably, primary hepatocytes are used in the methods and models of this invention. Primary hepatocytes from adult non-human animals or embryonic liver progenitor cells can be isolated using standard and conventional protocols. In short term primary culture the hepatocytes can be virally transduced with vectors carrying oncogenes and/or expression cassettes for short hairpin RNAs directed against tumor suppressor genes. Such transductions may be effected using standard and conventional protocols.
The term vector refers to a nucleic acid molecule capable of transporting another nucleic acid to which it has been linked. One type of vector is a plasmid, which refers to a circular double stranded DNA loop into which additional DNA segments may be ligated. A preferred type of vector for use in this application is a viral vector, wherein additional DNA segments may be ligated into a viral genome that is usually modified to delete one or more viral genes. Certain vectors are capable of autonomous replication in a host cell into which they are introduced (e.g., vectors having an origin of replication which functions in the host cell). Other vectors can be integrated stably into the genome of a host cell upon introduction into the host cell, and are thereby replicated along with the host genome. Preferred viral vectors include retroviral and lentiviral vectors. Moreover, certain preferred vectors are capable of directing the expression of nucleic acid sequences to which they are operatively linked. Such vectors are referred to herein as recombinant expression vectors or simply, expression vectors. Preferably, the vector carries marker cassettes, more preferably, GFP expression cassettes, so that the course of transduction, engrafting and tumor growth and remission may be observed. Preferably, the vector also carries a ubiquitous promoter to permit expression or up-regulation of oncogenes in all cell types of epithelium (i.e., stem cell and non-stem cell compartments).
As used herein, viral transduction refers to a general method of gene transfer. As embodied herein, viral transduction is used for establishing stable expression of genes in culture. Viral transduction and long-term expression of genes in cells, preferably cultured hepatocytes, is preferably accomplished using viral vectors.
After viral transduction the cells are preferably injected into the spleen of the recipient non-human animal, preferably a rodent and most preferably a mouse, that are preferably pretreated with a liver cell cycle inhibitor. Using this approach, the genetically modified or altered hepatocytes migrate via the portal vein into the recipient liver and engraft the organ. An additional proliferation stimulus to the liver can preferably be given after hepatocyte transplantation by serial administration of CCl4.
Non-human animals harboring hepatocellular carcinomas of different genetic constellations produced by the altered hepatocytes can be characterized with regard to time to tumor onset and survival time. Tumors of different genetic constellations can also be histologically examined and classified by experienced pathologists.
As used herein, an altered hepatocyte refers to a change in the level of a gene and/or gene product with respect to any one of its measurable activities in a hepatocyte (e.g., the function which it performs and the way in which it does so, including chemical or structural differences and/or differences in binding or association with other factors). An altered hepatocyte may be effected by one or more structural changes to the nucleic acid or polypeptide sequence, a chemical modification, an altered association with itself or another cellular component or an altered subcellular localization. Preferably, an altered hepatocyte may have “activated” or “increased” expression of an oncogene, “repressed” or “decreased” expression of a tumor suppressor gene or both.
The increased expression of an oncogene refers to a produced level of transcription and/or translation of a nucleic acid or protein product encoded by an oncogenic sequence in a cell. Increased expression or up regulation of an oncogene can be non-regulated (i.e., a constitutive “on” signal) or regulated (i.e., the “on” signal is induced or repressed by another signal or molecule within the cell). An activated oncogene can result from, e.g., over expression of an encoding nucleic acid, an altered structure (e.g., primary amino acid changes or post-transcriptional modifications such as phosphorylation) which causes higher levels of activity, a modification which causes higher levels of activity through association with other molecules in the cell (e.g., attachment of a targeting domain) and the like.
The decreased expression of a tumor suppressor gene refers to an inhibited, inactivated or down regulated level of transcription and/or translation of a nucleic acid or protein product encoded by a tumor suppressor gene sequence in a cell. Reduced expression of a tumor suppressor gene can be non-regulated (i.e., a constitutive “off” signal) or regulated (i.e., the “off” signal is activated or repressed by another signal or molecule within the cell). As preferred herein, a repressed tumor suppressor gene can result from inhibited expression of an encoding nucleic acid (e.g., most preferably a short hairpin RNA using RNA interference approaches, see supra). Reduced expression of a tumor suppressor gene can also result from an altered structure (e.g., primary amino acid changes or post-transcriptional modifications such as phosphorylation) which causes reduced levels of activity, a modification which causes reduced levels of activity through association with other molecules in the cell (e.g., binding proteins which inhibit activity or sequestration) and the like.
A short hairpin RNA refers to a segment of RNA that is complementary with a portion of one or more target genes (i.e. complementary with one or more transcripts of one or more target genes). When a nucleic acid construct encoding a short hairpin RNA is introduced into a cell, the cell incurs partial or complete loss of expression of the target gene. In this way, a short hairpin RNA functions as a sequence specific expression inhibitor or modulator in transfected cells. The use of short hairpin RNAs facilitates the down-regulation of tumor suppressor genes and allows for analysis of hypomorphic alleles. The short hairpin RNAs that are useful in the invention can be produced using a wide variety of RNA interference (“RNAi”) techniques that are well known in the art. The invention may be practiced using short hairpin RNAs that are synthetically produced as well as microRNA (miRNA) molecules that are found in nature and can be remodeled to function as synthetic silencing short hairpin RNAs. A preferred claim of the invention is the use of a short hairpin RNA that mediates inhibition of a oncogenic signal, preferably a tumor suppressor gene and thus apoptotic signaling in a cell. Preferably, the short hairpin RNAs are against clAP1 and clAP2.
Other methods of RNA interference may also be used in the practice of this invention. See, e.g., Scherer and Rossi, Nature Biotechnology 21:1457-65 (2003) for a review on sequence-specific mRNA knockdown of using antisense oligonucleotides, ribozymes, DNAzymes, RNAi and siRNAs. See also, International Patent Application PCT/US2003/030901 (Publication No. WO 2004/029219 A2), filed Sep. 29, 2003 and entitled “Cell-based RNA Interference and Related Methods and Compositions”.
As used herein the term liver or hepatocellular cancer tumor refers to a group of cells which are committed to a hepatocellular lineage and which exhibit an altered growth phenotype. The term encompasses tumors that are associated with hepatocellular malignancy (i.e., HCC) as well as with pre-malignant conditions such as hepatoproliferative and hepatocellular hyperplasia and hepatocellular adenoma, which include proliferative lesions that are perceived to be secondary responses to degenerative changes in the liver.
