Patent Grant
7741022
The eukaryotic nucleus provides a unique environment to separate DNA replication, transcription, and RNA processing events from protein synthesis in the cytoplasm. Communication between the nucleus and the cytoplasm occurs through massive nuclear pore complexes (NPCs) that span the nuclear envelope (NE). Protein or RNA transport in either direction is signal-dependent and requires interaction with an extended family of importin β-related receptors to chaperone the traffic (Stewart, M. L., Baker, R. P., Bayless, R., Clayton, L., Or ant, R. P., Littlewood, T & Matsuura, Y. (2001) FEBS Lett. 498, 145-149). Cargo association with these receptors is regulated by the type of guanine nucleotide (GTP or GDP) bound to the small GTPase, Ran (Gorlich, D. & Kutay, U. (1999) Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 15, 607-660; Adam, S. A., Marr, R. S. & Gerace, L. (1990) J. Cell Biol. 111, 807-816). Cytoplasmic Ran is GDP-bound, whereas the GTP form predominates in the nucleus. There is a steep concentration gradient of the respective pools across the NPC. During interphase of the cell cycle, the gradient is maintained by Ran-associated factors separated by the NE (Gorlich, D. & Kutay, U. (1999) Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 15, 607-660). Guanine nucleotide exchange factor RCC1 is exclusively nuclear and promotes RanGDP/GTP exchange. In the cytoplasm, RanGAP and RanBP1 accelerate the intrinsic slow rate of RanGTP hydrolysis, cycling the complex back to the GDP form (Bischoff, F. R., Klebe, C., Kretschmer, J., Wittinghofer, A. & Ponstingl, H. (1994) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 91, 2587-2591). Cytoplasmic RanGDP has a low affinity for importin β, allowing the free form of the receptor to bind cargo and traffic through the NPC (Weis, K., Ryder, U. & Lamond, A. I. (1996) EMBO J. 15, 1818-1825). Inside the nucleus, higher-affinity RanGTP releases the cargo, then escorts the receptor back to the cytoplasm for another cycle (Gorlich, D., Pante, N., Kutay, U., Aebi, U. & Bischoff, F. R. (1996) EMBO J. 15, 5584-55 94). If GTP hydrolysis is inhibited, importin β remains bound to RanGTP and unavailable for active protein import. Without import, export of mRNA and ribosomal subunits are also inhibited because these processes require continuous nuclear reuptake of proteins that comprise export-competent ribonucleoproteins (RNPs) (Gorlich, D. & Kutay, U. (1999) Annu. Rev. Cell Dev. Biol. 15, 607-660). Therefore, if the Ran gradient fails, only proteins small enough to diffuse through the NPC (<40-60 kDa) can exchange.
The metabolic bottleneck posed by nuclear trafficking makes the NPC and associated processes vulnerable to attack by viruses intent on impeding signal transduction to the nucleus. NPC abrogation can prevent up-regulation of antiviral genes and the export of detrimental cellular mRNAs or enhance the redistribution of nuclear proteins required for viral replication (Belov, G. A., Lidsky, P. V., Mitkitas, O. V., Egger, D., Lukyanov, K. A., Bienz, K. & Agol, V. (2004) J. Virol 78, 10166-10177.). The family of RNA Picornavirus includes a variety of pathogenic agents. Among the better known members are poliovirus, rhinovirus, and foot-and-mouth disease virus. Others include the Coxsackie viruses, hepatitis A, swine vesicular disease, and cardioviruses like Mengo virus, encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV), and Theiler's murine encephalomyelitis virus (Palmenberg, A. C. (1987) in Positive Strand RNA Viruses, eds. Brinton, M. A. & Rueckert, R. R. (Liss, New York), pp. 25-34.). These positive-sense RNA genomes direct a life cycle that is predominantly cytoplasmic and, indeed, can be recapitulated in a test tube in the absence of nuclei (Molla, A., Paul, A V. & Wimmer, E (1991) Science 254, 1647-1651.). During infection, however, Picornaviruses are adept at subverting innate cellular immunity traps, crippling the capacity of the cell to mount a defense. Within 2-3 h, infection brings to a halt all cellular mRNA transcription, cap-dependent mRNA translation, antiviral signal transduction, and active protein/RNA exchange between the nucleus and cytoplasm. The shutoff is profound. The viruses replicate with fecundity, and the cell dies before it ever triggers an alarm. Among the molecular processes involved in shutoff, poliovirus and rhinovirus encode a protease, 2Apro, which attacks nucleoporins within the NPC (Belov, G. A., Lidsky, P. V., Mitkitas, O. V., Egger, D., Lukyanov, K. A., Bienz, K. & Agol, V. (2004) J. Virol 78, 10166-10177; Gustin, K. E. & Sarnow, P. (2002) J. Virol. 76, 8787-8796; Gustin, K. E. & Sarnow, P. (2001) EMBO J. 20, 240-249). When visualized by electron microscopy, a “bar-like” structure spanning normal NPC channel is found to be missing (Belov, G. A., Lidsky, P. V., Mitkitas, O. V., Egger, D., Lukyanov, K. A., Bienz, K. & Agol, V. (2004) J. Virol 78, 10166-10177), and its absence correlates with an onset of unregulated efflux of small proteins from the nucleus into the cytoplasm.
Cardioviruses like EMCV also abrogate nucleocytoplasmic trafficking, but their genomes lack a 2A protease and instead encode another protein, the Leader (L), at the amino terminus of the viral polyprotein (
In the work presented below, we hypothesized that an alternative target might be the nuclear transport system composed of Ran-GTPase or the cofactors required for maintaining the RanGTP gradient. We now describe experiments showing that the EMCV L binds directly to Ran and disrupts nucleocytoplasmic trafficking.
In one embodiment, the present invention is a method of inhibiting Ran protein activity in at least one eukaryotic cell or cell-free extract, the method comprising: exposing an amino acid sequence comprising at least a portion of purified EMCV or TMEV leader protein, wherein the amino acid sequence comprises SEQ ID NO: 14 or SEQ ID NO: 15, to at least one cell in an amount effective to inhibit Ran activity in the cell; and evaluating Ran protein activity in the cell or cell-free extract.
Preferably the amino acid sequence is a full-length EMCV leader protein. Most preferably, the sequence is SEQ. ID NOs: 1-8.
In another embodiment, the amino acid sequence is a full-length TMEV leader protein. Preferably, the sequence is SEQ. ID NOs: 9-13.
In another embodiment, the amino acid sequence is selected from modifications of SEQ. ID NOs: 1-13 wherein the acidic domain has been deleted.
In another embodiment, the amino acid sequences consist essentially of SEQ. ID NO: 14 or 15.
In another embodiment, step (b) comprises measuring the change in localization of cellular transport-specific proteins or RNA or step (b) comprises evaluating Ran inhibiting by measuring the ability of a cell-free extract to undergo Ran-dependent tubulin condensation into visible cellular spindle assemblies.
In another embodiment, the invention is a method of inhibiting Ran protein activity in a eukaryotic cell, the method comprising administering to a patient in need thereof a therapeutically effective amount of an amino acid sequence comprising at least a portion of EMCV or TMEV leader protein, wherein the sequence comprises SEQ. ID NO: 14 or SEQ. ID NO: 15, and determining the effect of inhibiting Ran activity in the patient.
Other features, objects and embodiments of the present invention will be apparent to one of skill in the art after review of the claims, specification, and drawings.
The file of this patent contains at least one drawing executed in color. Copies of this patent with color drawing(s) will be provided by the Patent and Trademark Office upon request and payment of the necessary fee.
In General
The present invention provides methods of inhibiting Ran protein activity in eukaryotic cells by administering at least a portion of encephalomyocarditis virus (EMCV) leader protein to a cell, cell-free extract or to a patient in need. Ran protein activity is essential for metabolic processes including, but not limited to, nuclear transport, mitotic spindle assembly and cellular translation. The EMCV leader protein of the present invention provides a specific inhibitor of Ran activity, allowing these metabolic processes to be manipulated for therapeutic, preventative, research and diagnostic purposes.
