Patent Application
20120152352
The present disclosure relates to photovoltaic devices, and more particularly to photovoltaic devices including an interfacial germanium-containing layer and methods of forming the same.
A photovoltaic device is a device that converts the energy of incident photons to electromotive force (e.m.f.). Typical photovoltaic devices include solar cells, which are configured to convert the energy in the electromagnetic radiation from the Sun to electric energy. Each photon has an energy given by the formula E=hν, in which the energy E is equal to the product of the Plank constant h and the frequency ν of the electromagnetic radiation associated with the photon.
A photon having energy greater than the electron binding energy of a matter can interact with the matter and free an electron from the matter. While the probability of interaction of each photon with each atom is probabilistic, a structure can be built with a sufficient thickness to cause interaction of photons with the structure with high probability. When an electron is knocked off an atom by a photon, the energy of the photon is converted to electrostatic energy and kinetic energy of the electron, the atom, and/or the crystal lattice including the atom. The electron does not need to have sufficient energy to escape the ionized atom. In the case of a material having a band structure, the electron can merely make a transition to a different band in order to absorb the energy from the photon.
The positive charge of the ionized atom can remain localized on the ionized atom, or can be shared in the lattice including the atom. When the positive charge is shared by the entire lattice, thereby becoming a non-localized charge, this charge is described as a hole in a valence band of the lattice including the atom. Likewise, the electron can be non-localized and shared by all atoms in the lattice. This situation occurs in a semiconductor material, and is referred to as photogeneration of an electron-hole pair. The formation of electron-hole pairs and the efficiency of photogeneration depend on the band structure of the irradiated material and the energy of the photon. In case the irradiated material is a semiconductor material, photogeneration occurs when the energy of a photon exceeds the band gap energy, i.e., the energy difference of a band gap of the irradiated material.
The direction of travel of charged particles, i.e., the electrons and holes, in an irradiated material is sufficiently random. Thus, in the absence of any electrical bias, photogeneration of electron-hole pairs merely results in heating of the irradiated material. However, an external field can break the spatial direction of the travel of the charged particles to harness the electrons and holes formed by photogeneration.
One exemplary method of providing an electric field is to form a p-i-n junction around the irradiated material. As negative charges accumulate in the p-doped region and positive charges accumulate in the n-doped region, an electric field is generated from the direction of the n-doped region toward the p-doped region. Electrons generated in the intrinsic region drift towards the n-doped region due to the electric field, and holes generated in the intrinsic region drift towards the p-doped region. Thus, the electron-hole pairs are collected systematically to provide positive charges at the p-doped region and negative charges at the n-doped region. The p-i-n junction forms the core of this type of photovoltaic device, which provides electromotive force that can power any device connected to the positive node at the p-doped region and the negative node at the n-doped region.
A germanium-containing layer is provided between a p-doped silicon-containing layer and a transparent conductive material layer of a photovoltaic device. The germanium-containing layer can be a silicon-germanium alloy layer or a germanium layer. The germanium-containing layer has a greater atomic concentration of germanium than the p-doped silicon-containing layer. The presence of the germanium-containing layer has the effect of reducing the series resistance and increasing the shunt resistance of the photovoltaic device, thereby increasing the fill factor and the efficiency of the photovoltaic device.
According to an aspect of the present disclosure, a photovoltaic device is provided, which includes a stack of a transparent conductive material layer, a germanium-containing layer contacting the transparent conductive material layer, and a p-doped silicon-containing layer contacting the p-doped silicon-containing layer. The germanium-containing layer has a greater atomic concentration of germanium than the p-doped silicon-containing layer. The photovoltaic device provides a greater shunt resistance and a lesser series resistance than a photovoltaic device having a same material stack less a germanium-containing layer.
According to another aspect of the present disclosure, a method of forming a photovoltaic device is provided. The method includes: forming a transparent conductive material layer on a substrate; forming a germanium-containing layer on the transparent conductive material layer; and forming a p-doped silicon-containing layer on the germanium-containing layer. The photovoltaic device provides a greater shunt resistance and a lesser series resistance than a photovoltaic device having a same material stack less a germanium-containing layer.
