Polymer and method for using the polymer for solubilizing nanotubes

Abstract

A new, non-wrapping approach to solubilize nanotubes, such as carbon nanotubes, in organic and inorganic solvents is provided. In accordance with certain embodiments, carbon nanotube surfaces are functionalized in a non-wrapping fashion by functional conjugated polymers that include functional groups for solubilizing such nanotubes. Various embodiments provide polymers that noncovalently bond with carbon nanotubes in a non-wrapping fashion. For example, various embodiments of polymers are provided that comprise a relatively rigid backbone that is suitable for noncovalently bonding with a carbon nanotube substantially along the nanotube's length, as opposed to about its diameter. In preferred polymers, the major interaction between the polymer backbone and the nanotube surface is parallel π-stacking. The polymers further comprise at least one functional extension from the backbone that are any of various desired functional groups that are suitable for solubilizing a carbon nanotube.

Description

TECHNICAL FIELD

The present invention is related to solubilization of nanotubes, and more particularly to a polymer that is capable of solubilizing nanotubes.

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

A carbon nanotube can be visualized as a sheet of hexagonal graph paper rolled up into a seamless tube and joined. Each line on the graph paper represents a carbon-carbon bond, and each intersection point represents a carbon atom.

In general, carbon nanotubes are elongated tubular bodies which are typically only a few atoms in circumference. The carbon nanotubes are hollow and have a linear fullerene structure. The length of the carbon nanotubes potentially may be millions of times greater than their molecular-sized diameter. Both single-walled carbon nanotubes (SWNTs), as well as multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) have been recognized.

Carbon nanotubes are currently being proposed for a number of applications since they possess a very desirable and unique combination of physical properties relating to, for example, strength and weight. Carbon nanotubes have also demonstrated electrical conductivity. See Yakobson, B. I., et al., American Scientist, 85, (1997), 324–337; and Dresselhaus, M. S., et al., Science of Fullerenes and Carbon Nanotubes, 1996, San Diego: Academic Press, pp. 902–905. For example, carbon nanotubes conduct heat and electricity better than copper or gold and have 100 times the tensile strength of steel, with only a sixth of the weight of steel. Carbon nanotubes may be produced having extraordinarily small size. For example, carbon nanotubes are being produced that are approximately the size of a DNA double helix (or approximately 1/50,000^th the width of a human hair).

Considering the excellent properties of carbon nanotubes, they are well suited for a variety of uses, from the building of computer circuits to the reinforcement of composite materials, and even to the delivery of medicine. As a result of their properties, carbon nanotubes may be useful in microelectronic device applications, for example, which often demand high thermal conductivity, small dimensions, and light weight. One potential application of carbon nanotubes that has been recognized is their use in flat-panel displays that use electron field-emission technology (as carbon nanotubes can be good conductors and electron emitters). Further potential applications that have been recognized include electromagnetic shielding, such as for cellular telephones and laptop computers, radar absorption for stealth aircraft, nano-electronics (including memories in new generations of computers), and use as high-strength, lightweight composites. Further, carbon nanotubes are potential candidates in the areas of electrochemical energy storage systems (e.g., lithium ion batteries) and gas storage systems.

Various techniques for producing carbon nanotubes have been developed. As examples, methods of forming carbon nanotubes are described in U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,753,088 and 5,482,601, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. The three most common techniques for producing carbon nanotubes are: 1) laser vaporization technique, 2) electric arc technique, and 3) gas phase technique (e.g., HiPco™ process), which are discussed further below.

In general, the “laser vaporization” technique utilizes a pulsed laser to vaporize graphite in producing the carbon nanotubes. The laser vaporization technique is further described by A. G. Rinzler et al. in Appl. Phys. A, 1998, 67, 29, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. Generally, the laser vaporization technique produces carbon nanotubes that have a diameter of approximately 1.1 to 1.3 nanometers (nm). Such laser vaporization technique is generally a very low yield process, which requires a relatively long period of time to produce small quantities of carbon nanotubes. For instance, one hour of laser vaporization processing typically results in approximately 100 milligrams of carbon nanotubes.

Another technique for producing carbon nanotubes is the “electric arc” technique in which carbon nanotubes are synthesized utilizing an electric arc discharge. As an example, single-walled nanotubes (SWNTs) may be synthesized by an electric arc discharge under helium atmosphere with the graphite anode filled with a mixture of metallic catalysts and graphite powder (Ni:Y;C), as described more fully by C. Journet et al. in Nature (London), 388 (1997), 756. Typically, such SWNTs are produced as close-packed bundles (or “ropes”) with such bundles having diameters ranging from 5 to 20 nm. Generally, the SWNTs are well-aligned in a two-dimensional periodic triangular lattice bonded by van der Waals interactions. The electric arc technique of producing carbon nanotubes is further described by C. Journet and P. Bernier in Appl. Phys. A, 67, 1, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. Utilizing such an electric arc technique, the average carbon nanotube diameter is typically approximately 1.3 to 1.5 nm and the triangular lattice parameter is approximately 1.7 nm. As with the laser vaporization technique, the electric arc production technique is generally a very low yield process that requires a relatively long period of time to produce small quantities of carbon nanotubes. For instance, one hour of electric arc processing typically results in approximately 100 milligrams of carbon nanotubes.

More recently, Richard Smalley and his colleagues at Rice University have discovered another process, the “gas phase” technique, which produces much greater quantities of carbon nanotubes than the laser vaporization and electric arc production techniques. The gas phase technique, which is referred to as the HiPco™ process, produces carbon nanotubes utilizing a gas phase catalytic reaction. The HiPco process uses basic industrial gas (carbon monoxide), under temperature and pressure conditions common in modem industrial plants to create relatively high quantities of high-purity carbon nanotubes that are essentially free of by-products. The HiPco process is described in further detail by P. Nikolaev et al. in Chem. Phys. Lett., 1999, 313, 91, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

While daily quantities of carbon nanotubes produced using the above-described laser vaporization and electric arc techniques are approximately 1 gram per day, the HiPco process may enable daily production of carbon nanotubes in quantities of a pound or more. Generally, the HiPco technique produces carbon nanotubes that have relatively much smaller diameters than are typically produced in the laser vaporization or electric arc techniques. For instance, the nanotubes produced by the HiPco technique generally have diameters of approximately 0.7 to 0.8 nm.