Ran functions as a gatekeeper for nuclear pores, regulating, among other things, the interactions between nuclear transporter molecules and their cargo of proteins or nucleic acids that need to move into and/or out of a cell's nucleus. In use, Ran binds to guanosine triphosphate (GTP) within a cell's nucleus to provide one active form of the protein. In a cell's cytoplasm, Ran hydrolyzes the GTP to guanosine diphosphate (GDP) to form a different active form of protein. The resulting gradient of Ran-GTP and Ran-GDP across the nuclear envelope drives nuclear transport. By inhibiting Ran-GTP hydrolysis, or inhibiting Ran exchange of GTP for GDP, nuclear transport may be stopped or manipulated for therapeutic effect.
While Ran protein activity is fairly well understood, specific inhibitors of Ran protein activity are not. For instance, some picomaviruses, including EMCV, are known to inhibit nuclear transport (Delhaye et al, J. Virology, April 2004, 4357-4362). However, until now, the exact mechanism of inhibition has not been understood. The present application discloses how the EMCV leader protein binds to the Ran protein, thus inhibiting Ran activity in eukaryotic cells.
Suitable Leader Sequences
The methods of the present invention require an L protein or segment of an L protein capable of inhibiting Ran activity. Viruses of the EMCV species of the Cardiovirus genus have a relatively short leader protein (L protein) comprising sixty-seven amino acids (Palmenberg et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 1984, 12, 2969-2985, see
One version of the present invention provides a method of inhibiting Ran protein activity in a eukaryotic cell or cell-free extract comprising (1) administering to the cells or cell-free extract an effective amount of at least a portion of the EMCV leader protein, thereby inhibiting Ran activity in the cells, and (2) determining the effect of inhibiting Ran activity in the cells. In one preferred version, the EMCV leader protein comprises the complete sequence of sixty-seven amino acids (Palmenberg et al., Nucleic Acids Res., 1984, 12, 2969-2985).
However, the EMCV or TMEV leader protein is therapeutically effective in smaller sizes. For instance, Applicants have shown that some internal deletions or external truncations are still effective Ran inhibitors. External truncations (ranging from one to nine amino acids from either the C terminal or N terminal of SEQ. ID NOs: 1-13) may be removed from the terminal ends of the protein. In an especially preferred embodiment of the invention, one may remove between 1 and 5 amino acids from either end of the EMCV or TMEV amino sequences of
Internal deletions (ranging from 1-25 amino acids) preferably remove the acidic domain (amino acids 37-61 in SEQ. ID NO: 1). In one preferred embodiment, the amino acid sequence consists of an EMCV or TMEV leader protein sequence with a deletion of the entire acidic domain. In one preferred alternate version, the amino acid sequence consists of a 38 amino acid sequence (residues 1-32 and 75-80 in emc-r in
In one embodiment of the present invention, the cell or cell-free extract is exposed to an amino acid sequence consisting essentially of SEQ. ID NOs: 14 or 15. By “consist essentially of,” Applicants mean that one, two, or three additional amino acids can be added to either end of the amino acid sequence and not change the biological function. Most preferably, these amino acids are naturally occurring EMCV or TMCV amino acids. This would include EMCV or TMEV amino acids that have been excised from within the consensus core sequences.
In a further version, the present invention provides a composition comprising a therapeutically effective amount of the EMCV or TMEV leader protein and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or biologically inert fusion protein. In another embodiment of the present invention, the composition comprises a therapeutically effective amount of a fragment of the EMCV or TMEV leader protein wherein the fragment comprises the minimum necessary sequence, SEQ. ID NO: 14 or SEQ. ID NO: 15. By “pharmaceutically acceptable carrier” we mean to include carriers suitable for application to a patient or to eukaryotic cells or cell culture.
The present invention preferably employs a “purified” L protein. By “purified” we mean the L protein content is enriched relative to other EMCV and TMEV proteins. Therefore, by “purified”, preferably we mean recombinant L produced from cDNAs which encode only the L gene in the absence of the rest of the viral genome (e.g. made in bacteria, baculovirus, etc).
Method of the Present Invention
In another embodiment, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting Ran protein activity in one or more specific eukaryotic cells or cell free in-vitro systems. The method comprises exposing at least a portion of the EMCV or TMEV Leader protein to the cell(s) in an amount effective to inhibit Ran activity within the targeted cell(s) or cell-free systems and determining the effect of inhibiting Ran activity in the targeted cell(s) or cell-free system. As described above, in a preferred version, the entire EMCV or TMEV leader protein sequence is used. However, certain smaller fragments of the EMCV or TMEV leader protein are effective (as described above). The Leader protein could be delivered either as a purified protein, or as expressed in cells or cell-free extracts, from a cDNA encoding the viral gene.
Preferably, the method of the present invention is as follows: purified recombinant L protein free of other cardioviral proteins would be delivered directly into permeabilized cultured cells or cell-free systems in an amount effective to inhibit Ran activity. The source of L could be purified protein, virus-infected cell extracts, or cell-free extracts containing L, generated through recombinant DNA technology.
L protein (or protein-containing extracts) would be added directly to permeabilized target cells which contained transport-active nuclei dependent on Ran activity. A minimum incubation time of 5 minutes is recommended at a preferable concentration of L, typically between 50 and 5000 nanomolar.
One would then evaluate the inhibitory effect of L on nucleocytoplasmic transport in cells, preferably by measuring the change in localization (nuclear vs cytoplasmic) of cellular transport-specific proteins and RNA. In cell-free target systems without nuclei, one would add purified L (or cell extracts containing L) as described above, then evaluate Ran inhibition by measuring the ability of the extracts to undergo Ran-dependent tubulin condensation into visible cellular spindle assemblies.
In another embodiment of the invention, targeted eukaryotic cell(s) could be treated with L-encoding sequences, or injected, purified protein, to inhibit Ran activity. A number of delivery methods may be used, including protein microinjection or expression of the protein within the target cell by use of a recombinant DNA generated expression plasmids or gene-delivery vectors. In the preferred method, the L-encoding cDNA is delivered into target cells by transfection, using a plasmid encoding the L protein, or any other cDNA delivery method. Following delivery into the cell, cDNA is transported to the cell's nucleus by natural processes, transcribed into mRNA by cellular enzymes, then expressed into protein within the target cell. The expressed L protein is toxic to the Ran within that cell. A reduction in nucleocytoplasmic trafficking is observed as soon as the expressed L protein comes into contact with Ran, usually at times as early as 5 hours after introduction of the cDNA L toxicity (cell rounding and death) is commonly observed in all treated cells by 24 hours.
In an alternative application, the present invention provides a method of inhibiting Ran in a patient. This method comprises exposing at least a portion of the cardiovirus Leader protein to a patient, preferably a human patient, in an amount effective to inhibit Ran activity within targeted cells and thereby inhibiting nucleocytoplasmic trafficking. Potential cell targets include cancerous and other diseased tissues and other targets that would benefit from inhibited nucleocytoplasmic trafficking. Leader protein could be delivered to these tissues using viral gene therapy vectors or other technologies that would specifically deliver L-encoding genes to the targeted cell populations.
Of course, the description set out above is merely of exemplary preferred versions of the invention, and it is contemplated that numerous additions and modifications can be made. Note that further exemplary preferred versions of the invention are described in the appended pages, which are incorporated by reference an constitute a portion of this application. Specifically, Examples 1 and 2 provide examples and embodiments of the present invention.
Results
L Alone Is Active Infection of cells with EMCV blocks active nucleocytoplasmic transport. Mutant viruses with L deletions do not effect the same response (Lidsky, P. L., Hato, S., Bardina, M. V., Aminev, A. G., Palmenberg, A. C., Sheval, E. V., Polyakov, V. Y., van Kuppeveld, F. J. & Agol, V. (2006) J. Virol. 80, 2705-2717.). Given the potential for synergy with other viral proteins, it has never been clear whether L alone was sufficient for this activity. We reasoned that if L were responsible for virus-induced shutoff, its activity should be maintained as an independent protein. Bicistronic cDNAs encoding EMCV L derivatives and Renilla luciferase (Rluc) or firefly luciferase (Fluc) reporter combinations were created to test this idea. Upon transfection, the cDNAs enter the nucleus and are transcribed from an internal CMV promoter. RNA transcripts are exported back to the cytoplasm, where translation of the 5′ cistron is cap-dependent. Translation of the 3′ cistron is driven by a native EMCV internal ribosome entry site (IRES). Compared to a control cDNA (pFluc/Rluc), Fluc activity from the 5′ cistron was reduced 5- to 8-fold when L was expressed from the 3′ cistron (pFluc/L) (
Because cell-free translation systems are not inhibited by the presence of L (Dvorak, C. M. T., Hall, D. J., Hill, M., Riddle, M., Pranter, A., Dillman, J., Deibel, M & Palmenberg, A. C. (2001) Virology 290, 261-271; Duke, G. M., Hoffman, M. A. & Palmenberg, A. C. (1992). J. Virol. 66, 1602-1609.), it is unlikely the measured inhibition was due to a cytoplasmic activity common to both IRES and cap-dependent translation. Rather, the results suggest that L affected some step in the mutual pathway used by all mRNAs, namely, a process inherent to nuclear mRNA synthesis, maturation, or export.