As stated above, the present disclosure relates to photovoltaic devices including an interfacial germanium-containing layer and methods of forming the same, which are now described in detail with accompanying figures. Throughout the drawings, the same reference numerals or letters are used to designate like or equivalent elements. The drawings are not necessarily drawn to scale.
As used herein, a crystal structure is “microcrystalline” if the average grain size of the material is from 1 nm to 10 microns.
As used herein, a “hydrogenated” semiconductor material is a semiconductor material including incorporated hydrogen therein, which neutralizes dangling bonds in the semiconductor material and allows charge carriers to flow more freely.
As used herein, a “semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas” refers to a gas including at least one atom of Si, Ge, or components of a compound semiconductor material.
As used herein, an element is “optically transparent” if the element is transparent in the visible electromagnetic spectral range having a wavelength from 400 nm to 800 nm.
Referring to
The p-doped silicon-containing layer 130 can include an amorphous p-doped hydrogenated silicon-containing material or microcrystalline p-doped hydrogenated silicon-containing material. The amorphous p-doped hydrogenated silicon-containing material or the microcrystalline p-doped hydrogenated silicon-containing material can be deposited by flowing a semiconductor-material-containing reactant in a hydrogen carrier gas. In this case, hydrogen atoms are incorporated in the deposited material of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 130. The p-doped silicon-containing layer 130 can include an amorphous p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy or a microcrystalline p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy.
Referring to
Power dissipation through internal leakage current is approximated by a shunt resistance Rsh. A finite value for the shunt resistance Rsh triggers an internal leakage current through the prior art photovoltaic device of
Power dissipation through internal resistance of the prior art photovoltaic device of
The potential difference between the positive node, i.e., the p-doped silicon-containing layer 130, and the negative node, i.e., the n-doped semiconductor layer 150, generates an internal current that flow in the opposite direction to the photocurrent, i.e., the current represented by the current source having the short-circuit current density Jsc. The dark current has the same functional dependence on the voltage across the current source as a diode current. Thus, the dark current is approximated by a diode that allows a reverse-direction current. The density of the dark current, i.e., the dark current per unit area of the prior art photovoltaic device, is referred to as the dark current density Jdark. An external load can be attached to an outer node of the series resistor and one of the nodes of the current source. In
Referring to
The operating range of a photovoltaic device is the portion of the I-V curve in the first quadrant, i.e., when both the bias voltage V and the current density J are positive. The power density P, i.e., the density of power generated from an unit area of the prior art photovoltaic device of
The fill factor FF defines the degree by which the I-V curve of
The efficiency η of a photovoltaic device is the ratio of the power density at the maximum power point to the incident light power density Ps. In other words, the efficiency η is given by:
Eq. 2 can be rewritten as:
Thus, the efficiency h of a photovoltaic device is proportional to the short circuit current density Jsc, the open circuit voltage Voc, and the fill factor FF.
The efficiency η of a photovoltaic device depends on the spectral composition of the incident light. For solar cells, the efficiency is calculated under a standard radiation condition defined as 1 sun, which employs the spectrum of the sunlight.
Referring to
In case the transparent conductive material layer 120 is an aluminum-doped zinc oxide, the work function of the transparent conductive material layer 120 is about 4.5 eV. In other words, the Fermi level EF is at 4.5 eV below the vacuum level. Other typical materials for the transparent conductive material layer 120 also have a work function of about 4.5 eV.
