Patent Application
20060171498
The present invention relates to a nuclear reactor fueled by thorium-232/uranium-233 (232Th/233U) and driven by an exterior source of modulated neutrons. The criticality and power output of a graphite-reflected fuel cage and design concept is based on a subcritical assembly, where the thermal output is established on a per-unit neutron source basis, and as such can be used to determine the source strength required to predict power level. This application includes the fundamentals of fuel management issues, such as cycle length, breeding ratio, fuel depletion, or the production and buildup of fission products. All calculations were performed by the MCNP neutron transport code developed at Los Alamos National Laboratory. MCNP is a Monte Carlo radiation transport code that has gained international acceptance and is widely considered the standard for performing calculations of this type.
Worldwide petroleum reserves needed to fuel power plants, a growing vehicle fleet, and an industrial economy are nearly depleted. Currently, the U.S. imports a large percent of its petroleum from politically unstable locations. Additionally, alternative energy technologies—such as solar, wind, and geothermal—are losing governmental support. Indeed, the U.S. appears to be heading toward another energy crisis due to governmental policies, public pressure, utility company shortsightedness, and corporate lack of incentives to either use alternative energy technologies or conserve energy.
In addition, the U.S. is confronted with environmental safety matters when using any sort of energy-generating method, whether a coal-fired plant or a solar plant. Environmental concerns range over a wide array of atmospheric, ground, and water pollution impacts.
The search for clean, safe forms of energy generation has taken many paths. Fusion—the union of two or more atoms into a single atom, with a simultaneous release of energy—has the promise of being a clean, cheap, and virtually limitless source of energy. Hot fusion (at elevated temperature) has been under intense investigation since the 1940s, though the scientific community doubts cold fusion (at room temperature) could be sustained or be useful as a stand-alone source of energy (Science News, vol. 137, 7 Apr. 1990 and 16 Jun. 1990). An isolated and unsubstantiated laboratory experiment showed a shim possibility that fusion could be developed through relatively simple means at room temperature (Pons, B. Stanley, and Martin Fleishmann, University of Utah, 23 Mar. 23, 1989), but other experimental efforts to achieve such fusion have not been sustained. However, many decades are still required to overcome the scientific and technological obstacles that prevent hot fusion from becoming a safe and affordable method of generating energy.
The nuclear power industry was born in the 1950s with great promise as an energy source that would solve all future energy problems. In the 1970s, dreams of energy surpluses based on nuclear power soon turned into energy shortages, followed in the 1980s by a glut that clouded the energy issue. Over the years, the nuclear industry has attempted to push ahead with vast, costly projects that carry with them an array of human health and environmental safety risks. These costs and risks have stunted the industry's growth: while world nuclear generating capacity grew by 140% in the 1980s, it expanded by less than 5% in the 1990s. And proposed new construction will continue to result in the political opposition and public pressures that have blocked previous construction and stifled the industry's growth.
But, conventional nuclear power has serious drawbacks. Specifically, production of a vast amount of extremely dangerous radioactive waste and lack of space for its disposal, potential for a meltdown that could release radioactivity, a byproduct that can be used for manufacturing nuclear weapons, and enormously high costs. These drawbacks will continue to plague the industry, since conventional reactors will have produced enough waste within 10 years to completely fill the proposed waste storage site at Yucca Mountain, and require the use of uranium and the manufacture of weapons-grade plutonium.
Historically, neither thorium oxide nor thorium metal has by itself been part of the fuel loading of any conventional reactor built or operating in the U.S. Thorium has been used in blankets in several reactors around the world as a means to capture free neutrons wandering in the reactor vessel, at a neutron flux (volume of neutron production) of 1014, to produce fissile material. What normally comes out of said blanket is 233U that can be used to enrich low-grade plutonium, thereby increasing the life span of 238U. To our knowledge, only one reactor has been proposed—in India—that intended to use thorium as a main source of fertile material. The proposal assumed at that time that the government would have reprocessing available to remove the useable 233U from the waste stream. These reactor plans, however, have been abandoned.
