Patent Application
20090123420
The adaptive immune system must tailor the T cell repertoire so as not to respond to self-antigens. The classical model (reviewed by Nossal in Cell 1994; 76:229-239) holds that autoreactive T cell clones are deleted in the thymus via a process of negative selection in which encounter with antigen at the immature thymocyte stage triggers apoptosis, resulting in clonal deletion. Although the thymus undoubtedly provides a major site of negative selection, there are difficulties with this model. First, it would seem unlikely that every developing T cell could be exposed to every self-antigen during its relatively brief transit through the thymus. Second, autoreactive T cells are empirically found in the peripheral blood of normal, healthy hosts (Steinman, Cell 1995; 80:7-10). This suggests the existence of additional means of tailoring the T cell repertoire after the T cells have left the thymus, a process designated as peripheral tolerance.
The immune system of a tumor-bearing host often fails to respond protectively against tumor antigens. Functionally, the host is tolerant toward the tumor (Smyth et al., Nat. Immunol., 2001; 2:293). This is not due to a peculiarity of tumor antigens, because even highly immunogenic viral proteins become tolerizing when introduced on tumor cells (Staveley-O'Carroll et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1998; 95:1178). Tumor-induced tolerance is actively created and is maintained in an ongoing fashion (Sotomayor et al., Blood, 2001; 98:1070; and Cuenca et al., Cancer Res., 2003; 63:9007). Thus, tumors represent a striking and biologically significant example of acquired peripheral tolerance (Pardoll, Ann. Rev. Immunol., 2003; 21:807). The molecular mechanisms by which this tolerance arises are currently unclear. This tolerance allows tumors to escape the host's normal immune surveillance and imposes a fundamental barrier to successful clinical immunotherapy.
The present invention includes a method of augmenting rejection of cells by a subject, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
The present invention also includes a method of stimulating an immune response by administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
The present invention also includes a method of enhancing the signal in a mixed leukocyte response (MLR) by adding an effective amount of a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
The present invention also includes a method of increasing T cell activation by an antigen-presenting cell by administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
The present invention also includes a method of reversing the immunosuppressed state in a subject with HIV, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
The present invention also includes a method of treating a subject with an infection, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase. In some embodiments, the infection may be an infection with the HIV virus, infection with a CMV virus, infection with an intracellular parasite, or an infection with an intracellular bacteria. In some embodiments of the method, the pharmaceutical composition is administered in combination with a vaccine. The vaccine may be an anti-viral vaccine, including a vaccine against HIV. The vaccine may be against tuberculosis. The vaccine may be against malaria.
The present invention also includes a method of reducing immunosuppression in a subject, wherein said immunosuppression is mediated by an antigen presenting cell, and wherein said antigen presenting cell expresses indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase. In some embodiments of the method, the subject has undergone a bone marrow transplant.
The present invention also includes a method of preventing the development of immunosuppression in a subject, wherein said immunosuppression is mediated by an antigen presenting cell, and wherein said antigen presenting cell expresses indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase. In some embodiments of the method, the subject has undergone a bone marrow transplant.
The present invention also includes a method of delaying the relapse or progression of a tumor in a subject, the method including administering an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
Also included in the present invention is a method of treating a subject suffering from a neoplastic condition, the method including administering to the subject an effective amount of a pharmaceutical composition including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3 dioxygenase is selected from the group of 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, β-(3-benzofuranyl)-D-alanine, β-(3-benzo(b)thienyl)-D-alanine, or 6-nitro-D-tryptophan.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the cells are tumor cells, including, for example, melanoma, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, leukemia, brain tumors, lymphoma, sarcoma, ovarian cancer, or Kaposi's sarcoma.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the method includes the further administering of a chemotherapeutic agent to the subject. The chemotherapeutic agent may be, for example, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, vincristine, ifosfamide, cisplatin, gemcytabine, busulfan, ara-C, or a combination thereof.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the pharmaceutical composition includes at least one chemotherapeutic agent, including, for example, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, vincristine, ifosfamide, cisplatin, gemcytabine, busulfan, ara-C, or a combination thereof.
In some embodiments of the method of the present invention, the method further includes administering radiation therapy, including for example, radiation localized to the tumor or total body irradiation.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the pharmaceutical composition is administered following bone marrow transplantation or peripheral blood stem cell transplantation.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the cells are infected by a virus, an intracellular parasite, or an intracellular bacteria. In some embodiments, the virus may be human immunodeficiency virus or cytomegalovirus. In some embodiments, the intracellular parasite may be Leishmania donovani, Leishmania tropica, Leishmania major, Leishmania aethiopica, Leishmania mexicana, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, or Plasmodium malariae. In some embodiments, the intracellular bacteria may be Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Listeria monocytogenes, or Toxplasma gondii.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, the pharmaceutical composition is administered in combination with a cytokine. The cytokine may be, for example, granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF) or flt3-ligand.