The non-human animals of the invention are useful in the study of the impact of genotype on pathology or treatment response in vivo. Thus, the methods and models of the invention have implications for understanding disease progression in human liver carcinomas of specific genetic origin. The invention is also useful for determining the efficacy of a therapy in treating liver cancer. For example, a potential therapy may be administered to a non-human animal, produced by the methods embodied herein, and the non-human animal monitored for liver tumor formation, growth, progression or remission. Often, increased time to tumor formation or growth indicates sensitivity of the tumor to the therapy.
Genomic analysis of human carcinomas can be performed by gene expression profiling, e.g., ROMA. Such analysis in the tumors produced according to the invention has revealed a low signal to noise ratio of profiled genes, suggesting that the majority of detected genetic alterations in human tumors (having a high signal to noise ratio) may not be originally involved in tumor development but may be a by-product of tumor development. The analysis of mouse tumors produced according to the invention has shown that these tumors have a low signal to noise ratio, suggesting that a higher proportion of the identified lesions are specifically involved in tumor initiation/progression. Thus, the analysis of mouse tumors by gene expression profiling can serve as a filter for the “noisy” human tumors. Results obtained from mouse profiling using ROMA can be aligned with ROMA data obtained from human hepatocellular carcinomas. Overlapping amplifications or deletions then can be prioritized for further evaluation.
Tumors showing specific amplifications of candidate oncogenes in gene expression profiles can be outgrown in culture. Using stable RNAi, efficient knockdown of these genes can be achieved. Tumor cells with stable knockdown of a previously amplified gene can be re-transplanted into the mouse model of the current invention. Using this approach new therapeutic targets for hepatocellular carcinoma and related carcinomas can be obtained and the specific consequences of knocking down an amplified gene with regard to tumor growth or metastases can be studied. Drug therapies that specifically inhibit the identified targets can be developed.
Therapies that may be tested and evaluated in the methods and models of this invention include both general and targeted therapies. As used herein, a general therapy can be, for example, a pharmaceutical or chemical with physiological effects, such as pharmaceuticals that have been used in chemotherapy for cancer. Chemotherapeutic agents inhibit proliferation of tumor cells, and generally interfere with DNA replication or cellular metabolism. See, e.g., The McGraw-Hill Dictionary of Chemical Terms (Parker, S., Ed., McGraw-Hill, San Francisco (1985)). Chemotherapeutic agents may or may not have been characterized for their target of action in cells. However, this invention and its methods and models allow evaluation of such therapies for defined genetic alterations.
A targeted therapy refers to a therapy that directly interferes with a specific gene Preferably, a targeted therapy directly interferes with the expression of a gene involved in liver cancer. The effectiveness of a targeted therapy can be determined by the ability of the therapy to inhibit an oncogene or activate a tumor suppressor gene.
Most preferably, the therapies are used and evaluated in combination. For example, as shown in
The size and growth of tumors after therapy can be monitored by a wide variety of ways known in the art. Preferably, whole body fluorescence imaging is used because the preferred viral vectors of this invention carry a GFP expression cassette. See, e.g, Schmitt et al., “Dissecting p53 tumor suppressor functions in vivo,” Cancer Cell 1:289-98 (2002). Tumors can also be examined histologically. Paraffin embedded tumor sections can be used to perform immunohistochemistry for cytokeratins and ki-67 as well as TUNEL-staining. The apoptotic rate of hepatocytes can be analyzed by TUNEL assay according to published protocols. Di Cristofano et al., “Pten and p27KIP1 cooperate in prostate cancer tumor suppression in the mouse,” Nature Genetics, 27:222-224 (2001).
Beyond having important implications for understanding liver cancer, the evaluations and observations made possible by the methods and models of this invention provide insight into the utility of targeted approaches in cancer therapy.
Throughout this specification and claims, the word “comprise” or variations such as “comprises” or “comprising”, will be understood to imply the inclusion of a stated integer or group of integers but not the exclusion of any other integer or group of integers.
II. In Vivo RNAi Screening to Identity New Genes Associated with Liver Cancer
RNAi has been widely used to silence or inhibit the expression of a target gene. RNAi is a sequence-specific post-transcriptional gene silencing mechanism triggered by dsRNA. It causes degradation of mRNAs homologous in sequence to the dsRNA. The mediators of the degradation are 21-23-nucleotide siRNAs generated by cleavage of longer dsRNAs by DICER, a ribonuclease III-like protein. Molecules of siRNA typically have 2-3-nucleotide 3′ overhanging ends resembling the RNAse III processing products of long dsRNAs that normally initiate RNAi. When introduced into a cell, they assemble an endonuclease complex (RISC), which then guides target mRNA cleavage. As a consequence of degradation of the targeted mRNA, cells illustrating the specific phenotype associated with the suppression of the corresponding protein product are obtained. If the protein that is knocked down possesses an activity that attenuates cell growth, such knock down will result in unbridled growth of the cells.
The small size of siRNAs, compared with traditional antisense molecules, prevents activation of the dsRNA-inducible interferon system present in mammalian cells. This helps avoid the nonspecific phenotypes normally produced by dsRNA larger than 30 base pairs in somatic cells. See, e.g., Elbashir et al., 2002, Methods Enzymol. 26: 199-213; McManus and Sharp, 2002, Nature Reviews 3: 737-747; Hannon, 2002, Nature 418: 244-251; Brummelkamp et al., 2002, Science 296: 550-553; Tuschl, 2002, Nature Biotechnology 20: 446-448; U.S. Application US2002/0086356 A1; WO 99/32619; WO 01/36646; and WO 01/68836.
RNAi is also possible via gene expression cassettes expressing shRNA or shRNAmir. shRNA and shRNAmir are modeled on intermediate constructs of miRNA. Both are cleaved by DICER to form siRNAs and interact with the RISC complex in the same manner as siRNA.
Libraries. In one embodiment, RNAi molecules useful to practice methods of the invention comprise a library that include RNAi molecules targeting potential tumor suppressor genes. Examples of known tumor suppressors are p53, BRCA1, BRCA2, APC, p16INK4a, PTEN, NF1, NF2, and RB1. Additionally, potential tumor suppressor genes may be identified, for example, by identifying genomic deletions in a cancer genome. In particular, genes located within a recurrent genomic deletions from various cancer samples may be considered as potential candidate tumor suppressor genes.
shRNA and miRNA. When a nucleic acid construct encoding a short hairpin RNA is introduced into a cell, the cell incurs partial or complete loss of expression of the target gene. In this way, a short hairpin RNA functions as a sequence-specific expression inhibitor or modulator in transfected cells. The use of short hairpin RNAs facilitates the down-regulation of the target gene and allows for analysis of hypomorphic alleles. Short hairpin RNAs useful in the invention can be produced using a wide variety of well known RNAi techniques. The invention may be practiced using short hairpin RNAs that are synthetically produced as well as microRNA (miRNA) molecules that are found in nature and can be remodeled to function as synthetic silencing short hairpin RNAs. DNA vectors that express perfect complementary short hairpin RNAs (shRNAs or shRNAmirs) are commonly used to generate functional siRNAs.