Full-length (unshortened) carbon nanotubes, due to their high aspect ratio, small diameter, light weight, high strength, high electrical- and thermal-conductivity, are recognized as the ultimate carbon fibers for nanostructured materials. See Calvert, P. Nature 1999, 399, 210, and Andrews, R. et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 199, 75, 1329, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. The carbon nanotube materials, however, are insoluble in common organic solvents. See Ebbesen, T. W. Acc. Chem. Res. 1998, 31, 558–556, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference.

Covalent side-wall functionalizations of carbon nanotubes can lead to the dissolution of carbon nanotubes in organic solvents. It should be noted that the terms “dissolution” and “solubilization” are used interchangeably herein. See Boul, P. J. et al., Chem Phys. Lett. 1999, 310, 367 and Georgakilas, V. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2002, 124, 760–761, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. The disadvantage of this approach is that a carbon nanotube's intrinsic properties are changed significantly by covalent side-wall functionalizations.

Carbon nanotubes can also be solubilized in organic solvents and water by polymer wrapping. See Dalton, A. B. et al., J. Phys. Chem. B 2000, 104, 10012–10016, Star, A. et al. Angew. Chem., Int. Ed. 2001, 40, 1721–1725, and O'Connell, M. J. et al. Chem. Phys. Lett. 2001, 342, 265–271, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference. FIGS. 1A–1C show examples of such polymer wrapping of a carbon nanotube. In polymer wrapping, a polymer “wraps” around the diameter of a carbon nanotube. For instance, FIG. 1 shows an example of polymers 102A and 102B wrapping around single-walled carbon nanotube (SWNT) 101. FIG. 1B shows an example of polymer 103A and 103B wrapping around SWNT 101. FIG. 1C shows an example of polymers 104A and 104B wrapping around SWNT 101. It should be noted that the polymers in each of the examples of FIGS. 1A–1C are the same, and the FIGURES illustrate that the type of polymer-wrapping that occurs is random (e.g., the same polymers wrap about the carbon nanotube in different ways in each of FIGS. 1A–1C). One disadvantage of this approach is that the polymer is very inefficient in wrapping the small-diameter single-walled carbon nanotubes produced by the HiPco process because of high strain conformation required for the polymer. For example, such polymer wrapping approach can only solubilize the SWNTs_HiPco (i.e., SWNTs produced by the HiPco process) at about 0.1 mg/ml in organic solvents. SWNT_HiPco is the only SWNT material that can be currently produced at a large scale with high purity.

BRIEF SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The present invention is directed to a method for solubilizing nanotubes, a polymer for solubilizing nanotubes, and resulting compositions of matter that may be formed using solubilized nanotubes. Embodiments of the present invention provide a new approach to solubilizing nanotubes, such as carbon nanotubes, in solvents. The solvents can be, in principle, any solvents. Solubilization of carbon nanotubes in accordance with embodiments of the present invention have been experimentally demonstrated in organic solvents and in water. In accordance with certain embodiments of the present invention, carbon nanotube surfaces are functionalized in a non-wrapping fashion by functional conjugated polymers that include functional groups for solubilizing such nanotubes. As used herein, “non-wrapping” means not enveloping the diameter of a nanotube. Thus, associating a polymer with a nanotube in a “non-wrapping fashion” encompasses any association of the polymer with the nanotube in which the polymer does not completely envelop the diameter of the nanotube. When describing certain embodiments of the present invention, the non-wrapping fashion may be further defined and/or restricted. For instance, in a preferred embodiment of the present invention, a polymer can associate with a nanotube (e.g., via π-stacking interaction therewith) wherein the polymer's backbone extends substantially along the length of the nanotube without any portion of the backbone extending over more than half of the nanotube's diameter in relation to any other portion of the polymer's backbone.

Various embodiments provide polymers that associate with carbon nanotubes in a non-wrapping fashion. More specifically, various embodiments of polymers are provided that comprise a relatively rigid backbone that is suitable for associating with a carbon nanotube substantially along the nanotube's length, as opposed to about its diameter. In preferred polymers, the major interaction between the polymer backbone and the nanotube surface is parallel π-stacking. Such interaction may result in the polymer non-covalently bonding (or otherwise associating) with the nanotube. Examples of rigid functional conjugated polymers that may be utilized in embodiments of the present invention include, without limitation, poly(aryleneethynylene)s and poly(3-decylthiophene). In accordance with embodiments of the present invention, the polymers further comprise at least one functional extension from the backbone, wherein such at least one function extension comprises any of various desired functional groups that are suitable for solubilizing a carbon nanotube.

In one embodiment of the present invention, a method of solubilizing a nanotube is disclosed. The method comprises mixing a polymer with a nanotube, and the polymer noncovalently bonding with the nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion, wherein the polymer comprises at least one functional portion for solubilizing the nanotube. As used herein, “mixing” is intended to encompass “adding,” “combining,” and similar terms for presenting at least one polymer to at least one nanotube.

In another embodiment of the present invention, a polymer for solubilizing nanotubes is disclosed. The polymer comprises a backbone portion for noncovalently bonding with a nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion, and at least one functional portion for solubilizing the nanotube.

In another embodiment, a process is disclosed that comprises mixing at least one polymer with at least one nanotube in a solvent. In certain embodiments, the solvent may comprise an organic solvent, and in other embodiments the solvent may comprise an aqueous solvent. The mixing results in the at least one polymer forming a noncovalent bond with the at least one nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion, and the at least one polymer solubilizing the at least one nanotube.

In another embodiment, a method of solubilizing carbon nanotubes is provided. The method comprises mixing at least one polymer with at least one carbon nanotube in a solvent. Again, in certain embodiments, the solvent may comprise an organic solvent, and in other embodiments the solvent may comprise an aqueous solvent. The method further comprises the at least one polymer interacting with the at least one carbon nanotube's surface via π-stacking, and the at least one polymer solubilizing the at least one carbon nanotube.