To test this hypothesis, the distribution of Fluc and β-actin mRNAs was measured in extracts derived from whole cells or fractionated cytoplasm after transfection with pFluc/L or pFluc/L(C19A) cDNAs. Appropriate sample preparation ensured that all signals were reverse transcriptase-dependent. Whether the Fluc mRNA signals were plotted relative to each other (
L Binds Ran-GTPase The EMCV L has no known enzymatic function, and its sequence lacks recognizable catalytic motifs. Reasonably, it must bind or sequester some component(s) essential to trafficking. The residue compositions of the zinc-finger and acidic domains evoke a weak comparison to the binding regions of RanGAP and RanBP1, respectively, that interact with Ran-GTPase (Seewald, M. J, Kraemer, A., Farkasovky, M., Korner, C., Wittinghofer, A. & Vetter, I. R. (2003) Mol. Cell. Biol. 23, 8124-8136.). We speculated that if L bound to Ran or its associated factors, active transport of mRNA or protein through the NPC might be inhibited. To explore this idea, recombinant L fused to GST was prepared. When bound to glutathione beads and incubated with cell lysates, GST-L, but not GST alone, extracted several bands of cellular proteins that could be visualized by staining (
RanBP1 and RCC1 are not present, but Western assays (data not shown) have detected RanGAP and SUMO-RanGAP, a modified derivative. Several additional bands are in reasonable agreement with NTF2, importin β, and Crm1, members of the large family of known Ran contact proteins (Macara, L G. (2001) Microbiol Mol. Biol. Rev. 65, 570-594.). The cohort of cellular proteins bound to any particular Ran is intrinsically dependent on the status of the current nucleotide (GTP, GDP, or “empty”). As Ran cycles within cells or extracts, these populations can fluctuate dramatically. Therefore, the exact contacts that initiate pull-down in such experiments are difficult to assign, because any of the Ran nucleotide formats has the potential to react differently with the beads, or with different forms of L, or through different auxiliary proteins.
To determine whether the L extraction of Ran had been direct or required mediation by other proteins, GST beads and GST-L beads were incubated with recombinant Ran(L43E) or Ran(T24N). These forms are nucleotide-independent structural mimics of RanGTP and RanGDP, respectively, and they do not undergo GDP/GTP exchange or hydrolysis (Lounsbury, K. M., Richards, O. C., Carey, K. L. & Macara, I. G. (1996) J. Biol. Chem. 271, 32834-32841.). When the retained complexes were visualized by staining, all samples showed (approximately) 1:1 molar ratios of GST-L:Ran, regardless of the input concentrations (
L Localizes Near the NE Ideally, in pull-down experiments there is reciprocity in reagents. It would be interesting to know, for example, whether recombinant Ran or its antibodies could extract L from infected cells. Unfortunately, our Ran antibodies are ineffective reagents for pull-down experiments even with uninfected cells, and, as an added complication, native L is very small and highly charged. In the absence of a tag like GST, L is not retained on membranes for Western assays. Furthermore, antibodies against recombinant L are only weakly reactive to the native protein. Still, when used to probe infected cells by confocal microscopy, these antibodies formed a pattern of dots, like a necklace of beads, around the outer regions of NE (FIG. 4). To better resolve this signal, a Flag tag was fused to the amino terminus of L in a recombinant virus context. After infection the Flag signal overlapped with that of L and augmented the necklace effect near the NE. Although preliminary, these localizations are at least indicative of a potential L locale near the cytoplasmic side of the NPC.
L Inhibits Ran-Dependent Mitotic Spindle Assembly During mitosis in normal cells the NPCs and NE are dismantled. A natural Ran gradient persists nonetheless because RanGTP can be generated locally by chromatin-bound RCC1, whereas RanGAP and RanBP1 ensure that the remainder is hydrolyzed to the GDP form throughout the cytoplasm (Kalab, P., Weis, K. & Heald, R. (2002) Science 295, 2452-2456; Caudron, M., Bunt, G., Bastiaens, P. & Karrmnti, E. (2005) Science 309, 1373-1376.). As a consequence, “cargo” remains inexorably bound to importin β everywhere except near the chromatin. Among the favored mitotic cargos of importin β are protein factors that initiate mitotic spindle assembly (Wiese, C., Wilde, A., Moore, M. S., Adam, S. A., Merdes, A. & Zheng, Y. (2001) Science 291, 653-656; Nachury, M, Maresca, T., Salmon, W., Waterman-Storer, C., Heald, R. & Weis, K. (2001) Cell 104, 95-106; Gruss, O., Carazo-Salas, R., Schatz, C., Guarguaglini, G., Kast, J., Wilm, M., Le Bot, N., Vernos, I., Karsenti, E. & Mattaj, I. (2001) Cell 104, 83-93). Consequently, spindles form preferentially near chromatin, where the RanGTP concentrations are high enough to dissociate these factors from importin β (Wilde, A., Lizarraga, S. B., Zhang, L., Wiese, C., Gliksman, N. R., Walczak, C. E & Zheng, Y. (2001) Nat. Cell Biol. 3, 221-227.). Cell-free extracts that allow RanGTP to sequester importin P are commonly used to examine Ran activities. For example, in Xenopus egg extracts, tubulin polymerization into asters and spindle structures requires an obligate prior conversion of endogenous RanGDP into RanGTP, as catalyzed by RCC1 associated with added sperm chromatin (Dasso, M. (2002) Curr. Biol. 12, 502-508).
Consistent with a role for L in the abrogation of Ran function, we found that recombinant GST-L, but not GST alone, was a potent inhibitor of sperm-induced aster formation (
To rule out nonspecific effects of L on this assay and determine whether the observed aster inhibition was indeed Ran-dependent, GST and GST-L were retested in a modified Xenopus egg system, where Ran(L43E), the RanGTP mimic, was added in place of sperm nuclei. Ran(L43E) can bind perpetually to importin β, circumventing the need for GTP hydrolysis or RCC1-facilitated nucleotide exchange. The asters that now formed in the presence of GST-L were indistinguishable in morphology and quantity from those of the control (
Models for L Activity in Cells In contrast to cell-free assays, cellular forms of Ran are partitioned across the NE according to the activity and segregation of the Ran-associated factors. RCC1 is on chromatin. RanGAP and RanBP1 are predominantly cytoplasmic. Any activity that disrupts GDP/GTP exchange, or Ran cycling across the NE, has the potential to perturb the required cellular gradient and bring active trafficking to a halt. We do not yet know which specific step in the Ran pathway is impeded by L during EMCV infection. The combined data could be explained (i) if L prevented RanGTP hydrolysis or (ii) if L inhibited RanGDP/GTP exchange by RCC1. It is also possible that L works to accelerate RanGTP hydrolysis, because, in theory, a significant boost in GTPase activity could upset the endogenous gradient. But, given the rapidity with which L acts in cells during infection and the already high turnover of GTP during normal hydrolysis (Gorlich, D., Pante, N., Kutay, U., Aebi, U. & Bischoff, F. R. (1996) EMBO J. 15, 5584-55 94), we consider this model to be less probable. More logically, model i predicts that L binding to Ran might simply trap the GTP form on the cytoplasmic side of the NE, making it unavailable for further cycling. Indeed, this is where our antibodies localize L. Our mutants (C19A and Δa) with demonstrably lower binding affinities for Ran are doubtlessly defective because they are less efficient at this sequestration. Model ii predicts that L bound to RanGDP could become trapped in a cargo-bound form on the nuclear side of the membrane. In the absence of precise measurements of GDP/GTP exchange in cells and cell-free extracts, we cannot yet distinguish these scenarios. But either mechanism would presumably trigger the same effect in cells, namely, a potent disruption of the RanGDP/GTP gradient across the NE and a rapid, significant, probably irreversible block to active nucleocytoplasmic transport of protein (in) and cellular mRNA and protein (out). Either model might also explain other reported phenotypes currently attributed to L, including host protein synthesis inhibition and adverse IFN responses. Most likely, the L phenomenon is not IFN-specific but, rather, a general consequence of L-dependent destruction of the Ran gradient during infection.