In case the p-doped silicon-containing layer 130 includes an amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbon alloy, the band gap of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 130 is around 1.85 eV. Since electron affinity of silicon is around 4 eV, the valence band edge of silicon is located around 5.85 eV below the vacuum level. The difference between the Fermi level and the valence band of the amorphous hydrogenated silicon carbon alloy is about 1.0 eV. This is a significant energy barrier, and is the cause of the predominant component of the series resistance Rs from 20 Ohms-cm2 to 30 Ohms-cm2 in the prior art photovoltaic device of
Referring to
The substrate 10 is a structure that provides mechanical support to the photovoltaic structure. The substrate 10 is transparent in the range of electromagnetic radiation at which photogeneration of electrons and holes occur within the photovoltaic structure. If the prior art photovoltaic device is a solar cell, the substrate 10 can be optically transparent. The substrate 10 can be a glass substrate. The thickness of the substrate 10 can be from 50 microns to 3 mm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The transparent conductive material layer 20 includes a material that is transparent in the range of electromagnetic radiation at which photogeneration of electrons and holes occur within the photovoltaic device structure. If the photovoltaic device structure is employed as a solar cell, the transparent conductive material layer 20 can be optically transparent. For example, the transparent conductive material layer 20 can include a transparent conductive oxide such as a fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO2:F), an aluminum-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al), or indium tin oxide. The thickness of the transparent conductive material layer 20 can be from 300 nm to 3 microns, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The germanium-containing layer 22 includes germanium itself or at least one p-type dopant such as B, Ga, and In. The germanium-containing layer 22 may, or may not, include another semiconductor material such as silicon. In one embodiment, the germanium-containing layer 22 is a silicon-germanium alloy layer including germanium, silicon, optionally p-type dopant, and hydrogen. In this embodiment, the atomic concentration of germanium is greater than 50%. Depending on the work-function of TCO, Si content in Ge can be varied. The germanium-containing layer 22 has a greater atomic concentration of germanium than the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30, which may, or may not, include germanium. In another embodiment, the germanium-containing layer 22 is a germanium layer consisting of germanium, at optionally p-type dopant, and hydrogen.
The germanium-containing layer 22 can be amorphous, microcrystalline, or single crystalline. The germanium-containing layer 22 can include a hydrogenated material. For example, if the germanium-containing layer 22 includes a hydrogenated amorphous silicon-germanium alloy, a hydrogenated microcrystalline silicon-germanium alloy, a hydrogenated amorphous germanium, or a hydrogenated microcrystalline germanium, the hydrogenation of the material of the germanium-containing layer 22 decreases localized electronic states and increases the conductivity of the germanium-containing layer 22.
The germanium-containing layer 22 can be formed, for example, by plasma enhanced chemical vapor deposition (PECVD). The thickness of the germanium-containing layer 22 can be from 1 nm to 20 nm, and typically from 2 nm to 5 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 includes an amorphous, microcrystalline, or single-crystalline p-doped silicon-containing material. The p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can be a p-doped silicon layer consisting of silicon and at least one p-type dopant and optionally hydrogen, a p-doped silicon-germanium alloy layer consisting of silicon, germanium, at least one p-type dopant and optionally hydrogen, a p-doped silicon-carbon alloy layer consisting of silicon, carbon, at least one p-type dopant and optionally hydrogen, or a p-doped silicon-germanium-carbon alloy layer consisting of silicon, germanium, carbon, at least one p-type dopant and optionally hydrogen.
In some cases, the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can include a hydrogenated amorphous, microcrystalline, or single-crystalline p-doped silicon-containing material. The presence of hydrogen in the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can increase the concentration of free charge carriers, i.e., holes, by delocalizing the electrical charges that are pinned to defect sites. The p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can include amorphous, microcrystalline, or single crystalline p-doped silicon or an amorphous, microcrystalline, or single crystalline p-doped silicon-germanium alloy. In case the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 includes germanium, the atomic concentration of germanium in the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 is less than the atomic concentration of germanium in the germanium-containing layer 22.
A hydrogenated p-doped silicon-containing material can be deposited in a process chamber containing a silicon-containing reactant gas a carrier gas. To facilitate incorporation of hydrogen in the hydrogenated p-doped silicon-containing material, a carrier gas including hydrogen can be employed. Hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen gas within the carrier gas are incorporated into the deposited material to form an amorphous or microcrystalline hydrogenated p-doped silicon-containing material of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30. The thickness of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can be from 3 nm to 30 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
In one embodiment, the p-doped hydrogenated silicon-containing material can be an amorphous, microcrystalline, or single-crystalline p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy. The atomic concentration of carbon in the p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can be from 1% to 90%, and preferably from 1% to 10%. In this case, the band gap of the p-doped silicon-containing layer 30 can be from 1.85 eV to 2.5 eV.
The intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 includes an intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material. The intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material is deposited in a process chamber containing a semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas and a carrier gas including hydrogen. Hydrogen atoms in the hydrogen gas within the carrier gas are incorporated into the deposited material to form the intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material of the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40. The intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material can be amorphous or microcrystalline. Typically, the intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material is amorphous. The thickness of the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 depends on the diffusion length of electrons and holes in the intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material. Typically, the thickness of the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 is from 100 nm to 1 micron, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 can include a silicon-containing material, a germanium-containing material, or a compound semiconductor material. In one embodiment, the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 includes a silicon-containing material. The semiconductor material of the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 can be amorphous intrinsic silicon.
The n-doped semiconductor layer 50 includes an n-doped semiconductor-containing material. The n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be a hydrogenated material, in which case an n-doped hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material is deposited in a process chamber containing a semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas a carrier gas including hydrogen. The n-type dopants in the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be introduced by in-situ doping. Alternately, the n-type dopants in the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be introduced by subsequent introduction of dopants employing any method known in the art. The n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be amorphous or microcrystalline. The thickness of the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be from 6 nm to 60 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can include a silicon-containing material, a germanium-containing material, or a compound semiconductor material. In one embodiment, the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 includes a silicon-containing material. The semiconductor material of the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be amorphous n-doped silicon.
The first back reflector layer 60 includes a transparent conductive material that is transparent in the range of electromagnetic radiation at which photogeneration of electrons and holes occur within the photovoltaic device structure. If the photovoltaic device structure is employed as a solar cell, the first back reflector layer 60 can be optically transparent. For example, the first back reflector layer 60 can include a transparent conductive oxide such as a fluorine-doped tin oxide (SnO2:F), an aluminum-doped zinc oxide (ZnO:Al), or indium tin oxide. Since such transparent conductive oxide materials are n-type materials, the contact between the first back reflector layer 60 and the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 is Ohmic, and as such, the contact resistance between the first back reflector layer 60 and the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 is negligible. The thickness of the back reflector layer 60 can be from 25 nm to 250 nm, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The second back reflector layer 70 includes a metallic material. Preferably, the metallic material has a high reflectivity in the range of electromagnetic radiation at which photogeneration of electrons and holes occur within the photovoltaic device structure. The metallic material can include silver, aluminum, or an alloy thereof. The thickness of the second back reflector layer 70 can be from 100 nm to 1 micron, although lesser and greater thicknesses can also be employed.
The exemplary photovoltaic device structure of
The presence of the germanium-containing layer 22 increased the shunt resistance of photovoltaic device structures of the type shown in
The presence of the germanium-containing layer 22 increases the short circuit current density Jsc of the photovoltaic device structures of the type shown in
The mechanism of the reduction in the series resistance is the modification of the band gap structure in the structure of the present disclosure. The valence band edge of p-doped hydrogenated silicon is about 5.85 eV from the vacuum level. The work-function of ZnO, which is a transpatent conductive oxide, is about 4.5 eV. A barrier height of about 1 eV is present in this case. Amorphous Ge valence band edge is about 5 eV below the vacuum level. Thus, amorphous germanium offers intermediate gap resulting in a barrier height splitting. As the silicon content increases, valence band edge can be located more than 5 eV below the vacuum level. The greater the barrier height, therefore, the greater the benefit of including silicon in germanium so that the Fermi level moves further down from the vacuum level, thereby increasing the shunt resistance.
The germanium-containing layer 22 may, or may not, be doped with p-type dopants. In one embodiment, the germanium-containing layer 22 is a p-doped germanium-containing layer, i.e., includes germanium and at least one p-type dopant atoms such as B, Ga, and In. In another embodiment, the germanium-containing layer 22 is an intrinsic germanium-containing layer, i.e., includes germanium but does not include any p-type dopant atoms. The germanium-containing layer 22 includes hydrogen. Preferably, the germanium-containing layer 22 is a hydrogen-containing amorphous layer, i.e., a layer including amorphous germanium and hydrogen.