The foregoing has outlined rather broadly the features and technical advantages of the present invention in order that the detailed description of the invention that follows may be better understood. Additional features and advantages of the invention will be described hereinafter which form the subject of the claims of the invention. It should be appreciated by those skilled in the art that the conception and specific embodiment disclosed may be readily utilized as a basis for modifying or designing other structures for carrying out the same purposes of the present invention. It should also be realized by those skilled in the art that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the invention as set forth in the appended claims. The novel features which are believed to be characteristic of the invention, both as to its organization and method of operation, together with further objects and advantages will be better understood from the following description when considered in connection with the accompanying figures. It is to be expressly understood, however, that each of the figures is provided for the purpose of illustration and description only and is not intended as a definition of the limits of the present invention.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

For a more complete understanding of the present invention, reference is now made to the following descriptions taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing, in which:

FIGS. 1A–1C show examples of polymer wrapping of carbon nanotubes of the prior art;

FIGS. 2A–2B show an example molecular model of a polymer that associates with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 3A–3C show example polymer structures of embodiments of the present invention;

FIG. 4 shows another example of a polymer structure that may be implemented for associating with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion in accordance with an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 5A shows a graph illustrating the thin film visible and near infrared (IR) spectra of SWNTs_HiPco (without a polymer associated therewith);

FIG. 5B shows a graph illustrating the thin film visible and near IR spectra of SWNTs_HiPco solubilized by an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 6A shows a transmission electron microscopy (“TEM”) image of SWNTs_laser (i.e., SWNTs produced by the laser technique) solubilized by an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention;

FIG. 6B shows a TEM image of SWNTs_arc (i.e., SWNTs produced by the arc technique) solubilized by an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 6C and 6D show TEM images of SWNTs_HiPco solubilized with an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 7A and 7B show high resolution TEM images of SWNTs_laser solubilized with an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention;

FIGS. 8A–8C show high resolution TEM images of SWNTs_arc solubilized with an example polymer of an embodiment of the present invention; and

FIG. 9 shows a field-emission scanning electron microscopy (“SEM”) image (1.00 kV) of a torn edge of Bucky paper formed in accordance with a solubilization technique of an embodiment of the present invention, which illustrates that the majority of the sample is SWNT nanoribbon.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF THE INVENTION

Various embodiments of the present invention are now described with reference to the above figures. Embodiments of the present invention provide a new approach to solubilizing nanotubes in solvents. Advantageously, certain embodiments of the present invention may enable solubilization in organic solvents, and certain embodiments may enable solubilization in aqueous solvents. This approach is based on a discovery that carbon nanotube surfaces can be functionalized in a non-wrapping fashion by functional conjugated polymers. For instance, an example molecular model of a polymer that associates (e.g., noncovalently bonds) with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion is shown in FIGS. 2A–2B. FIG. 2B is a cross-sectional view of FIG. 2A taken as indicated in FIG. 2A. As shown in this example, a carbon nanotube (and more specifically a single-walled carbon nanotube in this example) 201 has polymer 202 associated with it in a non-wrapping fashion therewith.

Polymer 202 comprises a relatively rigid backbone 203 that associates with carbon nanotube 201 substantially along the length, as opposed to about the diameter, of such carbon nanotube 201. Thus, polymer 202 associates with carbon nanotube 201 in a non-wrapping fashion, which is advantageous for various reasons, some of which are described more fully herein. In this example, backbone 203 associates with nanotube 201 (e.g., via π-stacking interaction therewith) wherein such backbone 203 extends substantially along the length of nanotube 201 without any portion of backbone 203 extending over more than half of the diameter of nanotube 201 in relation to any other portion of backbone 203. For instance, backbone 203 is sufficiently rigid such that no portion thereof bends to the extent that such portion passes the half-diameter (or “equator line”) 205 of nanotube 201 relative to location 206 of nanotube 201 at which at least a portion of backbone 203 is associated with nanotube 201. The specific rigidity of various backbones 203 that may be implemented in accordance with embodiments of the present invention may vary (e.g., certain implementations may enable a portion of backbone 203 to bend beyond half-diameter 205 while another portion of such backbone is arranged at location 206 of nanotube 201), but such backbones 203 are preferably sufficiently rigid such that they do not wrap (i.e., fully envelop the diameter of) nanotube 201. Of course, as shown in the example of FIGS. 2A–2B, portions of polymer 202 (e.g., functional extensions 204A and 204B) may extend about all or a portion of the diameter of nanotube 201, but backbone 203 of polymer 202 is preferably sufficiently rigid such that it does not wrap about the diameter of nanotube 201.

Polymer 202 further comprises various functional extensions from backbone 203, such as functional extensions 204A and 204B, which may comprise any of various desired functional groups for functionalizing carbon nanotube 201. As described further herein, embodiments of the present invention include functional groups in polymer 202 that are suitable for solubilizing carbon nanotube 201.

One advantage of polymer 202 associating with carbon nanotube 201 (e.g., via π-stacking interaction) in a non-wrapping fashion is that it enables functional groups, such as functional extensions 204A and 204B, to be arranged along backbone 203 in a desired manner to accurately control the spacing of such functional groups. In polymers that associate with a carbon nanotube in a wrapping fashion, it becomes much more difficult to control the relative spacing of the functional groups arranged on the polymer because their spacing is dependent on the wrapping of the polymer. By controlling the spacing of such functional groups along backbone 202, more control may be provided over if/how the functional groups interact with each other, carbon nanotube 201, and/or other elements to which the functional groups may be exposed.

Another advantage of such noncovalent functionalization of carbon nanotubes is that it allows for a significant degree of functionalization to be added to carbon nanotube surfaces (sidewalls) while still preserving nearly all of the nanotubes' intrinsic properties. That is, as described above, carbon nanotubes possess a very desirable and unique combination of physical properties relating to, for example, strength, weight, electrical conductivity, etc. Having the ability to solubilize carbon nanotubes while preserving nearly all of the nanotubes' properties thus offers many possibilities in, for example, material science. For instance, in certain applications, carbon nanotubes may be solubilized and thus used in forming a desired composition of matter (or “material”) that has desired properties supplied at least in part by the nanotubes, some examples of which are described further below.