Format of the Active L Many previous descriptions of L phenotypes have relied on L(Δa) and L(Δz) mutations to remove large portions of the protein (Dvorak, C. M. T., Hall, D. J., Hill, M., Riddle, M., Pranter, A., Dillman, J., Deibel, M. & Palmenberg, A. C. (2001) Virology 290, 261-271; Lidsky, P. L., Hato, S., Bardina, M. V., Aminev, A. G., Palmenberg, A. C., Sheval, E. V., Polyakov, V. Y., van Kuppeveld, F. J. & Agol, V. (2006) J. Virol. 80, 2705-2717). Other mutations have suggested that phosphorylation at Tyr-41 (Dvorak, C. M. T., Hall, D. J., Hill, M., Riddle, M., Pranter, A., Dillman, J., Deibel, M. & Palmenberg, A. C. (2001) Virology 290, 261-271) or Thr-47 (Zoll, J., Melchers, W. J., Galama, J. M. & van Kuppeveld, F. J. (2002) J. Virol. 76, 9664-9672) may influence functionality. Given the efficiency of the spindle assembly assays as a test for Ran activity, we prepared two additional recombinant variants of L and tested them for aster inhibition, carefully quantitating (×3)the number of asters per sperm (50 nuclei), and the relative tubulin content per aster (
Materials and Methods
Bicistronic Plasmids. Bicistronic vector pFluc/—was a generous gift from R. Groppo (University of Wisconsin, Madison, Wis.). The plasmid has an immediate—early cytomegalovirus promoter (PCMVIE) that drives transcription of capped, polyadenylated mRNA after transfection into cells. The 5′ cistron (cap-dependent translation) of the mRNA encodes a full-length Fluc gene flanked on the 3 side by a wild-type EMCV IRES (Aminev, A. G., Amineva, S. P. & Palmenberg, A. C. (2003) Virus Res. 95, 45-57). In plasmid pFluc/Rluc, a full-length Rluc gene was linked to the start codon of the IRES. In plasmids pFluc/L, pFluc/L(Δz), and pFluc/L(Δa), the EMCV L, L(Δz), or L(Δa) sequences (Dvorak, C. M. T., Hall, D. J., Hill, M, Riddle, M, Pranter, A., Dillman, J., Deibel, M. & Palmenberg, A. C. (2001) Virology 290, 261-271) replaced the Rluc gene. For pFluc/L(C19A), two-step PCRs changed the wild-type Cys-19 to Ala (UGC to GGC) in the L gene. The identity of all cDNAs was confirmed by restriction analysis and sequencing. HeLa cell monolayers were transfected with plasmid DNAs by using liposomes (Rose, 7. K., Buonocore, L. & Whitt, M. A. (1991) BioTechniques 10, 520-525). Fluc and Rluc activities were assayed in cell lysates at appropriate times after transfection by using a dual luciferase assay system (Promega, Madison, Wis.) according to the manufacturer's instructions.
Quantitative PCR. Primersequences for the detection of Fluc and human β-act in mRNAs were designed by using Primer Express software (ABI, Foster City, Calif.). Total or cytoplasmic RNAs were isolated from transfected HeLa cells (duplicate plates) by using RNeasy mini kits (Qiagen). DNA contamination was reduced by treatment with RQ1 DNase (Promega) followed by an RNeasy step. The process was repeated a second time. Treated RNA (10 μl) was reacted (in 20 μl) with Moloney murine leukemia virus reverse transcriptase (M-MLV; Invitrogen, Carlsbad, Calif.) in the presence of appropriate primers (2 pg of primers flanking Fluc or β-actin). The cDNAs were diluted (10×) and then used to program duplicate (25 μl each), real-time PCR amplifications by using SYBR Green PCR master mix (ABI) and flanking primers as appropriate for each gene. The Fluc signal was normalized to the β-actin signal (Sequence Detection System software). Controls (2×) for each primer pair, in which water or an RNA sample without an RT-MLV step was replaced for template cDNA, were used in each experiment.
Recombinant L. The EMCV L segment from pEC9 (Hahn, H. & Palmenberg, A C. (1995) J. Virol. 69, 2697-2699) was amplified by PCR and then ligated into pGEX-P2 (GE Bioscience, Piscataway, N.J.) to form plasmid pGST-L. Similar procedures linked the L(Δa) and L(C19A) segments into analogous plasmids. Escherichia coli (BL-21) was transformed with these plasmids, amplified, and induced with isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside. Four hours later the cells were lysed, and the extracts were reacted with glutathione Sepharose HP resin (GE Bioscience). The bound proteins GST, GST-L, GST-L(Δa), and GST-L(C19A) were eluted (50 mM Tris, pH 8/10 mM reduced glutathione) and then analyzed for content and purity by SDS/PAGE.
For binding studies with cell extracts, confluent HeLa cell monolayers (6×106 cells) were washed with PBS and then lysed (0.5 ml of 50 mM Hepes, pH 7.4/150 mM NaCl/2 mM DTT/1 mM PMSF/0.5% vol/vol IPEGAL CA-630). After clarification, the extracts were added to glutathione Sepharose 4B-beads (GE Bioscience) prereacted with GST, GST-L, GST-L(C19A), or GST-L(Δa). Incubation was for 1 h at 22° C., and then the beads were washed twice with buffer (50 mM Hepes/0.5% vol/vol IPEGAL CA-630) containing NaCl (150 mM and 300 mM). Protein bound to the beads was eluted with SDS (boiling), fractionated by SDS/PAGE (12%), and then visualized by Western blot analysis using a primary antibody against Ran (goat polyclonal IgG, C-20; Santa Cruz Biotechnology, Santa Cruz, Calif.). For binding assays with recombinant Ran, the GST- or GST-L-bound Sepharose beads were reacted with Ran, RanGTP(L43E), or RanGDP(T24N) (Wilde, A. & Zheng, Y. (1999) Science 284, 1359-1362) at molar ratios of 1:1,4:1, or 10:1 in phosphate buffer (20 mM, pH 7.6) for 1 h. The beads were washed with buffer containing NaCl (150 mM or 450 mM)before bound proteins were eluted with SDS (boiling), fractionated by SDS/PAGE, and then visualized by staining with Coomassie R-250.
Confocal Microscopy. Recombinant virus vEC9 was modified to encode a Hag tag (DYKDDDK) at the start of the polyprotein (MA-DYKDDDK-MATT). HeLa monolayers were infected at a multiplicity of infection of 20 (Rueckert, R. R. & Pallansch, M. A (1981) Methods Enzymol. 78, 315-325). At 4 h after infection, the cells were washed, fixed, permeabilized, and then reacted with appropriate primary and secondary antibodies or DAPI stain, as described previously (Aminev, A. G., Amineva, S. P. & Palmenberg, A. C. (2003) Virus Res. 95, 45-57). The images were visualized by laser confocal microscope. For L protein detection, the primary antibody was anti-L polyclonal rat sera (5 11-2) precleared by incubation with HeLa cells. The secondary antibody was TRITC-conjugated rabbit, anti-rat IgG (T-4280; Sigma, St. Louis, Mo.). The Hag tag was detected with a murine monoclonal (F3165, Sigma). The secondary antibody was FITC conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (F5387; Sigma).