Thorium cannot be part of a conventional reactor without increasing the volume of waste disposal. Substantial studies and proposals have been done in this country. None of them have been carried forward, though, because the burnout rate of the thorium in conventional reactors is no different than that of plutonium, which calls for a large reprocessing plant. The U.S. presently does not have means of reprocessing fuel, with the exception of some enrichment facilities for the defense mechanism. Without the reprocessing plant, the large volume of unburned 233U, with its high gamma emissions, must become part of the waste stream.
Since current conventional energy-generating sources present grave hazards to public safety, health, and psychological well being, U.S. citizens are demanding a clean, safe, and domestically-produced energy source. However, the most viable alternatives—hydrogen and electricity—are not energy sources but rather energy carriers that require a source of energy to start.
DBI's report Thorium to Hydrogen (Library of Congress Control Number 2003097825) shows the limitations of current sources of energy, including fossil fuels, solar cells, ocean energy, hydroelectric dams, and wind turbines. Although nuclear energy has not been promoted as an alternative due to the human health and environmental safety risks associated with current reactor designs, the reactor of the present invention drastically reduces—if not eliminates—many of the dangers associated with conventional nuclear reactors.
The present invention is a nuclear reactor that uses 232Th as fuel and adds neutrons from an external source—rather than through criticality—to transmute the 232Th into 233U. This reaction will create heat energy through controlled nuclear fission occurring in confinement, and can be used for systems of up to about 100 MWs. The thorium fuel design of the present invention can also be used economically as an energy source for systems of less than 1 MW.
One of the most prominent aspects of the present invention is the fuel system. The unique design of the present invention allows for a fuel burn-up rate of about 90%, reduces the amount of waste by about 90% from current reactor designs, and produces no weapons grade material. When compared to conventional uranium-based nuclear reactors, the thorium design concept of the present invention eliminates the current problems of high waste production, negative environmental impact, proliferation of nuclear weapons material, reactor instability with possibility of meltdown, system complexity, and high operating costs. The present invention may be used in any application which uses a heat source to generate steam for a thermodynamic cycle (such as driving turbines) to generate electricity, pump water, or extract hydrogen.
With a single-phase helium coolant, a graphite moderator, and carbon reflectors, the present invention uses a multiple cavity fuel element, with fuel in the form of thorium oxide and glass in pre-baked tablets containing 50% SiO2, 47% 232ThO2, 3% 233UO2 in some configurations. A 90% burn rate is possible because the present invention allows the fuel to remain in the core until it is totally burned, something not possible in conventional reactors. In a shutdown mode, the fuel of the present invention is solid vitrified matter, providing an impervious, tamper-proof container for the spent fuel. This design is fundamentally different from conventional reactor core designs in multiple ways. The reactor of the present invention is subcritical, meaning it does not rely on a critical reaction to achieve the necessary neutrons. An external source of modulated neutrons makes possible the operation of the present subcritical reactor invention by an external neutron flux supply to bring the system up to a k=0.98 status in a safe and controllable manner. The neutron flux can be instantly stopped, controllably altered to new flux levels, or run at any neutron flux level needed, until the reactor of the present invention through fuel breeding develops its own ability to control power levels. The amount of breeding determines the neutron output flux level, and thereby the source can be slaved to the present invention's power level to maintain the exact power level desired, without fear of major core excursions.
The reactor of the present invention does not rely on direct forced cooling of the core fuel elements to slow the reaction process. Neither does it depend on primary liquid coolant loops directly in contact with the fuel bundle, nor any of the equipment normally used to extract the thermal energy from the neutron activity. Heat is extracted from the present invention without direct contact between the coolant and the fuel source.