As an example of a technique for solubilizing carbon nanotubes, I have conducted a study in which I used rigid functional conjugated polymers, poly(aryleneethynylene)s (also referred to as “1”, “3”, “4” herein). See Bunz, U.H.F. Chem. Rev. 2000, 100, 1605–1644 and McQuade, D. T. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc. 2000, 122, 12389–12390, the disclosures of which are hereby incorporated herein by reference, and poly(3-decylthiophene) (also referred to as “2” herein). FIGS. 3A–3C show example polymer structures of embodiments of the present invention. More specifically, FIG. 3A shows an example poly(aryleneethynylene) (labeled “1”) polymer structure that may be used to noncovalently bond with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion. The example polymer structure shown in FIG. 3A comprises functional extensions R₁, R₂, R₃, and R₄, which may, in alternative example implementations for solubilizing carbon nanotubes, be implemented as either 1a, 1b, 1c, or 1d shown hereafter:

• • (1a) R₁═R₄═H, R₂═R₃═OC₁₀H₂₁
  • (1b) R₁═R₂═R₃═R₄═F

FIG. 3B shows another example poly(aryleneethynylene) (labeled “3” and referred to herein as “3”) polymer structure that may be used to noncovalently bond with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion. Further, FIG. 3C shows another example poly(aryleneethynylene) (labeled “4” and referred to herein as “4”) polymer structure that may be used to noncovalently bond with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion. While the example polymer structures 1, 3, and 4 shown in FIGS. 3A–3C are poly(phenyleneethynylene) structures, it should be understood that other poly(aryleneethynylene)-type structures may be used in accordance with embodiments of the present invention.

The example polymer structures of FIGS. 3A–3C may be implemented for noncovalently bonding with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion, as with the example shown in FIGS. 2A–2B, for solubilizing such carbon nanotube. Indeed, the example molecular model of FIGS. 2A–2B illustrates an example of implementation 1a, described above, of the polymer of FIG. 3A, and more specifically it shows an example of implementation 1a_n=1.5-SWNT_(6,6) complex (i.e., armchair SWNT), wherein n is the repeat number. It should be understood that the present invention is not intended to be limited solely to the functional groups of 1a, 1b, 1c, and 1d (or the functional groups of polymer structures 3 and 4) shown above for solubilizing carbon nanotubes, but rather any such functional group now known or later developed for solubilizing carbon nanotubes may be used in accordance with embodiments of the present invention. Preferably, the solubilizing functional group(s) included in the polymer do not substantially alter the intrinsic properties of the carbon nanotube.

FIG. 4 shows another example of a polymer structure that may be implemented for noncovalently bonding with a carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion. More specifically, FIG. 4 shows an example structure of a highly regioregular head-to-tail poly(3-decylthiophene) (labeled “2”) that may be implemented in certain embodiments of the present invention.

In contrast to previous work, See Dalton, Star, and O'Connell, M. J. et al., the backbone of 1, 2, 3, and 4 described above is rigid and cannot wrap around the SWNTs, and the major interaction between the polymer backbone and the nanotube surface is parallel π-stacking. Further, the example backbones 5–18 described below are also rigid such that they do not wrap around the nanotube, and the major interaction between such polymer backbones and the nanotube surface is parallel π-stacking. Parallel π-stacking is one type of noncovalent bonding. See Chen, R. J. et al., J. Am. Chem. Soc., 2001, 123, 3838–3839, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. The techniques disclosed herein utilize such polymers to enable the dissolution (or “solubilization”) of various types of carbon nanotubes in organic solvents (such as CHCl₃, chlorobenzene etc), which represents the first example of solubilization of carbon nanotubes via π-stacking without polymer wrapping.

As an example, SWNTs can be readily solubilized in CHCl₃ by mixing with 1 (e.g., 1a, 1b, 1c, or 1d), 2, 3, or 4 after vigorous shaking and/or bath-sonication. The minimum weight ratio (WR_initial) of 1: SWNTs_HipCo, 2: SWNTs_HiPco, 3: SWNTs_HiPco, and 4: SWNTs_HiPco required to solubilize the SWNTs_HiPco (i.e., SWNTs produced by the HiPco technique) is about 0.4; and the maximum concentration of SWNTs_HiPco in CHCl₃ is about 5 mg/ml for 1d, which represents the highest solubility of SWNTs_HiPco in organic solvents by noncovalent functionalization. As examples, 13.6 mg of SWNTs_HiPco can be dissolved in 6.8 ml of CHCl₃ in the presence of 5.4 mg of 1a; and 20.4 mg of SWNTs_HiPco can be dissolved in 4.0 ml of CHCl₃ in the presence of 20.4 mg of 1d. The maximum concentration of SWNTs_laser (i.e., SWNTs produced by the laser technique) and SWNTs_arc (i.e., SWNTs produced by the arc technique) is about 0.5 mg/ml for 1a. The solubility of SWNTs can be further improved by optimizing the polymer side chain's length and composition. For example, the longer side chains and/or the side chains with branched structures can further improve the solubility of the SWNTs.

As another example, SWNTs can be readily solubilized in deionized water by mixing with 4 after bath-sonication. For example, 13.7 mg of SWNTs_HiPco can be dissolved in 6.9 ml of deionized water in the presence of 13.7 mg of 4.