Egg Extract Preparation and Aster Assembly. CSF-arrested Xenopus egg extracts and demembranated sperm chromatin were pre-pared as described (Murray, A. W (1991) Methods Cell Biol. 36, 581-605). Microtubule structures were assembled by adding 25 μM Ran(L43E) (Wilde, A. & Zheng, Y. (1999) Science 284, 1359-1362) or chromatin (150 sperm per microliter) to an egg extract supplemented with rhodamine-labeled tubulin (0.2 mg/ml) and incubating (at 22-25° C. for 15 mm) as described (O'Brien, L. L., Albee, A J., Liu, L., Tao, W., Dobrzyn, P., Lizarraga, S. B. & Wiese, C. (2005) Mol. Biol. Cell 16, 2836-2847). GST or GST-L was diluted in CSF-XB (10 mM K-Hepes, pH 7.6/100 mM KC1/2 mM MgCl2/0.1 mM CaCl2/50 mM sucrose/5 mM EGTA) and added to the extract at final concentrations of 0.01-100 μg/ml. For quantitation of tubulin fluorescence, the images were captured at the same camera setting for all samples. Tm ages were quantified by using MetaMorph software. Briefly, fluorescence intensity of each aster was measured, and then a background Value was subtracted by using an equal-sized area on the same image. At least 16 asters were measured per sample. For Ran(L43E)-induced structures, the number of asters in 50 randomly chosen microscope fields was recorded.
Abbreviations: EMCV, encephalomyocarditis virus; GFP, green fluorescent protein; GST, glutathione S-transferase; L, Leader protein; NES, nuclear export signal; NSL, nuclear localization signal; NPC, nuclear pore complex; TMEV, Theiler's murine encephalomyocarditis virus; VSV, vesicular stomatitis virus.
Introduction
Nuclear pore complexes (NPC's) are massive 125 megadalton proteinaceous structures that enable the traffic of RNA and proteins between the sites of nucleic acid synthesis in the nucleus and protein expression in the cytoplasm by forming an aqueous channel linking these two cellular compartments (Reichelt, R., A. Holzenburg, E. L. Buhle, M. Jarnik, A. Engel, and U. Aebi. 1990. Correlation between structure and mass distribution of the nuclear pore complex and of distinct pore complex components. J Cell Biol. 110:883-94.). These structures are assembled from ˜30 integral proteins called nucleoporins or Nups in multiple ring-like layers with 8-fold symmetry (Rout, M. P., J. D. Aitchison, A. Suprapto, K. Hjertaas, Y. Zhao, and B. T. Chait. 2000. The yeast nuclear pore complex: composition, architecture, and transport mechanism J Cell Biol. 148:635-52.). The directionality and specificity of movement into or out of the nucleus is dependent on discrete nuclear localization (NLS) or nuclear export signals (NES) on cargo proteins (or adaptor proteins such as in RNA export) (Fornerod, M., M. Ohno, M. Yoshida, and I. W. Mattaj. 1997. Crm1 is an export receptor for lucine rich nuclear export signals. Cell 90:1051-60; Kalderon, D., W. D. Richardson, A. F. Markham, and A. E. Smith. 1984. Sequence requirements for nuclear localization of Simian Virus 40 large T antigen. Nature 311:33-8). These signal sequences allow for regulated docking and release from soluble nuclear transport receptors that shuttle across the NPC through a series of transient interactions with nucleoporin FG domains (Rexach, M., and G. Blobel. 1995. Protein import into nuclei: association and dissociation reactions involving transport substrate, transport factors and nucleoporins. Cell 83:683-92, Shah, S., S. Tugendreich, and D. Forbes. 1998. Major binding sites for the nuclear import receptor are the internal nucleoporin Nupl 53 and the adjacent nuclear filament protein Tpr. J. Cell Biology 141:31-49). This energy-dependent process is driven by the small GTPase Ran which exists in two guanine nucleotide bound forms, GDP or GTP which predominate on the cytoplasmic and nuclear side of the pore, respectively (Adam, S. A., R. S. Marr, and L. Gerace. 1990. Nuclear protein import in permeabilized mammalian cells requires soluble cytoplasmic factors. J. Cell Biology 111:807-16; Gorlich, D., and U. Kutay. 1999. Transport between the cell nucleus and the cytoplasm. Annu Rev Cell Dev. Biol. 15:607-60). Transport receptors have a low affinity for RanGDP and bind tightly to the GTP form which mediates the movement of cargos from one side of the NPC to the other (Gorlich, D., N. Pante, U. Kutay, U. Aebi, and F. R. Bishoff 1996. Identification of different roles for RanGDP and RanGTP in nuclear protein import. EMBO J. 15:5584-94). Import receptors such as importin β bind cargo in cytoplasm and release their load in the nucleus by interacting with RanGTP (Izaurralde, E., U. Kutay, C. von Kobbe, I. W. Mattaj, and D. Gorlich 1997. The asymmetric distribution of the constituents of the Ran system are essential for transport into and out of the nucleus. EMBO J. 16:6535-47). The importin 13-RanGTP complex then shuttles back to the cytoplasm, recycling the receptor for another round of import. Conversely, export receptors like CRM1 form heterotrimeric complexes with their cargo and RanGTP in the nucleus which upon entering the cytoplasm are disassembled by the conversion of Ran to a GDP form (Fornerod, M., M. Ohno, M. Yoshida, and I. W. Mattaj. 1997. Crm1 is an export receptor for lucine rich nuclear export signals. Cell 90:1051-60). Ran completes the trip by binding to NTF2 in the cytoplasm which traffics it back into the nucleus (Ribbeck, K., G. Lipowsky, H. M. Kent, M. Stewart, and D. Gorlich. 1998. NTF2 mediates nuclear import of Ran. EMBO J. 17:6587-98). The Ran gradient across the nuclear envelope is maintained by associated cofactors that are specific to the nuclear and cytoplasmic compartments (Izaurralde, E., U. Kutay, C. von Kobbe, L W. Mattaj, and D. Gorlich. 1997. The asymmetric distribution of the constituents of the Ran system are essential for transport into and out of the nucleus. EMBO J. 16:6535-47). RanGAP and RanBP1/2 are localized at the cytoplasmic face of the nuclear pore where they bind Ran and convert it to a GDP form by increasing its intrinsically low hydrolysis rate up to 10,000 fold (Bischoff, F. R., C. Klebe, J. Kretschmer, A. Wittinghofer, and H. Ponstingl. 1994. RanGAP1 induces GTPase activity of nuclear rasrelated Ran. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 91:2587-91; Bischoff, F. R., H. Krebber, E. Smirnova, W. H. Dong, and H. Ponstingl. 1995. Coactivation of RanGTPase and inhibition of GTP dissociation by Ran GTP binding protein RanBP1. EMBO J. 14:705-15). In the nucleus RanGTP predominates due to the activity of the nucleotide exchange factor, RCC1 and the high concentration of GTP(Bischoff, F. R., and H. Ponstingl. 1991. Catalysis of guanine nucleotide exchange on Ran by the mitotic regulator RCC1. Nature 354:80-82. 6. Clarke, P. R., C. Klebe, A. Wittinghofer, and E. Karsenti. 1995. Regulation of Cdc2/cyclin B activation by Ran, a Ras-related GTPase. J. Cell Sci. 108:1217-25). In the absence of a Ran gradient nearly all active transport comes to a halt (Izaurralde, E., U. Kutay, C. von Kobbe, I. W Mattaj, and D. Gorlich. 1997. The asymmetric distribution of the constituents of the Ran system are essential for transport into and out of the nucleus. EMBO J. 16:6535-47). With the exception of a few Ran-independent pathways, such as those that mediate tRNA export and trafficking independently shuttling proteins, the only movement between the nucleus and the cytoplasm is the diffusion of molecules smaller than 40 KDa (Nakielny, S., and G. Dreyfuss. 1999. Transport of proteins and RNA in and out of the nucleus. Cell 99:677-90).