In certain embodiments, the siRNA useful to practice the invention or a precursor molecule thereof, may be a shRNA or a shRNAmir, both modeled on miRNA intermediates. shRNA and shRNAmir are sequences of RNA that make tight hairpin turns (stem-loop structure) that can be used to silence gene expression. miRNAs are single-stranded RNA molecules of about 21-23 nucleotides and are part of an endogenous RNAi system. miRNAs are usually processed from two RNA intermediates: a primary miRNA (pri-miRNA) transcript and a precursor miRNA (pre-miRNA). The precursor transcripts are converted into short stem-loop structures, and then to functional miRNAs. Many miRNA intermediates can be used as models for shRNA or shRNAmir, including without limitation a miRNA comprising a backbone design of miR-15a, -16, -19b, -20, -23a, -27b, -29a, -30b, -30c, -104, -132s, -181, -191, -223. See US 2005-0075492 A1 (incorporated herein by reference).
MicroRNAs (miRNAs) are endogenously encoded RNAs that are about 22-nucleotide-long and generally expressed in a highly tissue- or developmental-stage-specific fashion and that post-transcriptionally regulate target genes. More than 200 distinct miRNAs have been identified in plants and animals. These small regulatory RNAs are believed to serve important biological functions by two prevailing modes of action: (1) by repressing the translation of target mRNAs, and (2) through RNA interference (RNAi), that is, cleavage and degradation of mRNAs. In the latter case, miRNAs function analogously to small interfering RNAs (siRNAs). Importantly, miRNAs are expressed in a highly tissue-specific or developmentally regulated manner, and this regulation is likely key to their predicted roles in eukaryotic development and differentiation. Analysis of the endogenous role of miRNAs will be facilitated by techniques that allow the regulated over-expression or inappropriate expression of authentic miRNAs in vivo. Their ability to regulate the expression of siRNAs will greatly increase their utility both in cultured cells and in vivo. Thus, one can design and express artificial miRNAs based on the features of existing miRNA genes, such as the gene encoding the human miR-30 miRNA. These miR30-based shRNAs and shRNAmirshave complex folds, and, compared with simpler stem/loop style shRNAs, are more potent at inhibiting gene expression in transient assays. Moreover, they are associated with less toxic effects in cells.
miRNAs are first transcribed as part of a long, largely single-stranded primary transcript (pri-miRNA) Lee et al., 2002, EMBO J. 21: 4663-4670). This pri-miRNA transcript is generally, and possibly invariably, synthesized by RNA polymerase II and therefore is normally polyadenylated and may be spliced. It contains an ˜80-nt hairpin structure that encodes the mature ˜22-nt miRNA as part of one arm of the stem. In animal cells, this primary transcript is cleaved by a nuclear RNaseIII-type enzyme called Drosha (Lee et al., 2003, Nature 425: 415-419) to liberate a hairpin miRNA precursor, or pre-miRNA, of ˜65 nt. This pre-miRNA is then exported to the cytoplasm by exportin-5 and the GTP-bound form of the Ran cofactor (Yi et al., 2003, Genes & Development 17: 3011-3016). Once in the cytoplasm, the pre-miRNA is further processed by Dicer, another RNaseIII enzyme, to produce a duplex of ˜22 bp that is structurally identical to an siRNA duplex (Hutvagner et al., 2001, Science 293: 834-838). The binding of protein components of the RNA-induced silencing complex (RISC), or RISC cofactors, to the duplex results in incorporation of the mature, single-stranded miRNA into a RISC or RISC-like protein complex, while the other strand of the duplex is degraded (Bartel, 2004, Cell 116: 281-297).
The miR-30 architecture can be used to express miRNAs or siRNAs from RNA polymerase II promoter-based expression plasmids. See also Zeng et al., 2005, Methods Enzymol. 392: 371-380 (incorporated herein by reference).
In some instances the precursor miRNA molecule may include more than one stem-loop structure. The multiple stem-loop structures may be linked to one another through a linker, such as, for example, a nucleic acid linker, a miRNA flanking sequence, other molecule, or some combination thereof.
In certain embodiments, useful interfering RNAs can be designed with a number of software programs, e.g., the OligoEngine siRNA design tool available at www.oligoengine.com. The siRNAs of this invention may be about, e.g., 19-29 base pairs in length for the double-stranded portion. In some embodiments, the siRNAs are shRNAs having a stem of about 19-29 base pairs and a nucleotide loop of about 4-34 bases. Preferred siRNAs are highly specific for a region of the target gene and may comprise a 19-29 base pair fragment of the mRNA of a target gene, with at least one, but preferably two or three, ase airbp mismatch with a nontarget gene-related sequence. In some embodiments, the preferred siRNAs do not bind to RNAs having more than three base pair mismatches with the target region.
In certain embodiments, artificial miRNA constructs based on miR-30 (microRNA 30) may be used to express precursor miRNA/shRNA. For example, Silva et al., 2005, Nature Genetics 37: 1281-88, have described extensive libraries of pri-miR-30-based retroviral expression vectors that can be used to down-regulate almost all known human (at least 28,000) and mouse (at least 25,000) genes (see RNAi Codex, a single database that curates publicly available RNAi resources, and provides the most complete access to this growing resource, allowing investigators to see not only released clones but also those that are soon to be released, available at http://codex.cshl.edu). Although such libraries are driven by RNA polymerase III promoters, they can be easily converted to the subject RNA polymerase II-driven promoters (see the Methods section in Dickins et al., 2005, Nature Genetics 37: 1289-95; also see page 1284 in Silva et al., 2005 supra).
In certain embodiments, the subject precursor miRNA cassette may be inserted within a gene encoded by the subject vector. For example, the subject precursor miRNA coding sequence may be inserted within an intron, the 5′- or 3′-UTR of a reporter gene, etc.
Other methods of RNAi may also be used in the practice of this invention. See, e.g., Scherer and Rossi, 2003, Nature Biotechnology 21: 1457-65 for a review on sequence-specific mRNA knockdown using antisense oligonucleotides, ribozymes, DNAzymes. See also, International Patent Application PCT/US2003/030901 (Publication No. WO 2004-029219 A2), filed Sep. 29, 2003 and entitled “Cell-based RNA Interference and Related Methods and Compositions.” See also Fewell et al. supra, for a description of inducible shRNA, in which the vector does not express the shRNA unless a specific reagent is added. Several studies investigating the function of essential genes using RNAi rely on inducible shRNA. For example, shRNAmir constructs can be created based on a tetracycline-responsive promotor system, such that shRNA expression is regulated by changing doxycycline levels.