The new polymers (1a-1, n_average=19.5; 1a-2, n_average=13; 1b, n_average=19; 1c, n_average=19; 1d) were synthesized and characterized according to known methods. See Bunz, U.H.F. Chem. Rev. 2000, 100, 1605–1644, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference. Three types of SWNTs were used in this study: 1) purified HiPco-SWNTs (“SWNTs_HiPco”, from Carbon Nanotechnologies, Inc.); 2) purified laser-grown SWNTs (“SWNTs_laser”); and 3) purified electric arc-grown SWNTs (“SWNTs_arc”). As an example preparation procedure for 1a-SWNTs_HiPco complex: 14.7 mg of SWNTs_HiPco was sonicated in 29.4 ml of CHCl₃ for 30 minutes (“min”) to give an unstable suspension of visible insoluble solids. 14.7 mg of 1a was then added and most of the visible insoluble solids became soluble simply by vigorous shaking. The resulting solution was further sonicated for 10–30 min to give a black-colored stable solution with no detectable solid precipitation for over 10 days. Such resulting black-colored and unsaturated carbon nanotube solution was visually nonscattering and no precipitation occurred upon prolonged standing (e.g., over 10 days). The product was collected by PTFE membrane filtration (0.2–0.8 μm pore size), washed with CHCl₃, and dried at room temperature under vacuum to give 20.6 mg of free-standing black solid film (bucky paper).

The procedures followed in my study for 2-SWNTs_HiPco, 1c-SWNTs_HiPco, 1b-SWNTs_HiPCo, 1d-SWNTs_HiPco, 3-SWNTs_HiPco, 1a-SWNTs_laser and 1a-SWNTs_arc are similar to that described above for 1a-SWNTs_HiPco. The as-prepared SWNTs_HiPco and CVD-grown multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs) can also be solubilized in CHCl₃ by a similar procedure. The as-prepared SWNTs_arc, however, form an unstable suspension using a similar procedure, presumably due to the amorphous carbon coating on nanotubes that prevents the efficient π-π interaction between 1 and the nanotube surfaces.

The PTFE membrane filtration and CHCl₃ washing steps were used to remove free 1a. According to the weight gain, the weight ratio (WR_final) of 1a:SWNTs_HiPco in the final product is estimated to be about 0.38–0.40, which is independent of WR_initial. For example, the WR data in three 1a:SWNTs_HiPco reactions are as follows: 1) WR_initial=1.00, WR_final=0.40; 2) WR_initial=0.40, WR_final=0.38; 3) WR_initial=0.40, WR_final=0.39. Although this estimate is still rough, it strongly suggests that 1 could form stable and irreversibly bound complexes with carbon nanotubes in CHCl₃, instead of a simple mixture.

A preferred embodiment of the present invention provides a polymer for solubilizing carbon nanotubes while preserving nearly all of the nanotubes' intrinsic properties. For instance, FIG. 5A shows a graph illustrating the thin film visible and near infrared (IR) spectra of SWNTs_HiPco (without a polymer associated therewith). FIG. 5B shows a graph illustrating the thin film visible and near IR spectra of 1a-SWNTs_HiPco. According to the thin film visible and near-IR spectroscopies, the band structures of 1a-SWNTs_HiPco (of FIG. 5B) are very similar to those of pristine SWNTs_HiPco (of FIG. 5A), indicating that the electronic structures of SWNTs_HiPco are basically intact upon polymer complexation. The charge-transfer in 1a-SWNTs_HiPco is believed to be insignificant based on both absorption and Raman spectra. It should be noted that in the spectrum of 1a-SWNTs_HiPco (of FIG. 5B) there is a very broad signal that is overlapped with those of SWNTs_HiPco (of FIG. 5A) between 3.5 and 2 eV, which presumably arises from the lowest energy absorption of 1a in the nanotube complex.

The bucky paper made of 1-SWNTs_HiPco complex (Tensile strength=28.3 MPa; Young's modulus=4.5 GPa) demonstrates a significant improvement in mechanical properties compared to those of bucky paper made of pure SWNTs_HiPco (Tensile strength=9.74 MPa; Young's modulus=0.26 GPa). Both types of bucky papers were produced by the same room temperature membrane filtration process (without any high temperature annealing) for better comparison. This shows that 1 can increase the adhesion between nanotubes via more efficient π-π interactions. Accordingly, the resulting bucky paper dissolves more slowly in CHCl₃ at a lower concentration (approximately 0.1–0.2 mg/ml of 1a-SWNTs_HiPco in CHCl₃). For applications that require high nanotube concentration (for example, polymer composites), using 1-SWNTs (W=0.4) solution in CHCl₃ prepared in situ without filtration is recommended.

Various other soluble functional polymers with π-conjugated backbone structures may also be used to solubilize carbon nanotubes in organic solvents in accordance with alternative embodiments of the present invention. Some of such polymer backbone structures are shown as below (R represents any organic functional group; Ar represents any π-conjugated structure), as structures 5–18:

In the above backbones 5–18, n is preferably greater than or equal to 2, and R represents any organic functional group, such as R═OC₁₀H₂₁, R═C₁₀H₂₁, or other functional group described herein for solubilizing nanotubes, as examples. It should be recognized that the example backbones 5–15 are poly (aryleneethynylene)s, backbone 16 is a polyphenylene, backbone 17 is a polypyrrole, and backbone 18 is a polythiophene.

The 1-SWNTs_HiPco solution of a preferred embodiment can mix homogeneously with other polymer solutions such as polycarbonate and polystyrene. Homogeneous nanotube-polycarbonate and -polystyrene composites can be prepared by removing the organic solvents.

As an example, 0.6 ml of a chloroform solution (125 mg/ml) of poly(bisphenol A carbonate) was homogeneously mixed with 2.89 ml of a chloroform solution (1.3 mg/ml of SWNTs_HiPco) of 1a-SWNTs_HiPco. A homogeneous SWNTs/poly(bisphenol A carbonate) composite (5 wt % of SWNTs_HiPco) was formed after removing the chloroform solvent. By varying the ratio 1a-SWNTs_HiPco:poly(bisphenol A carbonate), a series of SWNTs/poly(bisphenol A carbonate) composites with different SWNTs fillings can be easily made.

Soluble 1a-SWNTs_HiPco complex significantly improves the mechanical properties of commercial polymers. For example, the tensile strength and break strain of pure poly(bisphenol A carbonate) are 26 MPa and 1.23%, respectively; 3.8 wt % of SWNTs_HiPco filling results in 68% and 1800% increases in tensile strength (43.7 MPa) and break strain (19.1%) of poly(bisphenol A carbonate) (average M_W approximately 64,000), respectively.