The present invention can be designed in a variety of sizes, ranging from as small as about 1 MW to more than about 100 MWs. This application contains one of multiple possible geometric designs in which the fuel can be switched from well to well. The attached figures represent a few specific embodiments for about a 100-MW plant. The power output, incidentally, will determine the physical size of the plant. The design allows it to be installed only about 18 feet below grade, thus eliminating the need to rely upon geological proof of deep ground stability.
The reactor of the present invention uses thorium as the energy source, which can then be used for the production of hydrogen—as a bridge from oil to fusion—while simultaneously reducing the volume of fuel loading and unburned fuel content using a new geometry for nuclear reactors. It can produce energy to extract hydrogen economically, with a significantly reduced amount of waste—all vitrified and containing only a minimal presence of useable 233U. The present invention provides maximum safety for startup, operation, and nuclear waste disposal. It is also innovative in its promotion of safety in connection with fueling startup, operation, shutdown, refining, and waste disposal. The configuration disclosed meets all the design performance requirements of simplicity, safety, reactor lifetime, reactor power output control, and economy of low investment and operational cost.
A great deal of careful scrutiny by technical minds in many fields has provided assurance that the concept is important, feasible, and within the present state of the art. The safety aspects of the design warrant support for a continued detailed effort coupled to the development of the first thorium-to-hydrogen 100-MW commercial installation.
The assembly of the present invention has other objects and features of advantage which will be more readily apparent from the following description of the best mode of carrying out the invention and the appended claims, when taken in conjunction with the accompanying drawing, in which:
While the present invention will be described with reference to a few specific embodiments, the description is illustrative of the invention and is not to be construed as limiting the invention. Various modifications to the present invention can be made to the preferred embodiments by those skilled in the art without departing from the true spirit and scope of the invention as defined by the appended claims. It will be noted here that for a better understanding, like components are designated by like reference numerals throughout the various figures.
In accordance with the present invention, some of the fundamental ideas of the reactor of the present invention are: (1) to drastically reduce the danger and the volume of nuclear waste; (2) to drastically reduce the size of the fuel charge in a reactor; (3) to eliminate weapons material in the waste stream; (4) to eliminate the need for reprocessing of nuclear fuel; and (5) to create a scenario where thorium will provide all U.S. electrical energy for the next 250 years. While the details set forth in this application make a complete disclosure of the invention, numerous changes may be made in such detail without departing from the spirit and principles of the invention.
The reactor of the present invention, in one embodiment, uses a single external source of neutrons coming from an emitter assembly 24 shown in
The neutron source, in one configuration, is the element californium, which has the ability to produce a neutron flux of 1011. In other configurations, the modulated neutrons are derived from a source of protons coming from a linear accelerator, also producing a flux of 1011. In the first source, the assembly rotates on an axis 4 and provides or deprives neutrons to the fuel assembly. If the neutron source is a linear accelerator, the neutrons are provided or deprived by the modulation of the proton source. Either source of neutrons serves as neutron modulation to the location of fuel wells 27, shown in
The reactor of the present invention relies on a fuel element 11 (
The fuel elements 11 are stacked atop each other (
The xenon removal pathway through center opening 12 of the fuel stack assembly 51 will connect to standard piping (not shown) through which helium transports the xenon and directs it to a conventional xenon separator.
As shown in
A cadmium neutron barrier 25, 26 surrounds each circle of fuel wells 27, as shown in
The outer cadmium barrier 26 sits inside a fuel well array cavity well generated by steel plates. The cavity well is embedded in a granulated carbon reflector 45 containing copper to heighten thermal conductivity. Also embedded in the reflector 45 are boiler wells 30 generated by Inconnel steel walls 30, 31. Granulated carbon with aluminum conductors will fill the boiler wells 30, with ASME-approved boiler assembly (
Neutron source emitters are surrounded by coolant tubes 23 which are composed of ASME-approved material. The neutron source emitters 24 in the dual emitter assembly are surrounded by boron neutron absorbers 38 to further encourage one direction of neutron emission.