Many viruses are known to commandeer or abrogate nuclear transport processes for their own benefit (Gustin, K E. 2003. Inhibition of nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking by RNA viruses: targeting the nuclear pore complex. Virus Res. 95:35-44). For cytoplasmically replicating RNA viruses, inhibition of active nucleocytoplasmic trafficking can block the transduction of antiviral signals to the nucleus and the export of RNA's that could be detrimental to viral replication or localize beneficial nuclear targeted proteins to the cytoplasm (Belov, G. A., P. V. Lidsky, 0. V. Mitkitas, D. Egger, K. A. Lukyanov, K. Bienz, and V. Agol. 2004. Bidirectional increase in permeability of nuclear envelope upon poliovirus infection and accompanying alterations of nuclear pores. J. Virology 78:10166-77; Gustin, K E. 2003. Inhibition of nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking by RNA viruses: targeting the nuclear pore complex. Virus Res. 95:35-44). The RNA virus, vesicular stomatitis virus (VSV) encodes a matrix (M) protein that interferes with both export of spliced mRNAs, snRNAs, and snRNPs as well as import of proteins with common NLS signals by binding to a component of the nuclear pore complex (Her, L. S., E. Lund, and J. E. Dahlberg. 1997. Inhibition of ran guanosine triphosphatase-dependent nuclear transport by the matrix protein of vesicular stomatitis virus. Science 276:1 845-8; Petersen, J. M., L. S. Her, and J. E. Dahlberg. 2001. Multiple vesiculoviral matrix proteins inhibit both nuclear export and import. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 98:8590-95; Petersen, J. M., L. S. Her, V. Varvel, E. Lund, and J. E. Dahlberg. 2000. The matrix protein of vesicular stomatitis virus inhibits nucleocytoplasmic transport when it is in the nucleus and associated with nuclear pore complexes. Mol. Cell Biology 20:8590-601). This interaction does not inhibit all trafficking pathways. The export of tRNAs was unaffected by M suggesting that it blocks a site critical for binding of specific import and export receptors. This activity is conserved among vesiculoviruses with similar inhibitory activity observed for the M protein of Chandalpura virus and spring viremia carp virus (Petersen, J. M., L. S. Her, and J. E. Dahlberg. 2001. Multiple vesiculoviral matrix proteins inhibit both nuclear export and import. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 98:8590-95). A number of RNA picomaviruses also target the NPC in order to disrupt the normal movement of proteins and RNA between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. Nucleoporins p62 and Nup153 are degraded during poliovirus and rhinovirus infection which results in the inhibition of import pathways (Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2001. Effects of poliovirus infection on nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and nuclear pore complex composition. EMBO J. 20:240-9, Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2002. Inhibition of nuclear import and alteration of nuclear pore complex composition by rhinovirus. J. Virology 76:8787-96). However these changes do not appear to inhibit the function of CRM1/exportin 1, a primary export receptor for mRNA (Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2001. Effects of poliovirus infection on nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and nuclear pore complex composition. EMBO J. 20:240-9). These cleavage events additionally appear to alter the exclusion limit of the NPC, inducing the efflux of a number of nuclear proteins into the cytoplasm (Belov, G. A., P. V. Lidsky, 0. V. Mitkitas, D. Egger, K. A. Lukyanov, K. Bienz, and V. Agol. 2004. Bidirectional increase in permeability of nuclear envelope upon poliovirus infection and accompanying alterations of nuclear pores. J. Virology 78:10166-77; Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2001. Effects of poliovirus infection on nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and nuclear pore complex composition. EMBO J. 20:240-9; Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2002. Inhibition of nuclear import and alteration of nuclear pore complex composition by rhinovirus. J. Virology 76:8787-96). The 2A protease encoded by these viruses is either directly or indirectly responsible for partially dismantling the NPC. Expression of poliovirus 2Apro alone in cells induces efflux of proteins from the nucleus comparable to viral infection (Belov, G. A., P. V. Lidsky, 0. V. Mitkitas, D. Egger, K. A. Lukyanov, K. Bienz, and V. Agol. 2004. Bidirectional increase in permeability of nuclear envelope upon poliovirus infection and accompanying alterations of nuclear pores. J. Virology 78:10166-77).
Changes in the distribution of nuclear targeted proteins are also observed during cardiovirus infection (Delhaye, S., V. van Pesch, and T Michiels. 2004. The leader protein of Theiler's virus interferes with nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of cellular proteins. J. Virology 78:4357-62, Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). These more distantly related picomaviruses typified by encephalomyocarditics virus (EMCV) and Theiler's murine encephalomylelitis virus (TMEV) do not encode a homolog to 2A pro, instead they have a unique Leader (L) protein that has been identified as the etiologic agent of nuclear transport disruption (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). L is an 8 kilodalton acidic protein (p1=3.8) that presents a pair of molecular binding motifs, a novel CHCC zinc-finger domain and an acidic domain. Since L lacks proteolytic activity it likely mediates these effects through direct interactions with cellular binding partners. Unlike for poliovirus and rhinovirus, p62 and Nup 53 are not degraded during cardiovirus infection also suggesting that L alters trafficking through a different mechanism (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). We have previously shown that L binds directly to RanGTPase, the energy source for active import and export pathways (Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12417-22). When added to in-vitro mitotic spindle assembly reactions, an assay for Ran cycling activity, L inhibited this process in a Ran-dependent manner. When expressed alone in cells, L also inhibited mRNA export suggesting that unlike 2Apro L also inhibited nuclear export pathways. However a direct link between the disruption of Ran cycling and nuclear import by L has not been established.
Here we employ a reconstituted nuclear import to assay to investigate the manner by which EMCV L protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic trafficking. We demonstrate that recombinant L alone rapidly inhibited accumulation of cargo in HeLa nuclei in a Ran-dependent manner. This is evidenced by arrest of cargo at the nuclear periphery of NPCs in L treated samples and the restoration of import activity specifically by the addition of purified recombinant wild-type Ran. Additionally, the pre-exposure of nuclei to L did not inhibit import demonstrating that the NPC's are not permanently altered. Finally, we show that both the zinc-finger and acidic domain of recombinant L are important for its activity. Together these results support our hypothesis that L targets the soluble factor Ran to inhibit nucleocytoplasmic trafficking in EMCV infected cells and demonstrate the divergence in inhibitory mechanisms employed by different RNA picomaviruses to target this critical cellular process.
Materials and Methods
Recombinant Protein Expression and Purification: GST-GFP-NLS, a green-fluorescent nuclear import cargo encoding a wild-type SV40 large-T antigen nuclear localization signal was expressed in DH5α cells transformed with plasmid, pYZ4O5 (a kind gift of Christiane Wiese) following isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside induction and purified from the resulting clarified cell extract using glutathione Sepharose HP resin (GE Biosciences, Piscataway, N.J.). The isolated protein was then dialyzed into 20 mM HEPES pH 7.3, 110 mM potassium acetate and analyzed for protein concentration and purity using Bio-Rad protein assay and SDS-PAGE, respectively.
His-tagged wild-type human Ran GTPase was expressed in BL21 cells from transformed with plasmid, pCW413 (a kind gift of Christiane Wiese) following isopropyl β-D-thiogalactoside induction and purified from the resulting clarified cell extract using HisTrap HP resin (GE Biosciences). The isolated protein was then dialyzed into 20 mM HEPES pH 7.3, 110 mM potassium chloride and analyzed for protein concentration and purity using Bio-Rad protein assay and SDS-PAGE, respectively.
GST, GST-L, and GST-L mutant fusion proteins were expressed and purified as described previously (Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12417-22) and dialyzed into 20 mM HEPES pH 7.3, 110 mM potassium acetate.
Xenopus Egg Cytosol: Crude interphase Xenopus egg extracts were prepared as described earlier (Newmeyer, D. D., and K. L. Wilson. 1991. Egg extracts for nuclear import and nuclear assembly reactions. Methods Cell Biol. 36:607-34). Briefly, dejellied unactivated Xenopus eggs were crushed in 250 mM sucrose, 50 mM potassium chloride, 2.5 mM magnesium chloride, 1 mM dithiothreitol, 50 ug/mI cycloheximide, and 5 ug/mI cytochalasin B and frozen in liquid nitrogen. Thawed crude extracts were then thawed, centrifuged (16,100×g, 15 minutes, 4° C.), and the soluble fraction was snap frozen in single-use aliquots.
In-Vitro Nuclear Import Assay: Import reactions were performed here in a manner similar to previous reports (Adam, S. A., R. S. Marr, and L. Gerace. 1990. Nuclear protein import in permeabilized mammalian cells requires soluble cytoplasmic factors. J. Cell Biology 111:807-16). HeLa cells were grown as 60% confluent monolayers on 12 mm coverslips in 24 well dishes. Cells were washed once with ice-cold transport buffer (TB), (20 mM HEPES pH 7.3, 110 mM potassium acetate, 2 mM magnesium acetate, 1 mM EGTA, 2 mM dithiothreitol), permeabilized with 20 ig/ml digitonin, and washed again with TB.
Import mixtures (40 μl) containing TB, Xenopus egg cytosol, 1 mM ATP, 0.5 mM GTP, and 75 μg/ml GST-GFP-NLS were assembled on ice with or without added effector proteins (WGA (Sigma, L9640, Saint Louis, Mo.), GST, GST-L or GST-L mutants). Reactions were initiated by inverting coverslips on droplets of import mixture formed on Parafilm. Samples were then incubated in the dark for 35 minutes at 20° C. and stopped by diluting the import mixture 10-fold with ice-cold TB. Coverslips were washed twice with TB, fixed with 4% formaldehyde, and mounted on microscope slides using Vectashield mounting media (Vector Labs., Burlingame, Calif.).