FIGS. 6A–6D, 7A–7B, and 8A–8C show transmission electron microscopy (TEM) images, and FIG. 9 shows a field emission scanning electron microscopy (SEM) image, which are described further hereafter. More specifically, FIG. 6A shows a TEM image of 1-SWNTs_laser, FIG. 6B shows a TEM image of 1-SWNTs_arc, and FIGS. 6C and 6D show TEM images of 1-SWNTs_HiPco. For reference, the scale bar shown in FIGS. 6A–6D is 100 nm.

FIGS. 7A and 7B show high resolution TEM images of 1a-SWNTs_laser (120 kV, one drop of the freshly prepared chlorobenzene solution of 1a-SWNTs_laser (approximately 0.05 mg/ml) was placed on a Holey Carbon 400 mesh TEM grid (SPI Supplies, Formvar coating was removed) in contact with a Kimwipes wiper. The solvent was quickly soaked away by the wiper, preventing the aggregation of nanotubes). For reference, the scale bar shown in FIGS. 7A–7B is 5 nm.

FIGS. 8A–8C show high resolution TEM images of 1a-SWNTs_arc (120 kV, one drop of the freshly prepared chlorobenzene solution of 1a-SWNTs_arc (approximately 0.05 mg/ml) was placed on a Holey Carbon 400 mesh TEM grid (SPI Supplies, Formvar coating was removed) in contact with a Kimwipes wiper. The solvent was quickly soaked away by the wiper, preventing the aggregation of nanotubes). For reference, the scale bar shown in FIGS. 8A–8C is 5 mn.

FIG. 9 shows field-emission SEM image (1.00 kV) of a torn edge of Bucky paper (1a-SWNTs_HiPco), illustrating that the majority of sample is SWNT nanoribbon. The TEM images show that the majority of SWNTs in 1a-SWNTs_laser and 1a-SWNTs_arc are small ropes (2–6 nm, see FIGS. 6A, 6B, 7A, 7B, and 8A–8C), whereas the majority of SWNTs in 1a-SWNTs_HiPco are nanoribbon assemblies of small ropes (see FIGS. 6C, 6D, and 9). The observation of a twisted SWNT nanoribbon on TEM grid surface shown in FIG. 6D is indicative of the robustness of such two dimensional (2D) assemblies and further supports a π-stacking interaction with the polymer backbone oriented along the nanotube's length. Such nanoribbon is indicative of robustness because if the 2D assembly is not robust, it will easily collapse into small ropes on the TEM grid surface. It should be possible to prevent such 2D assembly and obtain small ropes and/or individual SWNTs_HiPco by using 1, for example, with bulky and/or ionic functional groups in the end of the side chains.

The bucky paper made of 1-SWNTs_HiPco complex (Tensile strength=28.3 MPa; Young's modulus=4.5 GPa) demonstrates quantitatively a significant improvement in mechanical properties compared to those of bucky paper of pure SWNTs_HiPco (Tensile strength=9.74 MPa; Young's modulus=0.26 GPa). Both types of bucky papers were produced by the same room temperature membrane filtration process (without any high temperature annealing) for better comparison.

In view of the above, it should be recognized that embodiments of the present invention provide a molecular structure that is capable of noncovalently bonding with a nanotube (e.g., carbon nanotube) in a non-wrapping manner, and the molecular structure may comprise one or more functional groups for solubilizing the nanotube to which the molecular structure associates. Preferably, the molecular structure forms a non-covalent bond with the nanotube; however, in certain implementations the molecular structure may be such that it forms a covalent bond with the nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion.

Solubilization of nanotubes allows for their use in enhancing the properties of various compositions of matter, including, as one example, plastics. Insoluble nanotubes cannot be dispersed homogeneously in commercial plastics and adhesives; therefore the polymer composites made by the addition of insoluble nanotubes gave little improvement in mechanical performance of plastics (Ajayan, P. M. et al., Adv. Mater. 2000, 12, 750; Schadler, L. S. et al. Appl. Phys. Lett. 1998, 73, 3842). In contrast, soluble nanotubes can significantly improve the mechanical performance of plastics, for example. For example, the tensile strength and break strain of pure poly(bisphenol A carbonate) are 26 MPa and 1.23%, respectively; 3.8 wt % of SWNTs_HiPco filling results in 68% and 1800% increases in tensile strength (43.7 MPa) and break strain (19.1%) of poly(bisphenol A carbonate) (average M_W approximately 64,000), respectively.

While various examples above are described for solubilizing carbon nanotubes, and more particularly single-walled carbon nanotubes, embodiments of the present invention are not intended to be limited solely in application to carbon nanotubes. Nanotubes may be formed from various materials such as, for example, carbon, boron nitride, and composites thereof. The nanotubes may be single-walled nanotubes or multi-walled nanotubes. Thus, while examples are described herein above for solubilizing carbon nanotubes, certain embodiments of the present invention may be utilized for solubilizing various other types of nanotubes, including without limitation multi-walled carbon nanotubes (MWNTs), boron nitride nanotubes, and composites thereof. Accordingly, as used herein, the term “nanotubes” is not limited solely to carbon nanotubes. Rather, the term “nanotubes” is used broadly herein and, unless otherwise qualified, is intended to encompass any type of nanotube now known or later developed.

Although the present invention and its advantages have been described in detail, it should be understood that various changes, substitutions and alterations can be made herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. Moreover, the scope of the present application is not intended to be limited to the particular embodiments of the process, machine, manufacture, composition of matter, means, methods and steps described in the specification. As one of ordinary skill in the art will readily appreciate from the disclosure of the present invention, processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps, presently existing or later to be developed that perform substantially the same function or achieve substantially the same result as the corresponding embodiments described herein may be utilized according to the present invention. Accordingly, the appended claims are intended to include within their scope such processes, machines, manufacture, compositions of matter, means, methods, or steps.

Claims

1. A method of solubilizing a nanotube, said method comprising: noncovalently bonding a polymer comprising at least one functional group with a nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion.

2. The method of claim 1 further comprising mixing said polymer and said nanotube in a solvent under conditions whereby said polymer noncovalently bonds with said nanotube in said non-wrapping fashion.