Vector. In an embodiment of the present invention, a library of RNAi molecules are introduced into a plurality of hepatocytes, using a vector known in the art. In certain embodiments, the vector is a viral vector. Exemplary viral vectors include adenoviral vectors, lentiviral vectors, or retroviral vectors. Many established viral vectors may be used to transfect foreign constructs into cells. The definition section below provides more details regarding the use of such vectors.
To facilitate the monitoring of the target gene knockdown, and the formation and progression of the cancer, cells harboring the RNAi-expressing construct may additionally comprise a marker construct, such as a fluorescent marker construct. The marker construct may express a marker, such as green fluorescent protein (GFP), enhanced green fluorescent protein (EGFP), Renilla Reniformis green fluorescent protein, GFPmut2, GFPuv4, yellow fluorescent protein (YFP), enhanced yellow fluorescent protein (EYFP), cyan fluorescent protein (CFP), enhanced cyan fluorescent protein (ECFP), blue fluorescent protein (BFP), enhanced blue fluorescent protein (EBFP), citrine and red fluorescent protein from discosoma (dsRED). Other suitable detectable markers include chloramphenicol acetyltransferase (CAT), luciferase lacZ (β-galactosidase), and alkaline phosphatase. The marker gene may be separately introduced into the cell harboring the shRNA construct (e.g., co-transfected, etc.). Alternatively, the marker gene may be linked to the shRNA construct, and the marker gene expression may be controlled by a separate translation unit under an IRES (internal ribosomal entry site). In a preferred embodiment, the marker is a green fluorescent protein (GFP).
To facilitate the quantification of specific RNAi molecules in a complex population of cells infected with an entire library of RNAi molecules, each RNAi construct may additionally comprise a barcode. A barcode is a unique nucleotide sequence (generally 19-mer), linked to each shRNA. The barcode can be used to monitor the abundance of each shRNA via microarray hybridization (Fewell et al., supra). In a preferred embodiment, each shRNA construct also comprises a unique barcode. For more information on the use of barcodes in shRNA pooled analyses, see Bernards et al., 2006, Nature Methods 3: 701-706, and Chang et al., 2006, Nature Methods 3: 707-714.
Transfection. In certain embodiments, a plurality of hepatocytes are transfected with a library of RNAi molecules, wherein each RNAi molecule targets a gene whose down-regulation is potentially associated with tumorigenesis, and the transfected cells are transplanted into an animal model. If an RNAi construct inhibits the expression of a tumor suppressor gene, the animal model receiving the transfected hepatocyte(s) may develop liver cancer (sometimes in conjunction with down-regulation of another tumor suppressor gene, or with the over-expression of an oncogene). Preferably, the liver cancer is recognizable by fluorescence or other detectable markers. From the tumors that arise, genomic DNA may be isolated, and the integrated hairpins may be amplified using polymerase chain reaction, cloned back into a vector, and then identified by sequencing.
Various methods may be used to determine the growth or viability of recipient cells expressing an RNAi-expressing construct in vitro. Such assays may be conducted using commercially available assay kits or methods well known to one or ordinary skill in the art. For example, cell viability can be determined by MTT assay or WST assay. The effect of the target gene knockdown can also be determined using cellular proliferation assays or cellular apoptosis/necrosis assays. In vitro cellular proliferation assays can be performed by determining the amount of cells in a culture over time. Cell numbers may be evaluated using standard techniques. Cellular apoptosis can be measured, for example, using a commercial apoptosis assay kit such as VYBRANT Apoptosis Assay Kit #3 (Molecular Probes). Cells can also be stained with P1 or DAP1 to detect apoptotic nuclei.
In certain embodiments, recipient cells expressing an RNAi construct (e.g., a shRNA) against a target gene are sorted based on a selectable marker whose expression substantially matches the expression of the RNAi molecule. In one exemplary embodiment, the selectable marker is fluorescence-based. In one exemplary embodiment, the selectable marker is GFP. In one embodiment, cells harboring the selectable marker are sorted using fluorescence-activated cell sorting (FACS). FACS is a powerful system which not only quantifies the fluorescent signal but also separates the cells that contain preselected characteristics (such as fluorescence intensity, size and viability) from a mixed population. Laser light is directed at individual cells as they flow through the FACS. A light scatter pattern is generated when the dense nuclear material of the cell interferes with the path of the laser beam.
Recipient cells expressing an RNAi construct (e.g., a shRNA) against a target gene may be subsequently transplanted into a recipient non-human animal. Alternatively, after transfection, the cells may be injected subcutaneously into a recipient non-human animal. The size and growth of tumors in the recipient, the survival of tumor-free recipients, and overall survival of the recipient may then be observed to investigate the effect of target-gene-knockdown in vivo. The size and growth of tumors may be examined by any of many known methods in the art, such as histological methods, immunohistochemical methods, TUNEL-staining, etc. In certain embodiments, the non-human animal is a mouse. In certain embodiments, the recipient animal is an immuno-compromised animal, such as a nude mouse.
Validation. Identified RNAi molecules may be validated by introduction into cells and assessment for knockdown, which may be done by immunoblotting or QPCR. If positive, the individual RNAi molecule may be further evaluated for their activities in animal models.
The candidate genes may be further assessed by in vitro or in vivo to ascertain the mechanism by which knockdown of these putative genes is tumorigenic. Such processes will elucidate whether the tumorigenesis is due to apoptotic defects or proliferation advantage. For example, response to growth factor withdrawal, DNA damage response to cytotoxic drugs, or activity of downstream targets would be further examined. In addition, deletions or mutations in human tumors can be explored and compared, using, for example, the ROMA database and human tumor samples.
III. Diagnosis and Treatment
Another aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising the steps of determining the status in cancerous tissue of one or more of the tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, and if the expression or activity of any of the tumor suppressors is reduced in cancerous tissue in comparison to a control (e.g., a normal tissue), increasing the expression or activity of said tumor suppressor(s).
In one embodiment, the expression of a tumor suppressor is increased by introducing the tumor suppressor into the cancerous tissue. In a particular embodiment, the tumor suppressor protein or a physiologically active fragment, analog, or mutant thereof is administered. In another particular embodiment, the tumor suppressor gene or a fragment or mutant thereof that encodes a physiologically active polypeptide is introduced into the cancer tissue and expressed. In yet another embodiment, known upstream factors of an identified tumor suppressor is modulated to increase the tumor suppressor expression.