The entire reactor assembly 60 of the reactor of the present invention is surrounded by a thermal insulation barrier 43 to lower the vessel's surface temperature. The insulation contains additional allowances for potential fugitive emissions and is housed in walls 41, 42 of lead, steel, and boron. The assembly 60 is encased in an ASME-approved outer pressure vessel assembly 40 of clad (low-carbon) steel. The vessel assembly 40 includes an upper ring 29 and a lower ring 44, as best viewed in
During startup—which involves emitting neutrons—some of the fuel wells 27, 47 are empty. When the fuel charge or fuel stack assembly 51 in a well 27, 46 is declining in power, there is time to switch it to the first empty well 27, 47; a new or partially new charge 51 is then placed in the emptied well. At the second startup, there will be an excess of power. At this time the modulation of neutrons takes place by either rotating the drum 24A with californium on its axis 4, or modulating the source of protons coming from a linear accelerator. When the neutron source is not enough to support total power, the third startup will occur. At this time, it is necessary to switch the last charge to the next empty well, and replace it with a new charge. The desired position is dictated by a geometrically-balanced neutron transport computer program as case history is gradually obtained. An excess of power at the third startup is again controlled by the modulation of the neutron source. When the modulation reaches the maximum, fuel charges are again moved to new wells.
This process continues until all the original empty wells are filled. This is when the first charge, from the original first empty well, is removed for disposal. At this time, the charge will have a potential burn-up of about 90% of the fuel, since a continuous removal of xenon (a byproduct that absorbs otherwise useable neutrons) has taken place. The continuous removal of xenon takes place at the fuel charge 12 during its tenure at the core. Again, this process and apparatus are better described in our U.S. patent application Ser. No. 10/786,530, cited above, which is herein incorporated by reference in its entirety.
At the time the first charge is removed, no weapons material is present in the waste stream. Since the composition of the first load of waste is vitrified, the burned out fuel elements are placed in water for 36 months. Once cold, they will contain short-lived isotopes whose half-lives range from a few hours to 28-29 years (strontium-90 and cesium-137), and long-decaying isotopes whose half-lives range from 1.1×106 to 2.6×106 years (zirconium-93 and cesium-135), as shown in the chart of
Thermalized neutrons cause nuclear fission within the fuel, with heat energy the primary byproduct. The heat energy at the core is transferred by conduction from the core through to the boilers, where the temperature differential is very high. The heat transfer media is conventional and not limited to helium. In order to generate 1 megawatt-day [MW-d] of heat energy, 3.3×1010 [fissions/s] is needed, or about 1 gram of 232Th/233U to burn (1.15741×10−5 grams of thorium per second). Most of this energy is dissipated as heat within the reactor. Traditionally, the amount of neutrons needed for breeding approximates 1014 n/cm2.
After thermalization of fast fission neutrons in the graphite moderator 36, 233U is produced in the chain reaction following thermal neutron capture in 232Th. Although fast neutron capture in 232Th resonances is also possible, the ratio of resonance to thermal absorption is 0.13. Nuclear reactions under thermal irradiation of 233U are available. The amount of isotopes produced depends on the neutron flux as well as the time of irradiation. For example, 1 gram of 233U will be produced per kilogram of 232Th after 20 days of 232Th irradiation with neutron flux of 1014 n/cm2.
*Includes energy carried by beta particles and antineutrinos; the latter do not produce heat in reactor systems.
**Nonfission capture reactions contribute heat energy in all real systems: design-specific considerations may change this number by about a factor of two in either direction.
In the embodiments illustrated in
Reactor Confinement. The solid confinement consists of multiple segments (40-43), where allowances are made for expansion and contraction of the reactor assembly 60. The design compensates for neutron flux of various magnitudes that call for thermal excursions in the core. The segment “blocks” consist of Inconnel mesh and carbon. Conventional reactors use stainless steel containers to house their spent fuel rods, and stainless steel requires vast quantities of nickel—needed in many other industries—to slow down oxidation. In contrast, the reactor of the present invention uses primarily expanded Inconnel. Although Inconnel contains a higher percentage of nickel than stainless steel, the expanded version is one that has been stretched into a thin open weave similar to chicken wire. This still holds the fuel in place, but uses far less metal, including nickel.