3. The method of claim 2 wherein said solvent comprises an organic solvent.

4. The method of claim 2 wherein said solvent comprises an aqueous solvent.

5. The method of claim 1 wherein said polymer comprises a backbone portion that noncovalently bonds with said nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion via π-stacking.

6. The method of claim 1 wherein said nanotube is a carbon nanotube.

7. The method of claim 1 wherein said polymer comprises a poly(aryleneethynylene).

8. The method of claim 1 wherein said polymer comprises a poly(phenyleneethynylene).

9. The method of claim 1 wherein said polymer comprises poly(3-decylthiophene).

10. A product resulting from the process of claim 1.

11. A composition of matter comprising at least one nanotube solubilized by the process of claim 1.

12. A polymer for solubilizing nanotubes, said polymer comprising: a backbone portion for noncovalently bonding with a nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion; andat least one functional portion for solubilizing said nanotube.

13. The polymer of claim 12 wherein said backbone portion comprises a portion selected from the group consisting of:

14. The polymer of claim 12 comprising poly(aryleneethynylene).

15. The polymer of claim 14 comprising at least 4 of said functional portions (R1, R2, R3, and R4), wherein said functional portions comprise functional portions selected from the group consisting of: a) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═OC10H21,b) R1═R2═R3═R4═F,c) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═

16. The polymer of claim 12 comprising poly(phenyleneethynylene).

17. The polymer of claim 12 comprising poly(3-decylthiophene).

18. The polymer of claim 12 wherein said nanotube is a carbon nanotube.

19. The polymer of claim 12 wherein said backbone portion is capable of interacting with said nanotube's surface via π-stacking.

20. The polymer of claim 12 wherein said at least one functional portion comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of: H, OC10H21, F,

21. A process comprising: mixing at least one polymer with at least one nanotube in a solvent; andsaid mixing results in said at least one polymer forming a noncovalent bond with said at least one nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion and said at least one polymer solubilizing said at least one nanotube.

22. A product resulting from the process of claim 21.

23. A composition of matter comprising at least one nanotube solubilized by the process of claim 21.

24. The process of claim 21 wherein said at least one nanotube is a carbon nanotube.

25. The process of claim 21 wherein said at least one polymer comprises a backbone portion for forming said noncovalent bond with said at least one nanotube.

26. The process of claim 21 wherein said backbone interacts with said at least one nanotube's surface via π-stacking.

27. The process of claim 21 wherein said solvent comprises one selected from the group consisting of: chloroform, chlorobenzene, water, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, aniline, benzene, benzonitrile, benzyl alcohol, bromobenzene, bromoform, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, cyclohexane, cyclohexanol, decalin, dibromethane, diethylene glycol, diethylene glycol ethers, diethyl ether, diglyme, dimethoxymethane, N,N-dimethylformamide, ethanol, ethylamine, ethylbenzene, ethylene glycol ethers, ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, formic acid, glycerol, heptane, hexane, iodobenzene, mesitylene, methanol, methoxybenzene, methylamine, methylene bromide, methylene chloride, methylpyridine, morpholine, naphthalene, nitrobenzene, nitromethane, octane, pentane, pentyl alcohol, phenol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, pyridine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, quinoline, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, tetrachloroethylene, tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydropyran, tetralin, tetramethylethylenediamine, thiophene, toluene, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, triethylamine, triethylene glycol dimethyl ether, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, m-xylene, o-xylene, p-xylene, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichlorobenzene, and 1,4-dichlorobenzene.

28. A method of solubilizing carbon nanotubes, said method comprising: interacting at least one polymer comprising at least one functional group with at least one carbon nanotube in a solvent, wherein said polymer interacts with said at least one carbon nanotube's surface in a non-wrapping fashion via π-stacking; andsaid at least one polymer solubilizing said at least one carbon nanotube.

29. The method of claim 28 wherein said at least one polymer noncovalently bonds with said at least one carbon nanotube in a non-wrapping fashion.

30. The method of claim 28 wherein said at least one polymer comprises a poly(aryleneethynylene).

31. The method of claim 28 wherein said at least one polymer comprises a poly(phenyleneethynylene).

32. The method of claim 28 wherein said at least one polymer comprises poly(3-decylthiophene).

33. A product resulting from the process of claim 28.

34. A composition of matter comprising at least one carbon nanotube solubilized by the process of claim 28.

35. A composite, comprising: polycarbonate or polystyrene; andfunctionalized, solubilized nanotubes mixed within the polycarbonate or polystyrene, wherein the functionalized, solubilized nanotubes comprise a backbone polymer structure bonded to the nanotubes in a nonwrapping fashion, the backbone comprising a portion selected from the group consisting of:

36. The composite of claim 35 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(aryleneethynylene).

37. The composite of claim 36 wherein the poly(aryleneethynylene) comprises at least 4 of said functional portions (R1, R2, R3, and R4), wherein said functional portions comprise functional portions selected from the group consisting of: a) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═OC10H21,b) R1═R2═R3═R4═F,c) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═

38. The composite of claim 35 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(phenyleneethynylene).

39. The composite of claim 35 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(3-decylthiophene).

40. The composite of claim 35 wherein said nanotube is a carbon nanotube.

41. The composite of claim 35 wherein the nanotube comprises a single-walled carbon nanotube, a multi-walled carbon nanotube, or a combination thereof.

42. The composite of claim 35 comprising polycarbonate.

43. The composite of claim 35 comprising polystyrene.

44. The composite of claim 35 wherein said at least one functional portion comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of: H, OC10H21, F,

45. An article of manufacture comprising the composite of claim 35.

46. The article of manufacture of claim 45 wherein the article of manufacture comprises a plastic.

47. A process comprising: mixing functionalized, solubilized nanotubes and poly(bisphenol A carbonate) in an organic solvent to form a nanocomposite,wherein the functionalized, solubilized nanotubes comprise a backbone bonded to the nanotubes in a nonwrapping fashion, the backbone comprising a portion selected from the group consisting of:

48. The process of claim 47 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(aryleneethynylene).

49. The process of claim 48 wherein the poly(aryleneethynylene) comprises at least 4 of said functional portions (R1, R2, R3,) and R4, wherein said functional portions comprise functional portions selected from the group consisting of: a) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═OC10H21,b) R1═R2═R3═R4═F,c) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═

50. The process of claim 47 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(phenyleneethynylene).

51. The process of claim 47 wherein the backbone comprises a poly(3-decylthiophene).

52. The process of claim 47 wherein said nanotube is a carbon nanotube.

53. The process of claim 47 wherein the nanotube comprises a single-walled carbon nanotube, a multi-walled carbon nanotube, or a combination thereof.