More specifically, an embodiment of the invention is a method for treating cancer comprising the steps of determining the status in cancerous tissue of one or more of the tumor suppressors described in Table 1 of Example 2. In one exemplary embodiment, the tumor suppressor is exportin 4 (Xpo4).
Another aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising: determining in cancerous tissue the expression of one or more tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, the expression of which gene or genes are increased or decreased in comparison to a control (e.g., a normal tissue), and administering a therapeutic agent that is known to be effective in treating such cancers that are associated with the increased or decreased expression of such gene or genes. Alternatively, an aspect of the invention is a method of treating cancer comprising: determining in cancerous tissue the expression of one or more tumor suppressor genes described herein or identified by the screening method described herein, the expression of which gene or genes are decreased in comparison to a control (e.g., a normal tissue), and administering a therapeutic agent that is known not to antagonize the gene or genes identified herein.
More particularly, an embodiment of this aspect of the invention can be practiced using the tumor suppressor genes listed in the Table 1 of Example 2, or any other genes that are identified using the screening method described herein. More particularly, said tumor suppressor gene is Xpo4.
The expression level of a tumor suppressor gene be measured by mRNA level, protein level, activity level, or other quantity reflected in or derivable from the gene or protein expression data. For example, the mRNA level of a tumor suppressor gene may be measured using microarray technology that is well known in the art. Briefly, in a typical microarray experiment, a microarray is hybridized with differentially labeled RNA or DNA populations derived from two different samples. Most commonly, RNA (either total RNA or mRNA) is isolated from cells or tissues of interest and is reverse transcribed to yield cDNA. Labeling is usually performed during reverse transcription by incorporating a labeled nucleotide in the reaction mixture. Although various labels can be used, most commonly the nucleotide is conjugated with the fluorescent dyes Cy3 or Cy5. For example, Cy5-dUTP and Cy3-dUTP can be used. cDNA derived from one sample is labeled with one fluor while cDNA derived from a second sample is labeled with the second fluor. Similar amounts of labeled material from the two samples are cohybridized to the microarray. In the case of a microarray experiment in which the samples are labeled with Cy5 (which fluoresces red) and Cy3 (which fluoresces green), the primary data (obtained by scanning the microarray using a detector capable of quantitatively detecting fluorescence intensity) are ratios of fluorescence intensity (red/green, R/G). These ratios represent the relative concentrations of cDNA molecules that hybridized to the cDNAs represented on the microarray and thus reflect the relative expression levels of the mRNA corresponding to each cDNA/gene represented on the microarray.
Alternatively, the mRNA level a tumor suppressor gene can be measured by polymerase chain reaction (PCR), a technique well known in the art. Briefly, one or more sets of oligonucleotide primers are annealed to a target sequence of interest, and the annealed primers are extended simultaneously to generate double-stranded (ds) copies of the target sequence. The primers are extended by a thermal-stable polymerase (McPherson, M. Ed. (1995) PCR 2: A Practical Approach, IRL Press at Oxford University Press, Oxford). The primers may be about 5-50 nucleotides in length. Real-time polymerase chain reaction, also called quantitative real time PCR (QRT-PCR) or kinetic polymerase chain reaction, may be highly useful to determine the expression level of a target gene because the technique can simultaneously quantify and amplify a specific part of a given polynucleotide. The QRT-PCR procedure follows the general pattern of polymerase chain reaction, but the DNA is quantified after each round of amplification. Two common methods of quantification are the use of fluorescent dyes that intercalate with double-strand DNA, and modified DNA oligonucleotide probes that fluoresce when hybridized with a complementary DNA. QRT-PCR can be combined with reverse transcription polymerase chain reaction to quantify low abundance messenger RNA (mRNA), enabling one to quantify relative gene expression at a particular time, or in a particular cell or tissue type.
The expression level of tumor suppressor may also be measured by protein level using any art-known method. Traditional methodologies for protein quantification include 2-D gel electrophoresis, mass spectrometry and antibody binding. Preferred methods for assaying target protein levels in a biological sample include antibody-based techniques, such as immunoblotting (western blotting), immunohistological assay, enzyme linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), radioimmunoassay (RIA), or protein chips. Gel electrophoresis, immunoprecipitation and mass spectrometry may be carried out using standard techniques, for example, such as those described in Molecular Cloning A Laboratory Manual, 2nd Ed., ed. by Sambrook, Fritsch and Maniatis (Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory Press: 1989), Harlow and Lane, Antibodies: A Laboratory Manual (1988 Cold Spring Harbor Laboratory), G. Suizdak, Mass Spectrometry for Biotechnology (Academic Press 1996), as well as other references cited herein.
The expression level of a tumor suppressor gene can also be measured by the activity level of the gene product using any art-known method.
In certain embodiments, it may be useful to compare the expression level of a tumor suppressor gene to a control. The control may be a measure of the expression of the tumor suppressor gene in a quantitative form (e.g., a number, ratio, percentage, graph, etc.) or a qualitative form (e.g., band intensity on a gel or blot, etc.). A variety of controls may be used. Levels of a tumor suppressor gene expression from a healthy individual may also be used as a control. Alternatively, the control may be expression levels of tumor suppressor gene from the individual being treated at a time prior to treatment or at a time period earlier during the course of treatment. Still other controls may include expression levels present in a database (e.g., a table, electronic database, spreadsheet, etc.).
IV. Pharmaceutical Composition
Yet another aspect of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition comprising a therapeutic agent for the treatment of cancer, which composition has specific utility to treat such cancer that has certain status regarding one or more tumor suppressors identified using the method described herein.
One embodiment of the invention is a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of cancer in which the expression of said tumor suppressor is less than a control (e.g., in normal tissue), comprising a tumor suppressor protein or a physiologically active fragment, analog, or mutant thereof. Another particular embodiment is a pharmaceutical composition for the treatment of cancer in which the expression or activity of a tumor suppressor is less than a control (e.g., in normal tissue), comprising a tumor suppressor gene or a fragment or mutant thereof that encodes a physiologically active polypeptide is introduced into the cancer tissue and expressed. In yet another embodiment, a pharmaceutical composition comprises one or more therapeutic agents that modulate known upstream factors of an identified tumor suppressor to increase the tumor suppressor expression.
More particularly, an embodiment of this aspect of the invention can be practiced using the tumor suppressor genes listed in the Table 1 of Example 2, or any other genes that are identified using the screening method described herein. More particularly, said tumor suppressor gene is Xpo4.