The fuel elements 9A (
Moderator. The neutron moderation is there to create enough thermal neutrons, out of fast neutrons, for breeding purposes. The difference between a standard reactor and the reactor of the present invention, in this respect, is the volume of neutron production (neutron flux). The reactor of the present invention relies heavily on neutron economy. The neutron confinement allows the reduction of losses in contrast with conventional reactors of equal output. In the containment being used, the theoretical leakage is nil and control of over-population by absorption (control rods) is nonexistent, since the reactor operates below k=1. In this subcritical state, the neutron population is a direct function of the beam input and control rods are not necessary. The reactor assembly 60 of the present invention is producing only the neutrons needed for a specific output, in contrast with standard reactors that must produce substantial additional neutron flux for a given output.
Reflectors. Structurally, the reflector 36 (
Boilers & Preheaters. The boilers 53 are full surface-to-heat transfer modified ASME-approved hairpin boilers. The pipe schedule complies with the ASME code. This alloy also serves as the first gamma attenuator, and as a heat-transfer medium operating at a high-temperature differential. The preheaters are built within ASME code, embedded in aluminum/cast iron. This alloy also serves as the second gamma attenuator blocker and as a heat-transfer medium.
Outer Gap. This is a stainless steel spacer embedded in a clay mixture, a pliable medium to deal with thermal expansion during core excursions. Additional gamma safeguard attenuator blockers are part of this area that further allows the reactor of the present invention to temporarily shut down without gamma emission.
Feed Water Pumps. In one embodiment, the feed water pump system consists of a bank of four positive displacement pumps. The pumps are bypassed, allowing each pump to operate in around-the-clock intervals, pre-determined by the pump manufacturer. Allowances have been made for the operator to be able to remove a pump and replace it without shutting down the flow. The pumps operate within a strict schedule of maintenance. Electrical and mechanical malfunction sensors are provided for each pump.
Water Quality Control. The water quality control is achieved with a standard softener, Ph control, and conventional additives to meet corrosion allowances specified by ASME Code.
Condensers. The steam condensing takes place in a bank of four air-to-steam heat exchangers. The physical size of the condensers' surface area changes between the two cycles proposed. One of the cycles cuts down the volume of water by operating the power recovery in the left-hand side of the T/S diagram. The idea is to move away from the saturated, liquid side of the diagram, thus allowing the volume of water to be reduced. This cycle uses a vapor compressor instead of feed-water pumps.
Controls. The reactor of the present invention incorporates a drastically simplified system of control, since the core temperature sections are built in the assembly and have the potential to provide a high level of safety without relying on containment or mechanized support to control LOCA or similar emergencies. The proposed Control Area 54 for a 100-MW plant consists of a bank of three sets of three computers each and up to two discriminators with flat screen monitors in the wall. The warning system is based upon a series of sensors connected to a dedicated satellite communications line.
Kinetic Stages and Control. The fundamental idea of the present invention is shown in
Cavity Assembly with Center Source. Initially only four sets of the cavities (wells 27, 46) hold fuel, each a different amount. Fuel from the primary cavity (e.g., shown in
Fuel Mining and Milling. The reactor of the present invention involves only scooping thorium-rich monazite sand on to a conveyor belt leading to a 12×12×40-foot trailer, where the thorium is separated out mechanically, within a water environment to prevent the creation of dust tailings. No further conversion or enrichment is necessary; the thorium separated is already a useable fuel. The thorium is then mixed homogeneously with glass and other elements, and pre-baked to produce fuel disks that are placed directly into the reactor core. Any particles created which might be dangerous are vitrified in situ to prevent their exposure to the environment. The fuel cycle of the present invention uses only 1/100 of the energy to produce its fuel pellet that conventional reactor systems use for the processing of uranium fuel.