Referring to
The first J-V characteristics curve 710 shows a series resistance of about 6.0 Ohms-cm2, a fill factor of 67%, and an efficiency of about 9.4%. The second J-V characteristics curve 720 shows a series resistance of about 12 Ohms-cm2, a fill factor of 57%, and an efficiency of about 8.6%. The presence of a germanium-containing layer provided a ˜10% improvement in the efficiency.
Referring to
The germanium-containing reactant gas includes at least one atom of germanium. Exemplary germanium-containing reactant gases include GeH4, GeH2Cl2, GeCl4, and Ge2H6. If the germanium-containing layer 22 includes at least one p-type dopants, the p-type dopants in the p-doped semiconductor-containing material of the germanium-containing layer 22 can be introduced by in-situ doping. Alternately, the p-type dopants in the microcrystalline p-doped hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material can be introduced by subsequent introduction of dopants employing any method known in the art such as plasma doping, ion implantation, and/or outdiffusion from a disposable diffusion source (e.g., borosilicate glass). If the germanium-containing layer 22 includes an intrinsic germanium, no dopant atoms are introduced into the germanium-containing layer 22.
Referring to
The silicon-containing reactant gas includes at least one atom of silicon. Exemplary silicon-containing reactant gases include SiH4, SiH2Cl2, SiHCl3, SiCl4, and Si2H6. The p-type dopants in the p-doped semiconductor-containing material of the p-doped semiconductor layer 30 can be introduced by in-situ doping. Alternately, the p-type dopants in the microcrystalline p-doped hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material can be introduced by subsequent introduction of dopants employing any method known in the art such as plasma doping, ion implantation, and/or outdiffusion from a disposable diffusion source (e.g., borosilicate glass).
The material of the p-doped semiconductor layer 30 can be a p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy. In this case, a carbon-containing gas can be flown into the processing chamber during deposition of the p-doped hydrogenated silicon-carbon alloy.
Subsequently, the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 is deposited on the p-doped semiconductor layer 30, for example, by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. In case the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40 includes an intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material, hydrogen gas is supplied into the process chamber concurrently with a semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas. The intrinsic hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material can be amorphous or microcrystalline.
The n-doped semiconductor layer 50 is deposited on the intrinsic semiconductor layer 40, for example, by plasma-enhanced chemical vapor deposition. In case the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 includes an n-doped hydrogenated semiconductor-containing material, hydrogen gas is supplied into the process chamber concurrently with a semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas. The material of the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be amorphous or microcrystalline.
The n-type dopants in the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be introduced by in-situ doping. For example, phosphine (PH3) gas or arsine (AsH3) gas can be flown into the processing chamber concurrently with the semiconductor-material-containing reactant gas if the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 includes an n-doped silicon-containing material or an n-doped germanium-containing material. If the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 includes an n-doped compound semiconductor material, the ratio of the flow rate of the reactant gas for the Group II or Group III material to the flow rate of the reactant gas for the group VI or Group V material can be decreased to induce n-type doping. Alternately, the n-type dopants in the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 can be introduced by subsequent introduction of dopants employing any method known in the art.
The first back reflector layer 60 is deposited on the n-doped semiconductor layer 50 employing methods known in the art. The first back reflector layer 60 includes a transparent conductive material. The second back reflector layer 70 is subsequently deposited on the first back reflector layer 70, for example, by electroplating, electroless plating, physical vapor deposition, chemical vapor deposition, vacuum evaporation, or a combination thereof. The second back reflector layer 70 can be a metallic layer.
While the present disclosure has been particularly shown and described with respect to preferred embodiments thereof, it will be understood by those skilled in the art that the foregoing and other changes in forms and details can be made without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure. It is therefore intended that the present disclosure not be limited to the exact forms and details described and illustrated, but fall within the scope of the appended claims.