The invention now being generally described, it will be more readily understood by reference to the following examples, which are included merely for purposes of illustration of certain aspects and embodiments of the present invention, and are not intended to limit the invention.
Generation and Transplantation of Genetically Altered Liver Progenitor Cells
To determine whether genetically modified hepatoblasts could colonize recipient livers, a protocol was used that optimizes engraftment of transplanted cells in the recipient liver. Embryonic hepatoblasts express high E-Cadherin levels on their cell surface, which enables these cells to be isolated to high purity from fetal livers using magnetic bead selection. (Nitou et al. “Purification of fetal mouse hepatoblasts by magnetic beads coated with monoclonal anti-e-cadherin antibodies and their in vitro culture.” Exp. Cell Res. 279, 330-343. (2002)). These cells express markers characteristic of bi-potential oval cells, the presumed cellular target of transformation in the adult rodent liver.
Animals were pretreated with retrorsine, an alkaloid that exerts a strong and persistent block of native hepatocyte proliferation and increases the competitive advantage of transplanted cells. Ten days after the last retrorsine treatment, 2×106 GFP-tagged E-Cadherin+ liver progenitor cells were delivered to the liver by intrasplenic injection. Using this protocol, one week after injection approximately one percent of the host liver consisted of “seeded” GFP-positive cells that were embedded within the normal liver architecture (
Generation of Liver Carcinomas from Transplanted Liver Progenitor Cells
Hepatoblasts were isolated from p53−/−fetal livers and the cells were transduced with retroviruses co-expressing Myc (c-myc), activated Akt (Akt1), or oncogenic Ras (H-rasV12) (each of which affect signaling pathways altered in human liver cancer) and a GFP reporter. As above, these transduced cell populations were transplanted into retrorsine treated mice (see
Gross pathological analysis of explanted livers revealed that Myc-expressing tumors differ significantly from those expressing Akt or Ras (
Murine Liver Carcinomas Histopathologically Resemble Features of Human HCC
To determine whether the murine tumors produced from liver progenitors resemble human liver cancer, a panel of hematoxylin/eosin (H&E) stained sections derived from primary Myc-induced murine hepatomas were examined by an experienced liver pathologist. These tumors were classified as moderately well to poorly differentiated HCCs with a mostly solid, sometimes mixed solid/trabecular growth pattern. A smaller proportion of tumors revealed growth patterns resembling trabecular or pseudoglandular HCC (data not shown). All tumors examined stained positive for cytokeratin 8, confirming they were derived from the liver lineage. Furthermore, transplanted tumors retained their HCC histology when injected orthotopically into the liver, or subcutaneously into immunocompromised mice (data not shown). These findings confirm that ex vivo manipulated liver progenitor cells can produce tumors that recapitulate the histopathology of human HCC.
ROMA Identifies Spontaneous Mutations in a Subset of Murine Liver Carcinomas
Epithelial cancers require a series of genetic alterations during clonal evolution to an advanced disease. To molecularly characterize the murine HCCs described above, spontaneously acquired lesions in those cancers were analyzed using representational oligonucleotide microarray analysis (ROMA), a genome-wide scanning method capable of identifying copy number alterations in tumor cells at high resolution (Lucito et al. “Representational oligonucleotide microarray analysis: a high-resolution method to detect genome copy number variation.” Genome Res. 13, 2291-2305. (2003)). Each human or mouse ROMA array consisted of 85K oligonucleotide probes designed to the UCSC April/2003 draft assembly of human genome and the UCSC February/2003 mouse genome, respectively, allowing genome scanning at a theoretical resolution of ˜35 kb.
Genomic representations were produced from DNA obtained from several murine liver tumors and from normal mice tissue of the same genetic background, fluorescently labeled and hybridized to microarrays. The data derived after scanning was normalized as described (Sebat et al. “Large-scale copy number polymorphism in the human genome.” Science 305, 525-528. (2004)). Even though all tumors were derived from cells harboring two defined genetic lesions, some displayed a small number of focal copy number alterations. For example, a ras-expressing tumor harbored two focal amplifications on chromosome 15 (
Recurrent Amplification of Chromosome 9qA1 in Myc-Expressing HCCs
ROMA was also performed on seven independently derived Myc-expressing HCCs, and identified a focal amplicon on mouse chromosome 9qA1 in three of these tumors (
Comparative Oncogenomics Reveals Lesions in Common Between Murine and Human Cancers
In parallel to the analysis of murine HCCs, ROMA was conducted on 25 human HCC samples. These human tumors showed more complex alterations than the murine HCCs, yet we were able to detect copy number alterations affecting genes previously linked to HCC. For example, three tumors had a chromosome 11 amplification containing CCND1 (cyclin D1), two had a chromosome 7 amplification containing c-MET, and one had a deletion of chromosome 9 harboring the CDKN2A (INK4a/ARF) locus (data not shown).
The human 11q22 amplicon has previously been observed at low frequency in other human cancers, although no driver gene has been decisively identified. While it represents only one of many low frequency events in these tumors, our cross-species comparison suggests that a gene(s) in the amplified region is crucial for tumorigenesis in certain contexts. In an attempt to further narrow down potential candidates, a series of other cancers that were previously analyzed by ROMA were examined to identify the minimal region of overlap.
clAP1 is Consistently Overexpressed in Tumors Harboring the Murine 9qA1 and Human 11q22 Amplicons
One criterion for establishing whether a gene in an amplicon might contribute to tumorigenesis is that it shows elevated expression in the tumor. RT-Q-PCR analysis was conducted on a series of tumors to examine which genes in the mouse 9qA1 and human 11q22 amplicons were consistently overexpressed. The murine p53−/−; myc HCCs that contain the 9qA1 amplicon consistently overexpressed clAP1 and clAP2 mRNA, and clAP1 protein (
clAP1 has Oncogenic Properties
Inhibitor of apoptosis (IAP) proteins were originally identified in baculovirus because of their potential to inhibit cell death of infected cells. Similar to their viral counterparts, overexpression of cellular lAPs can inhibit apoptosis induced by different stimuli. Although lAPs have been shown to bind and inhibit caspases, it is controversial as to whether they are important regulators of apoptosis in mammalian cells. Furthermore, although indirect evidence point towards lAPs playing a role in oncogenesis (Wright & Duckett. “Reawakening the cellular death program in neoplasia through the therapeutic blockade of IAP function.” J. Clin. Invest 115, 2673-2678. (2005)), there remains no direct evidence that these genes actively contribute to tumor initiation or maintenance.