Incubations with effector proteins before or after import were performed as described for the import reactions above without the addition of GST-GFP-NLS. Coverslips were then briefly washed with TB between the treatment and import reactions. Immunofluorescence NPC Localization Studies:
Following the formaldehyde fixing step described above, cells were washed once with TB and blocked with 10% newborn calf serum/1% BSA in TB for 1 hour. Nuclear pore complexes were visualized using MAb41 4 (MMS-1 20R, Covance, Berkeley, Calif.) and TRITC-conjugated goat anti-mouse IgG (T-5393, Sigma) as primary and secondary antibodies, respectively. DNA was visualized by adding 0.5 ig/ml DAPI stain during secondary antibody incubation.
Visualization and Quantitation of Import Results: Mounted samples were visualized with a Nikon Eclipse TE-2000U laser confocal microscope using a 60×/1.4 PlanApo objective. GFP, TRITC, and DAP1 signals were captured in series using 488, 543, and 405 nm wavelength lasers, respectively. Fluorescence images were collected for all comparable samples using the identical microscope, laser and detector settings.
The amount of GST-GFP-NLS cargo in nuclei was quantitated by converting GFP-fluorescence images to greyscale in Adobe Photoshop C52 and analyzing the images using ImageQuant 5.2. In each image, the pixel density was determined for circles of identical dimensions within 10 representative nuclei. These values were averaged and the standard deviation was determined.
Line scans of GFP (cargo) and Mab41 4 signals were performed on grayscale images using ImageQuant 5.2. A 21 pixel wide line was used to quantitate signal intensity from each channel. Signals were de-noised by averaging the intensity of a 3 pixel window across the image.
GFP Immunoblotting: Samples of purified GST-GFP-NLS or import mixture were run on a 12% SDS PAGE gel and transferred to an Immobilon P membrane (Millipore, Mass.). The membrane was blocked with 10% nonfat dry milk in PBS-T and probed with anti-GFP rabbit polyclonal IgG (SC-8334, Santa Cruz-Biotech, Santa Cruz, Calif.). The protein was then detected with a horseradish peroxidase-conjugated goat anti-rabbit IgG secondary antibody (A0545, Sigma) and ECL detection reagent (GE Biosciences).
Results:
L blocks nuclear localization of fluorescent import cargo. Nucleocytoplasmic transport is blocked by EMCV infection and the expression of EMCV L alone in cells (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17; Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:1241 7-22). We have proposed that L induces this effect by disrupting the Ran gradient required for this essential cellular function. However, evidence to support this hypothesis is still lacking. To directly test the effect of L on nuclear import, we assembled an in-vitro assay using Xenopus egg cytosol as a source of essential soluble factors (eg, importins, Ran, NTF2) and digitonin treated HeLa cells as a source of nuclei. Import activity was assessed by the nuclear accumulation of a synthetic fluorescent cargo (GST-GFP-NLS) added to the reactions. This 55 kilodalton fusion protein with a SV40 T-antigen nuclear localization signal dimerizes under physiological conditions and cannot readily diffuse out of nuclei with intact NPCs following import (Mannervick, B., and U. H. Danielson. 1988. Glutathione transferases structure and catalytic activity. CRC Crit. Rev. Biochem. 23:283-337).
We reasoned that if L inhibited nucleocytoplasmic trafficking in a Ran-dependent manner; it should have a significant effect when present during nuclear import. When we compared import activity of reactions containing Xenopus cytosol and purified recombinant GST-L to controls without added protein or with purified GST alone, we observed a dramatic difference in cargo distribution. Nuclei from the control reactions (cytosol, cytosol+GST) contained cargo throughout the interior while those treated with GST-L showed a faint fluorescence signal within nuclei and a ring-like pattern near the nuclear periphery (
Using image analysis software we quantified the effects of each treatment. The intensity of nuclear GFP fluorescence was determined and averaged for 10 representative nuclei from each sample. The GST, GST-L, mock and WGA treatments resulted in nuclear fluorescence intensities of 133, 17, 10, and 3 percent of the control, respectively (
Cargo is retained at the nuclear side of the NPC. The GFP fluorescence at the nuclear rim in nuclei treated with L suggested that import was interrupted while the cargo was traversing the NPC. If L affected the formation of a Ran gradient as suggested by our earlier experiments, one would not expect that accumulation would occur on the cytoplasmic side of the NPC since the trafficking of cargo through the pore is independent of Ran activity (Nakielny, S., and G. Dreyfuss. 1998. Import and export of nuclear protein import receptor transportin by a mechanism independent of GTP hydrolysis. Curr. Biology 8:89-95). Rather, the cargo should be arrested at the nuclear face, specifically at the terminal ring of the nuclear basket, where RanGTP mediates release of bound importinα/β-cargo complexes from the NPC and induces the export of the importins back into the cytoplasm (Shah, S., S. Tugendreich, and D. Forbes. 1998. Major binding sites for the nuclear import receptor are the internal nucleoporin Nupl 53 and the adjacent nuclear filament protein Tpr. J. Cell Biology 141:31-49). To determine if the cargo were docked on the inside or outside of the NPC we labeled the nuclei with DAP1 and antibody MAb 414, as an indicator for nuclear pore complexes, following import. Comparison of Mab41 4 (NPC) and DAPI (DNA) staining patterns showed that these experiments could distinguish between the inside and outside of the nuclear envelope as shown by the separation of red (NPC) and blue (DNA) signals in these images with overlapping areas observed as purple in color (
To ascertain whether the relative distance between the NPC and cargo at the rim in L treated samples was consistent with localization at the nuclear basket of the NPC, we plotted the red (NPC) and green (cargo) signal intensity for lines dissecting the treated nuclei. In control and mock treated samples, no distinct peaks were observed overlapping the NPC label (
Addition of Ran rescues import in the presence of L. If L inhibited import solely by interacting with Ran and disrupting its gradient across the nuclear membrane, we predicted that addition of an excess of the protein should rescue import in the presence of L. This would leave some pool of Ran free of L and able to generate a RanGTP gradient needed for import. When purified recombinant wild-type Ran was added to import reactions in excess of the concentration of L, the amount of cargo in the nucleus increased to 80% of the control, rescuing import activity (
Only L Zn-finger mutants do not inhibit import. L encodes zinc-finger and acidic domains that are important to its activity. Deletions of either domain or point mutations that replace zinc-coordinating residues lead to attenuated virus growth in cells with a competent interferon response (Dvorak, C. M. T., D. J. Hall, M. Hill, M. Riddle, A. Pranter, J. Dillman, M. Deibel, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2001. Leader protein of encephalomyocarditis virus binds zinc, is phosphorylated during viral infection and affects the efficiency of genome translation. Virology 290:261-71). Elimination of a putative phosphorylation site (Thr within the acidic domain also affects virus growth and efflux of nuclear proteins. These L mutants were also inactive when expressed alone in vivo. Only wild type inhibited export and expression of reporter mRNA (Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12417-22). In contrast, an intact zinc-finger domain was sufficient to block Ran activity in in-vitro spindle assembly reactions. The reasons for this discrepancy are unclear. The possibilities include: 1) variations between the environment mammalian and Xenopus cells, 2) differences between L expressed in E. coli and mammalian systems, and 3) discrete requirements for inhibiting nucleocytoplasmic transport. To examine these possible scenarios, we tested recombinant L mutant fusion proteins with defective zinc-finger (GST-L C19A) and acidic domains (GST-LΔa, GST-L Y41F, GST-L T47A) in our in vitro nuclear import assay. The zinc-finger mutant, L-C19A lost all inhibitory activity and the acidic domain mutants had activity similar to wild-type L (
Pre-exposure to L does not inhibit import. Previous studies have shown that infection with the Mengo strain of EMCV leads to changes in NPC morphology (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). This can be interpreted to suggest that like poliovirus 2Apro, L may permanently alter the trafficking capacity of NPCs in addition to inhibiting Ran function. To test for this possible effect, we pre-treated nuclei with L in Xenopus cytosol before assaying import activity. We postulated that if L bound, modified or degraded NPC components similar to VSV M protein or poliovirus 2Apro, pre-treatment should have a dramatic effect on import. Indeed, when digitonin treated cells were pre-treated with WGA, import was significantly inhibited (