In some embodiments of the methods of the present invention, pharmaceutical composition is administered in combination with a vaccine. This vaccine may be a tumor vaccine, including, for example, a melanoma vaccine. The tumor vaccine may include genetically modified tumor cells, including, for example, genetically modified tumor cells or cell lines, transfected to express granulocyte-macrophage stimulating factor (GM-CSF). The vaccine may include one or more immunogenic peptides. The vaccine may include dendritic cells.
The present invention also includes pharmaceutical compositions including a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase and at least one additional therapeutic agent. In some embodiments, the inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase may be 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, β-(3-benzofuranyl)-D-alanine, β-(3-benzo(b)thienyl)-D-alanine, or 6-nitro-D-tryptophan. In some embodiments, the additional therapeutic agent may be an antineoplastic chemotherapeutic agent, including, for example, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, vincristine, ifosfamide, cisplatin, gemcytabine, busulfan, ara-C, or combinations thereof.
As used herein, the term “subject” represents an organism, including, for example, an animal. An animal includes, but is not limited to, a human, a non-human primate, a horse, a pig, a goat, a cow, a rodent, such as, but not limited to, a rat or a mouse, or a domestic pet, such as, but not limited to, a dog or a cat.
As used herein “in vitro” is in cell culture, “ex vivo” is a cell that has been removed from the body of a subject, and “in vivo” is within the body of a subject.
As used herein, “treatment” or “treating” include both therapeutic and prophylactic treatments.
Unless otherwise specified, “a,” “an,” “the,” and “at least one” are used interchangeably and mean one or more than one.
A newly recognized molecular mechanism contributing to peripheral immune tolerance is the immunoregulatory enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). Cells expressing the tryptophan-catabolizing enzyme IDO are capable of inhibiting T cell proliferation in vitro and reducing T cell immune responses in vivo (U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,451,840 and 6,482,416; Munn et al., Science 1998; 281:1191; Munn et al., J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189:1363; Hwu et al., J. Immunol. 2000; 164:3596; Mellor et al., J. Immunol. 2002; 168:3771; Grohmann et al., J. Immunol. 2001; 167:708; Grohmann et al., J. Immunol. 2001; 166:277; and Alexander et al., Diabetes 2002; 51:356).
IDO degrades the essential amino acid tryptophan (for reviews see Taylor et al., FASEB Journal 1991; 5:2516-2522; Lee et al., Laboratory Investigation, 2003; 83:1457-1466; and Grohmann et al., Trends in Immunology 2003; 24:242-248). Expression of IDO by human monocyte-derived macrophages (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med. 1999; 189:1363-1372), human dendritic cells (Munn et al., Science 2002; 297:1867-1870 and Hwu et al., J. Immunol. 2000; 164:3596-3599), and mouse dendritic cells (Mellor et al., J. Immunol. 2003; 171:1652-1655) allows these different antigen-presenting cells (APCs) to inhibit T cell proliferation in vitro. In vivo, IDO participates in maintaining maternal tolerance toward the antigenically foreign fetus during pregnancy (Munn et al., Science 1998; 281:1191-1193).
IDO has also been implicated in maintaining tolerance to self antigens (Grohmann et al., J. Exp. Med. 2003; 198:153-160), in suppressing T cell responses to MHC-mismatched organ transplants (Miki et al., Transplantation Proceedings 2001; 33:129-130), and in the tolerance-inducing activity of recombinant CTLA4-Ig (Grohmann et al., Nature Immunology 2002; 3:985-1109). In these three systems, the immunosuppressive effect of IDO can be blocked by the in vivo administration of an IDO inhibitor, such as 1-methyl-tryptophan (also referred to herein as 1-MT or 1MT).
The transfection of IDO into mouse tumor cell lines confers the ability to suppress T cell responses both in vitro and in vivo (Mellor et al., J. Immunol. 2002; 168:3771-3776). In a Lewis Lung carcinoma (LLC) model, administration of 1-MT significantly delayed tumor outgrowth (Friberg et al., International Journal of Cancer 2002; 101:151-155). The mouse mastocytoma tumor cell line forms lethal tumors in naive hosts, but is normally rejected by pre-immunized hosts. However, transfection of P815 with IDO prevents its rejection by pre-immunized hosts (Uyttenhove et al., Nature Medicine 2003; 9:1269-1274). This effect was entirely dependent on the presence of an intact immune system and was substantially reversed, that is, tumor growth inhibited, by the concomitant administration of 1-MT.