A significant advantage of profiling the genomes of defined murine tumors is that candidate genes can be validated in the genetic context, in which the mutation spontaneously arose during tumorigenesis. Our studies identified the 9qA1 amplicon in tumors derived from p53−/− hepatoblasts expressing Myc but not in other configurations, suggesting these cells would be ideal for evaluating the oncogenic properties of clAP1. Therefore, p53−/−; myc liver progenitor cells expressing clAP1 or a control vector were produced using retroviral mediated gene transfer, and the resulting cell populations were examined for transgene expression (
To determine whether clAP1 could function as an oncogene in vivo, the hepatoblast cultures described above were injected subcutaneously into nude mice to facilitate precise measurement of tumor growth. clAP1 overexpression significantly accelerated the growth of p53−/− hepatoblasts expressing Myc (
The ability of clAP1 to promote tumorigenicity in cooperation with Akt or Ras was also examined. Using the same procedures described above, we produced p53−/− hepatoblasts expressing either Akt or Ras with or without clAP1. In contrast to the Myc configuration, overexpression of clAP1 has no impact on the onset or progression of tumors expressing Akt or Ras (
clAP1 and clAP2 are Required for Rapid Tumor Growth
The above data demonstrates that clAP1 can causally contribute to HCC development. To determine whether the clAP proteins were required to sustain tumor growth, the impact of reducing clAP levels on the growth of Myc-induced HCCs was examined in vivo. The expression of clAP1 and clAP2 was suppressed, since clAP2 can be upregulated in response to clAP1 suppression. First, a series of retroviral vectors expressing shRNAs capable of suppressing clAP1 (hygromycin selectable) and clAP2 (puromycin selectable) expression by RNA interference were generated. The best performing shRNAs were co-introduced into outgrown Myc-induced HCC cells containing or lacking the 9qA1 amplicon. Using these vectors, there was significant downregulation of endogenous clAP1/2, as shown by immunoblotting using an antibody directed against clAP1 or an antibody that cross-reacts with both clAP1 and clAP2 (
In tumors harboring the 9qA1 amplicon, suppression of clAP1/2 had a marked impact on tumor growth. Thus, tumors expressing clAP1 and clAP2 shRNAs showed a reduced growth rate compared to parallel tumors expressing the control vectors (
We took an integrated oncogenomic approach to identify new tumor suppressor genes in hepatocellular carcinoma. We combined microRNA based shRNA technology with a progenitor cell derived mouse model of liver cancer to perform in vivo RNA interference screens for new tumor suppressor genes in liver cancer.
Selecting RNAi Libraries Based on Human Oncogenomic Data
We analyzed 98 human hepatocellular carcinomas of different etiologies by Representational Oligonucleotide Microarray (ROMA) analysis, a high resolution array-CGH based platform, in order to identify recurrent focal genomic deletions. 59 focal genomic deletions (<5 MB) were identified, embedding a total of 362 known genes. For 301 of these genes we could identify mouse homologs. We obtained a total of 631 shRNAmir targeting these 301 genes from the RNAi Codex Cold Spring Harbor shRNAmir mouse library. Cultures of pSMc shRNAmir library clones were pooled to assemble low complexity shRNAmir library pools (n=48) (
RNAi Constructs Targeting APC Tumor Suppressor Gene Induce Liver Carcinoma
We discovered that embryonic hepatocytes harvested from p53−/− mice are only immortalized but not transformed after transduction with a single copy c-myc transgene. We therefore used ED18 c-myc; p53−/− cells as our test system to perform in vivo RNAi screens for new tumor suppressor genes in hepatocellular carcinoma.
Deregulated Wnt-signaling is prevalent in a high percentage of human hepatocellular carcinomas, mostly due to activating mutations in the beta catenin gene, inactivating mutations in the axin tumor suppressor gene, or promoter hypermethylation of the APC tumor suppressor gene.
We therefore generated two independent populations of ED18 c-myc/p53−/− embryonic hepatocytes and transduced them with three different shRNAmir targeting the APC tumor suppressor gene or with a control shRNA and transplanted the resulting cell populations either subcutaneously on nude mice or seeded the cells into the livers of recipient mice via intrasplenic injection. While shRNAmirAPC transduced cells gave rise to liver carcinomas in both settings (
An important prerequisite for the conduction of RNAi screens using pooled shRNAs in any biological systems is that positive controls score at a dilution which represents the representation of a single shRNA in a library pool. We therefore tested whether a 1:50 dilution of a shRNAmirAPC would still be sufficient to induce tumor growth in our system. Furthermore, we transduced c-myc; p53−/− embryonic hepatocytes with a low complexity shRNAmir library pool which contains two of the scoring shRNAmirAPC. Both experiments resulted in tumor growth, whereas the time to tumor onset was delayed compared to the cells transduced with a pure shRNAmirAPC construct (
In Vivo RNAi Screening to Identify New Tumor Suppressor Genes in HCC
We next took advantage of our established system to performed in vivo RNAi screens in order to identify new tumor suppressor genes in HCC.
Two independent populations of ED18 c-myc; p53−/− liver progenitor cells were in infected with low complexity shRNAmir pools containing hairpins targeting the genes found in focal deletions of 98 human HCC (see,
To identify scoring shRNAmir which cooperated with c-myc and p53 deficiency during tumorigenesis, we isolated genomic DNA from GFP-positive tumor nodules. Via PCR we amplified a fragment containing the mir30-5′ flanking region as well as the unique shRNA sequence (
Down-Regulation of the PTEN Tumor Suppressor Cooperates with Myc and p53-Deficiency During Hepatocarcinogenesis
We first analyzed shRNAmir representation in tumors which only showed moderately accelerated tumor growth. Interestingly, we found that tumors derived from two independent shRNAmir pools showed strong enrichment for two different hairpins targeting the PTEN tumor suppressor (
The hitherto results suggest that down-regulation of the PTEN tumor suppressor cooperates with myc and p53-deficiency during hepatocarcinogenesis. Our data are in accordance with published results showing activating mutations in Pi3k protein in HCCs, and biochemical activation of the Akt kinase in 40% of all human HCCs. Our ROMA analyses identified PTEN deletion in a total of four human hepatocellular carcinomas, one of them showing a focal deletion <5 MB (inclusion criterion for the focused shRNAmir library) and three additional ones with broader deletions >5 MB. A ROMA plot showing a focal, PTEN containing deletion on chromosome 10 in a human HCC is shown in
We next sought to test whether scoring shRNAmir that were identified in our in vivo RNAi screen could be functionally validated in our system. Both shRNAmirPTEN from the screen significantly knocked down PTEN protein levels. When infected into myc; p53−/− cells, both shRNAmir triggered the growth of liver carcinomas, while controls shRNAmir did not induce subcutaneous tumor growth in the same observation period (
Identification of New Genes Associated with Tumorigenesis
We moved on to systematically analyze shRNA representation in all tumors, in particular those which showed fastest tumor growth.