Temperature Control. The reactor of the present invention receives the fertile 232Th, then introduces a controlled number of neutrons from outside the system to convert the thorium isotope into fissile 233U (not found in nature). 233U has the smallest fission cross section and the second lowest ν, yet has the largest n and thus the best prospect for breeding. The reaction is obtained during modulated neutron injection from either californium or a linear accelerator. When the accelerator pulse is on, heat will rise accordingly. When the accelerator pulse is off, the pile will go below k=1. The on/off intervals should maintain an average core temperature of 1,800° F. if a Rankine cycle is used, and a corresponding 406° F. saturated temperature is chosen. The heat transfer temperature of 900° F. will produce superheated steam at 700° F. The present invention is designed to be monitored by on-site personnel and a state-of-the-art satellite system; therefore if any anomaly occurs, the neutrons can be turned off (or the reactor instantly shut down) either manually or electronically from the remote monitoring site.
Peak Fuel Temperatures & Criticality. The operating temperature of the reactor assembly 60 of the present invention is 926° C. (1700° F.). Sensors note any rise in temperature of 85° C. or more and immediately shut off the supply of neutrons by rotating the emitter drums 24. In the extreme case that the neutron source 24 fails to shut off, gravity feed emergency neutron absorption shutdown rods 52 are inserted into the core well 32. All the monitoring and safety procedures can also be done manually in a matter of seconds. If the fuel temperature had some way to soar to 1,760° C., the thorium would melt but still be contained inside the glass, whose melting point is about 2,700° C. The present invention is a subcritical system, but three back-up systems manage any temperature rise above 85° C. In the extreme condition where all sensors ceased to operate, the discriminator will note it and the system will be shut down automatically or can be shut down manually. Also, under normal operating conditions the reactor of the present invention creates its own temperature ceiling. A high temperature causes the cross-section of thorium to decrease, thus decreasing the reactivity. As soon as the reactivity decreases, temperature decreases. As temperature decreases, the cross-section increases. And so the machine will be able to stabilize itself.
Waste Production. In the reactor of the present invention, the continuous removal of xenon buildup is performed by the injection of helium or other suitable element, thus preventing the “poison” from polluting the fuel. The ongoing xenon removal, together with the ability to move fuel from well to well, allows the reactor to achieve a high fuel burn-up of about 90%. The high fuel bum-up means the total amount of waste produced is only about 10% of what conventional reactors produce and is all low-level. Since the fuel element 11 of the present invention is baked prior to its use in the reactor, the derivatives of the reaction will be held together encapsulated in the glass (
Materials Safeguard. The subcritical assembly of the present invention avoids threat of nuclear meltdown. The 232Th/233U cycle does not produce any weapons-grade material, and the amount of fissile fuel existing in the spent fuel disks would be too low to be of any practical use. Radiation safety from the reactor of the present invention is relatively simple. Gamma emissions from thorium derivatives provide a level of public protection, since those isotopes can be easily spotted by modem sensing equipment.
Shielding Materials. The shielding of the reactor assembly 60 meets the demand of neutron energies and gamma emissions. Also, the metallurgy and material selection throughout the core, and the power recovery, whether the media embraces a gas-to-water heat exchanger to produce super-heated steam, or for the steam to be used directly for the production of hydrogen or in a Rankine Cycle for the production of electricity can be those conventionally applied.
This is a Divisional Application of co-pending application Ser. No. 10/861,776 filed Jun. 3, 2004, which claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/476,144 naming Hector A. D'Auvergne as inventor, and filed Jun. 4, 2003, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes, and also claims priority under 35 U.S.C. §119 to U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/486,877 naming Hector A. D'Auvergne as inventor, and filed Jul. 10, 2003, the entirety of which is incorporated herein by reference in its entirety for all purposes.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60476144 | Jun 2003 | US | |
| 60486877 | Jul 2003 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10861776 | Jun 2004 | US |
| Child | 11266079 | Nov 2005 | US |