The selective recruitment of IDO+ APCs in the tumor-draining (sentinel) lymph nodes of patients with melanoma (Munn et al., Science 2002; 297:1867-1870 and Lee et al., Laboratory Investigation 2003; 83:1457-1466) indicates that tumors take advantage of the immunosuppressive effect of IDO by recruiting a population of IDO-expressing host APCs to present tumor antigens. Similar changes have been seen in breast carcinoma and other tumor-associated lymph nodes. In mouse tumor models the IDO-expressing APCs in tumor-draining lymph nodes are phenotypically similar to a subset of dendritic cells recently shown to mediate profound IDO-dependent immunosuppressive in vivo (Mellor et al., Journal of Immunology 2003; 171:1652-1655). IDO-expressing APCs in tumor-draining lymph nodes thus constitute a potent tolerogenic mechanism.
The present invention is based on the unexpected observation that the non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor is much more effective in reversing IDO-mediated immune suppression than either the physiologic L-isomer or a racemic mixture. The reversal of IDO-mediated immune suppression observed with a D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor is greater than that observed with an equimolar mixture of the D-isomer and the L-isomer. The reversal of IDO-mediated immune suppression observed with the D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor is also greater than that observed with an equimolar concentration of the D-isomer mixed within a racemic mixture. Specifically, the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan (also referred to herein as 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, 1-methyl-[D]-tryptophan, 1-methyl-(D)-tryptophan, 1-M-[D]-T), or 1-M-(D)-T) demonstrates better reversal of suppression than that obtained with the DL-racemic mixtures that had been used previously (Munn et al., Science, 1998; 281:1191).
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor is more effective in augmenting the rejection of cells by a subject than either the physiologic L-isomer or a racemic mixture. Specifically, the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan demonstrates augmented rejection of cells by a subject in comparison to that obtained with the DL-racemic mixtures that had been used previously. As used herein, augmented rejection of cells includes an increased level of immune system mediated rejection of the cells.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor results in a much more effective stimulation of an immune response in comparison to either the physiologic L-isomer or a racemic mixture. Specifically, the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan is more effective in the stimulation of an immune response than the DL-racemic mixtures that had been used previously. As used herein, the stimulation of an immune response is measured by standard methods well known in the immunological arts.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor results in an enhanced signal in a mixed leukocyte response (MLR) in comparison to either the physiologic L-isomer or a racemic mixture. Specifically, the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan demonstrates an enhanced signal in a mixed leukocyte response (MLR) in comparison to that obtained with the DL-racemic mixtures that had been used previously. As used herein, a mixed leukocyte response (MLR) is a well-known immunological procedure, for example, as described in the examples herein.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, results in the increased T cell activation by an antigen-presenting cell in comparison to that obtained with either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. As used herein, T cell activation by an antigen-presenting cell is measured by standard methods well known in the immunological arts.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the administration of a non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, results in the more effective reversal or decrease in the immunosuppressed state in a subject with HIV in comparison to that obtained with the administration of either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. As used herein, a reversal or decrease in the immunosuppressed state in a subject with HIV is as determined by established clinical standards.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the administration of a non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, results in the improved treatment of a subject with an infection, in comparison to the treatment obtained with the administration of either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. As used herein, the improved treatment of an infection is as determined by established clinical standards.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the administration of a non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, reduces or prevents immunosuppression mediated by an antigen presenting cell that expresses indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO), in comparison to the reduction or prevention of immunosuppression obtained with the administration of either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. The determination of immunosuppression mediated by an antigen presenting cell expressing indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) includes the various methods as described in the examples herein.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the administration of a non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, results a delay in the relapse or progression of a tumor in a subject, in comparison to the administration of either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. As used herein, a delay in the relapse or progression of a tumor is as determined by established clinical standards.
The present invention includes the unexpected finding that the administration of a non-physiologic D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, including the D isomer of 1-methyl-tryptophan, results in the improved treatment of a subject suffering from a neoplastic condition, in comparison to the administration of either the physiologic L-isomer or a DL-racemic mixture. As used herein, the improved treatment of a neoplastic conditions is as determined by established clinical standards.
The IDO enzyme is well characterized (see, for example, Taylor et al., FASEB Journal 1991; 5:2516-2522; Lee et al., Laboratory Investigation, 2003; 83:1457-1466; and Grohmann et al., Trends in Immunology 2003; 24:242-248) and compounds that serve as substrates or inhibitors of the IDO enzyme are known. For example, Southan et al., (Med. Chem Res., 1996; 343-352) utilized an in vitro assay system to identify tryptophan analogues that serve as either substrates or inhibitors of human IDO. However, prior to the present invention, the enhanced effectiveness of D isomers of inhibitors of IDO as immunomodulators when compared to the L isomer or a racemic mixture of inhibitors of IDO was not known. In fact, prior to the present invention, the in vitro assay of Southan et al. indicated that the L-isomer of one IDO inhibitor, 1-methyl-tryptophan, was a more potent inhibitor of human monocyte/macrophage IDO than the D-isomer.