54. The process of claim 47 wherein said at least one functional portion comprises at least one selected from the group consisting of: H, OC10H21, F,

55. A product produced by the process of claim 47.

56. The process of claim 47 further comprising removing the organic solvent.

57. A method of producing a material comprising: mixing a polymer with nanotubes in a solvent to produce polymer-solubilized nanotubes, wherein the polymer noncovalently associates with the nanotubes in a non-wrapping fashion, and the polymer comprises a backbone portion selected from the group consisting of a poly(aryleneethynylene), a poly(phenyleneethynylene), a poly(3-decylthiophene) and a polypyrrole, and at least one functional group; anddrying the polymer-solubilized nanotubes under conditions to produce the material.

58. The method of claim 57 further comprising collecting the polymer-solubilized nanotubes by membrane filtration.

59. The method of claim 58 further comprising washing the collected polymer-solubilized nanotubes with the solvent.

60. The method of claim 57 wherein the drying is at about or above room temperature.

61. The method of claim 57 wherein the drying is under vacuum.

62. The method of claim 57 further comprising dissolving the material in a solvent.

63. The method of claim 62 wherein the solvent comprises an organic solvent.

64. The method of claim 62 wherein the solvent comprises an aqueous solvent.

65. The method of claim 62 wherein the solvent comprises chloroform.

66. The method of claim 62 wherein the solvent comprises chloroform, chlorobenzene, water, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, aniline, benzene, benzonitrile, benzyl alcohol, bromobenzene, bromoform, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, cyclohexane, cyclohexanol, decalin, dibromethane, diethylene glycol, diethylene glycol ethers, diethyl ether, diglyme, dimethoxymethane, N,N-dimethylformamide, ethanol, ethylamine, ethylbenzene, ethylene glycol ethers, ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, formic acid, glycerol, heptane, hexane, iodobenzene, mesitylene, methanol, methoxybenzene, methylamine, methylene bromide, methylene chloride, methylpyridine, morpholine, naphthalene, nitrobenzene, nitromethane, octane, pentane, pentyl alcohol, phenol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, pyridine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, quinoline, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, tetrachloroethylene, tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydropyran, tetralin, tetramethylethylenediamine, thiophene, toluene, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, triethylamine, triethylene glycol dimethyl ether, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, m-xylene, o-xylene, p-xylene, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichlorobenzene, or 1,4-dichlorobenzene.

67. A product made by the method of claim 62.

68. A product made by the method of claim 65.

69. A product made by the method of claim 66.

70. A product, comprising: polymer-solubilized nanotubes in the form of a dried film,wherein the polymer comprises a backbone portion selected from the group consisting of a poly(aryleneethynylene), a poly(phenyleneethynylene), a poly(3-decylthiophene) and a polypyrrole and at least one functional group, andwherein the polymer is noncovalently bonded with the nanotubes in a non-wrapping fashion.

71. The product of claim 70 wherein the polymer comprises a poly(phenyleneethynylene) and the nanotubes comprise carbon nanotubes.

72. The product of claim 70 wherein the backbone portion comprises a portion selected from the group consisting of:

73. The product of claim 72, wherein R1, R2, R3, and R4 are selected from the group consisting of: a) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═OC10H21,b) R1═R2═R3═R4═F,c) R1═R4═H and R2═R3═

74. A solution comprising a film of polymer-solubilized nanotubes re-dissolved in a solvent, wherein the polymer comprises a backbone portion selected from the group consisting of a poly(aryleneethynylene), a poly(phenyleneethynylene), a poly(3-decylthiophene) and a polypyrrole and at least one functional group, andwherein the polymer is noncovalently bonded with the nanotubes in a non-wrapping fashion.

75. The solution of claim 74 wherein the solvent comprises an organic solvent.

76. The solution of claim 74 wherein the solvent comprises an aqueous solvent.

77. The solution of claim 74 wherein the solvent comprises chloroform.

78. The solution of claim 74 wherein the solvent comprises chloroform, chlorobenzene, water, acetic acid, acetone, acetonitrile, aniline, benzene, benzonitrile, benzyl alcohol, bromobenzene, bromoform, 1-butanol, 2-butanol, carbon disulfide, carbon tetrachloride, cyclohexane, cyclohexanol, decalin, dibromethane, diethylene glycol, diethylene glycol ethers, diethyl ether, diglyme, dimethoxymethane, N,N-dimethylformamide, ethanol, ethylamine, ethylbenzene, ethylene glycol ethers, ethylene glycol, ethylene oxide, formaldehyde, formic acid, glycerol, heptane, hexane, iodobenzene, mesitylene, methanol, methoxybenzene, methylamine, methylene bromide, methylene chloride, methylpyridine, morpholine, naphthalene, nitrobenzene, nitromethane, octane, pentane, pentyl alcohol, phenol, 1-propanol, 2-propanol, pyridine, pyrrole, pyrrolidine, quinoline, 1,1,2,2-tetrachloroethane, tetrachloroethylene, tetrahydrofuran, tetrahydropyran, tetralin, tetramethylethylenediamine, thiophene, toluene, 1,2,4-trichlorobenzene, 1,1,1-trichloroethane, 1,1,2-trichloroethane, trichloroethylene, triethylamine, triethylene glycol dimethyl ether, 1,3,5-trimethylbenzene, m-xylene, o-xylene, p-xylene, 1,2-dichlorobenzene, 1,3-dichlorobenzene, or 1,4-dichlorobenzene.