Discussion
In the experiments described here, we examined the effects of recombinant EMCV L in in-vitro reconstituted nuclear import assays. We showed that L rapidly and completely inhibited the nuclear accumulation of classical NLS-encoding cargo and that import activity could be restored by the addition of excess Ran. The rescue of import activity strongly supports the idea that L targets Ran. Ran-cycle defects that inhibit nuclear import have been successfully rescued in similar experiments both in-vivo and in-vitro (Clarkson, W. D., A. H. Corbett, B. M. Paschal, H. M. Kent, A. J. McCoy, L. Gerace, P. A. Silver, and M. Stewart. 1997. Nuclear protein import is decreased by engineered mutants of nuclear transport factor 2 (NTF2) that do not bind GDP Ran. J. Mol. Biology 272; 27). The L-induced cargo arrest at the interior of the NPC gives further support that it is Ran function, not the NPC or transport receptors themselves that is impinged by L since Ran GTP is critical for disassembly of import complexes and the release of cargo into the nucleus (Shah, S., S. Tugendreich, and D. Forbes. 1998. Major binding sites for the nuclear import receptor are the internal nucleoporin Nupl 53 and the adjacent nuclear filament protein Tpr. J. Cell Biology 141:31-49). While experiments are underway to determine whether this inner rim-localized cargo is indeed complexed with importins α/β at the nuclear basket, it is consistent with the localization of Nup 153, the high-affinity binding site for importin-cargo complexes on the interior of the NPC. Interestingly, this is one of the proteins cleaved by polioviruses and rhinoviruses that employ a 2Apro-dependent mechanism (Gustin, K. E., and P. Sarnow. 2001. Effects of poliovirus infection on nucleo-cytoplasmic trafficking and nuclear pore complex composition. EMBO J. 20:240-9). Thus, enteroviruses and cardioviruses may target the same step of import, the former blocking binding of importin-cargo complexes to their final binding site and the latter its release into the nucleus. In agreement with this hypothesis, a previous study showed that neither p62 or Nup153 are cleaved by cardioviruses (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). However, this did not rule out effects elsewhere within the NPC. Importantly, here we also show that pre-exposing nuclei to L did not inhibit import once the soluble fraction was removed, indicating that L did not also permanently alter NPC structure. This may seem contradictory to published electron microscopy experiments that showed changes in NPCs upon infection with Mengovirus, a strain of EMCV (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). However, loss of the central plug noted in this study is also consistent with absence of active transport. Several studies suggest that mRNA and proteins in-transit make up a significant portion of the central plug (Schafer, C., V. Shahin, L. Albermann, M. J. Hug, J. Reinhardt, H. Schillers, S. W. Schneider, and H. Oberleithner. 2002. Aldosterone signalling across the nuclear envelope. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 99:7154-59; Stoffler, D., B. Feja, B. Fahrenkrog, J. Walz, D. Typke, and U. Aebi. 2003. Cryo-electron tomography provides novel insights into nuclear pore architecture—implications for nucleocytoplasmic transport. J. Mol. Biology 328:119-30). Thus, the loss of central plug density may simply be the result of transport shutoff.
Though it is currently unclear what step of Ran cycle is impeded by L, our preliminary studies indirectly suggest that it acts at the cytoplasmic face of the NPC. In EMCV infected cells, L is predominantly observed at the cytoplasmic periphery of the nucleus (Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12417-22) and GST pulldown experiments have identified cytosolic ran associated protein, RanGAP1 but not the nuclear exchange factor, RCC1 among the co-precipitated proteins. A cytosolic mechanism may also explain why micromolar concentrations of L are required for robust activity in both of our Xenopus extract assay systems since Ran concentrations in these extracts are estimated to be in the low micromolar range (Clarke, P. R., C. Klebe, A. Wittinghofer, and E. Karsenti. 1995. Regulation of Cdc2/cyclin B activation by Ran, a Ras-related GTPase. J. Cell Sci. 108:1217-25). In contrast, Ran is highly enriched in the nucleoplasm of interphase cells (Bischoff, F. R., and H. Ponstingl. 1991. Catalysis of guanine nucleotide exchange on Ran by the mitotic regulator RCC1. Nature 354:80-82), so L many only encounter a fraction of that concentration at the cytoplasmic face of the NPC during EMCV infection. One confounding question raised by our previous experiments in Xenopus extracts was why only the zinc-finger domain was required to inhibit Ran cycling in this system while both the zinc finger and acidic domain were required in in-vivo expression and virus infection contexts (Dvorak, C. M. T., D. J. Hall, M. Hill, M. Riddle, A. Pranter, J. Dillman, M. Deibel, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2001. Leader protein of encephalomyocarditis virus binds zinc, is phosphorylated during viral infection and affects the efficiency of genome translation. Virology 290:261-71; Porter, F. W., Y. Bochkov, A. J. Albee, C. Wiese, and A. C. Palmenberg. 2006. A picornavirus protein disrupts nucleocytoplasmic transport by targeting Ran GTPase. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci. USA 103:12417-22). Our results here show that again only the zinc-finger is required to maintain full activity. Previous reports have supported a role for both the zinc-finger and the acidic domain (specifically its phosphorylation sites) as critical for disrupting nuclear localization (Delhaye, S., V. van Pesch, and T. Michiels. 2004. The leader protein of Theiler's virus interferes with nucleocytoplasmic trafficking of cellular proteins. J. Virology 78:4357-62, Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). Our results here suggest that the acidic domain is only required in-vivo. It is possible that the acidic domain confers stability to L, giving it a long enough half-life to perform its function or it may target L to the nuclear periphery where it then has access to Ran and its cofactors. In-vivo expression experiments are currently underway to investigate these possibilities.
Although depletion of the Ran gradient can reasonably account for inhibition active import/export and the efflux of small (<40 kDa) proteins from the nucleus, it is likely that the role of L in this activity is more complex. The retrograde trafficking of rather large nuclear proteins (˜100 kDa) in cardiovirus infected cells suggests that other changes have also occurred. The possibilities include; 1) that the exclusion limit of the pore has been increased, 2) the nuclear membrane has been compromised or 3) these proteins are being actively exported. How L might mediate these processes is unknown. One possibility is that a scrambled Ran gradient directly induces changes in the morphology of the soluble domains of Nups (Lyman, S. K., T. Guan, J. Bednenko, H. Wodrich, and L. Gerace. 2002. Influence of cargo size on Ran and energy requirements for nuclear protein import. J. Cell Biology 159:55-67) leading to an open channel that allows the diffusion of larger proteins out of the nucleus. Alternately, cyclin-dependent kinases may be involved. Cdk1 has been shown to induce reversible disassembly of Nups from NPC's in a phosphorylation-dependent mechanism (Onischenko, E. A., N. V. Gubanova, E. V. Kiseleva, and E. Hallberg. 2005. Cdkl and okadaic acid-sensitive phosphatases control assembly of nuclear pore complexes in drosophila embryos. Mol Biol. Cell 16:51 52-62). Interestingly, Lidsky et. al. have shown that CyclinB1, the binding partner of Cdk1, is trafficked to the nucleus during cardiovirus infection and that phosphorylation is somehow important for efflux (Lidsky, P. L., S. Hato, M. V. Bardina, A. G. Aminev, A. C. Palmenberg, E. V. Sheval, V. Y. Polyakov, F. J. van Kuppeveld, and V. Agol. 2006. Nucleo-cytoplasmic traffic disorder induced by cardioviruses. J. Virology 80:2705-17). Regardless of the mechanism, the disruption of nucleocytoplasmic trafficking by L is likely a critical component of the anti-host response in cardioviruses.
This application claims the benefit of U.S. provisional application 60/760,248, filed Jan. 20, 2006 and 60/743,139, filed Jan. 18, 2006. These applications are incorporated by reference as if fully set forth herein.
This invention was made with United States government support awarded by the following agencies: NIH, Grant Number AI07331; NSF, Grant Number 0344723. The United States government has certain rights in this invention.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20070243169 A1 | Oct 2007 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60760248 | Jan 2006 | US | |
| 60743139 | Jan 2006 | US |