A total of 3900 sequence reads were applied to 39 tumors induced by the 13 low complexity shRNAmir pools. Table 1 lists all shRNAs found enriched to >5% of the total sequencing reads in each given pool.
A total of 36 candidate shRNAs enriched to >5% in tumors induced by the respective pool were found. Based on the enrichment factor, the two identified shRNAs targeting PTEN represent the 5th and 15th best scoring shRNAs, respectively.
The top scoring shRNA is targeting Xpo4, a member of the importin-β superfamily. It has been shown that Xpo4 serves as a nuclear exporter for eIF5A1 and Smad3 but loss of Xpo4 expression has never been linked to cancer. Other genes targeted by the top five scoring shRNAs are FgF6, Wdr49 and Armcx2. Interestingly, none of these genes have been linked to tumorigenesis before.
We next sought to determine which candidates should be followed up in functional validation experiments. We decided to nominate candidates based on two criteria: i) overall enrichment of an shRNA in tumors triggered by a particular shRNA pool (high enrichment coefficient) and ii) detection of more than one scoring shRNA against a target. Based on these criteria a total of 17 shRNAs went into functional validation experiments using the same setup as used for the conduction of the initial screen (including a shRNA targeting the PTEN tumor suppressor, which already had been validated before).
As shown in
Using the biopred webtool we next generated de novo additional shRNAs targeting our top scoring candidate genes. In addition to our scoring shRNAs libraries, the RNAi Codex library, we generated at least two additional shRNAs (
Functional Characterization of Xpo4
We next aimed to gain mechanistic insight how loss of Xpo4, the top scoring candidate in our RNAi screen, promotes tumorigenesis. To date, two substrates for Xpo4 have been identified: Smad3, (give background) and eIF5A1 (see,
To address whether Xpo4 expression correlates with the amount of nuclear total and phospho-Smad3, we used murine hepatoma cells (p53−/−; myc) which were either infected with a control hairpin (shRNAmir luciferase) or two different hairpins targeting Xpo4. As shown by western blot in
We next analyzed whether there is a correlation between Xpo4 status and Smad3 localization in human hepatoma cells. SK-Hep-1 human hepatoma cells harbor a homozygous deletion of Xpo4 (data not shown). Accordingly, we could not detect Xpo4 mRNA levels in SK-Hep-1 cells, while significant levels of Xpo4 mRNA could be detected by RT-Q-PCR in Huh7 and Alexander human hepatoma cells which display wild type status for the Xpo4 gene. While Huh7 and Alex hepatoma cells show a prominent cytoplasmic staining and no staining for Smad3 in the nucleus when analyzed by immunofluorescence, SK-Hep1 cells display a homogenous distribution of Smad3 protein in cytoplasm and nucleus.
TGF-beta signaling has been shown to be a double edged sword in tumorigenesis. Stimulation of TGF-beta receptor results in nuclear accumulation of Smad3 which, together with other transcription factor leads to the trans-activation of TGF-beta target genes.
To test whether increased nuclear levels of Smad3/p-Smad3 indeed lead to increased transcription of TGF-beta target genes, we performed RT-Q-PCR analysis for classical TGF-beta/Smad3 target genes. We observed that RNAi mediated reduction of Xpo4 gene expression results in increased mRNA levels for the pivotal TGF-beta target genes Jun, JunB, Mmp14, Co17A1, Timp1 and p15 (data not shown). As it is well established that increased TGF-beta signaling increases tumor progression, invasion and metastasis in later stager of tumor development, our results suggest that, at least in part, reduction of Xpo4 expression is pro-tumorigenic by inducing TGF-beta target genes.
In addition to Smad3, it has been shown that elongation initiation factor 5A1 (eIF5A1) is a substrate for Xpo4. To confirm nuclear export of eIF5A1 by Xpo4 in hepatoma cells, we first performed immunofluorescence experiments against eIF5A1 in murine hepatoma cells with or without shRNAmir mediated knockdown of Xpo4. While cells infected with the control shRNA showed almost no nuclear staining of eIF5A1, upon RNAi mediated knockdown of Xpo4 we detected a strong nuclear enrichment of eIF5A1. Results could be confirmed by western blot using cytoplasmic and nuclear protein preparations.
In addition to eIF5A1, a second eIF5 isoform has been identified, designated eIF5A2. Under normal conditions expression of eIF5A isoforms is regulated in a tissue specific manner. Normal tissues usually shown eIFA1 expression but lack eIF5A2 expression. However, increased eIF5A2 expression has been found in various cancer types, making eIF5A2 a candidate oncogene.
Interestingly, among our 98 human analyzed human HCCs, we found a tumor which displayed a focal amplicon for eIF5A2, thus further supporting the idea of eIF5A2 as a candidate oncogene downstream of Xpo4. We investigated whether loss of Xpo4 would affect cellular localization of eIF5A2. While the commercially available antibodies did not allow to analyze cellular localization of eIF5A2 by immunofluorescence, using immunoblot analysis on nuclear and cytoplasmic extracts, we found that Xpo4 knockdown leads to a moderate but significant nuclear retention of eIF5A2.
Although not wishing to be bound by particular theories, we believe a possible explanation to link the mislocalization of eIF5A1/2 with tumorigenesis is that, mislocalization of eIf5A1 and A2 via a feedback loop leads to a compensatory increase of A1 and A2, the second of which promotes tumorigenesis. In accordance with this model, we found a strong upregulation of eIF5A1 and eIF5A2 mRNA levels in murine and human hepatoma cell upon Xpo4 knockdown (data not shown). Interestingly, increased transcript levels only resulted in higher protein levels in the case eIF5A2 but not A1 (data not shown).
Our data suggest that loss of Xpo4 increases hepatocarcinigenesis by upregulation of eIF5A2 expression. To address whether increased expression of eIF5A1 or A2 can increase hepatocarcinogenesis in vivo, we infected p53−/−; myc liver progenitor cells with retroviruses encoding eIF5A1 or eIF5A2. As shown in
Those skilled in the art will recognize, or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation, many equivalents to the specific embodiments of the invention described herein. Such equivalents are intended to be encompassed by the following embodiments.
This application is a continuation-in-part of U.S. application Ser. No. 11/325,218, filed on Jan. 3, 2006, which claims priority to U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/641,043, filed on Jan. 3, 2005, and U.S. Provisional Application No. 60/686,609, filed on Jun. 1, 2005. Each of the foregoing applications is hereby incorporated by reference in its entirety.
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