D-isomers of inhibitors of the IDO enzyme of the present invention include, but are not limited to, 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, β-(3 benzofuranyl)-D-alanine, β-[3-benzo(b)thienyl]-D-alanine, 6-nitro-D-tryptophan, and derivatives thereof. D-isomers of inhibitors of the IDO enzyme are readily commercially available, for example, from Sigma-Aldrich Chemicals, St. Louis, Mo. In some embodiments, a preferred IDO inhibitor is 1-methyl-D-tryptophan.
As demonstrated by the present invention, non-physiologic D-isomers of an IDO inhibitor are more effective in reversing IDO-mediated immune suppression than either the physiologic L-isomer or a racemic mixture. Thus, D-isomers of an IDO inhibitor can be used to simulate T cell mediated immune responses that are suppressed by IDO. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of the D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to treat such IDO-associated suppression of T cell activation and/or proliferation. The administration of a D isomer of an inhibitor of IDO, such as 1-methyl-D-tryptophan, can be used to activate T cells and enhance T cell activation when the T cells are suppressed by malignancy or a viral infection, resulting in the augmented (increased) rejection of malignant cells or virally infected cells.
A D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO can be administered for the treatment of a tumor. The tumors to be treated by the present invention include, but are not limited to, melanoma, colon cancer, pancreatic cancer, breast cancer, prostate cancer, lung cancer, leukemia, lymphoma, sarcoma, ovarian cancer, Kaposi's sarcoma, Hodgkin's Disease, Non-Hodgkin's Lymphoma, multiple myeloma, neuroblastoma, rhabdomyosarcoma, primary thrombocytosis, primary macroglobulinemia, small-cell lung tumors, primary brain tumors, stomach cancer, malignant pancreatic insulanoma, malignant carcinoid, urinary bladder cancer, premalignant skin lesions, testicular cancer, lymphomas, thyroid cancer, neuroblastoma, esophageal cancer, genitourinary tract cancer, malignant hypercalcemia, cervical cancer, endometrial cancer, and adrenal cortical cancer. As used herein, “tumor” refers to all types of cancers, neoplasms, or malignant tumors found in mammals.
The efficacy of treatment of a tumor may be assessed by any of various parameters well known in the art. This includes, but is not limited to, determinations of a reduction in tumor size, determinations of the inhibition of the growth, spread, invasiveness, vascularization, angiogenesis, and/or metastasis of a tumor, determinations of the inhibition of the growth, spread, invasiveness and/or vascularization of any metastatic lesions, and/or a determination of an increased delayed type hypersensitivity reaction to tumor antigen. The efficacy of treatment may also be assessed by the determination of a delay in relapse or a delay in tumor progression in the subject or by a determination of an increased survival rate of the subject, for example, an increased survival rate at one or five years post treatment. As used herein, a relapse is the return of a tumor or neoplasm after its apparent cessation, for example, the return of a leukemia.
Certain pathological conditions, such as parasitic infections, AIDS (caused by the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV)), and latent cytomegaloviral (CMV) infections, are extremely difficult to treat since the macrophages act as reservoirs for the infectious agent. Even though the cells are infected with by a foreign pathogen, they are not recognized as foreign. The methods of the present invention may be used to treat such pathological conditions including, but not limited to, viral infections, infection with an intracellular parasite, and infection with an intracellular bacteria. Viral infections treated include, but are not limited to, infections with the human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) or cytomegalovirus (CMV). Intracellular bacterial infections treated include, but are not limited to, infections with Mycobacterium leprae, Mycobacterium tuberculosis, Listeria monocytogenes, and Toxplasma gondii. Intracellular parasitic infections treated include, but are not limited to, Leishmania donovani, Leishmania tropica, Leishmania major, Leishmania aethiopica, Leishmania mexicana, Plasmodium falciparum, Plasmodium vivax, Plasmodium ovale, and Plasmodium malariae.
The efficacy of treatment of an infection may be assessed by any of various parameters well known in the art. This includes, but is not limited to, determinations of a reduction in viral load, determinations of an increase in CD4+ T cell count, determinations of a decrease in opportunistic infections, determinations of the eradication of chronic infection, and/or determinations of increased survival time.
A D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO can be administered to a subject following bone marrow transplantation or a peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. The efficacy of such an administration may be assessed by any of a variety of parameters well known in the art. This includes, for example, determinations of an increase in the delayed type hypersensitivity reaction to tumor antigen, determinations of a delay in the time to relapse of the post-transplant malignancy, determinations of an increase in relapse free survival time, and/or determinations of an increase in post-transplant survival. The D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO may be administered to the subject prior to full hematopoetic reconstitution or prior to recovery from lymphopenia.
The inhibitors of the present invention can be administered by any suitable means including, but not limited to, for example, oral, rectal, nasal, topical (including transdermal, aerosol, buccal and sublingual), vaginal, parenteral (including subcutaneous, intramuscular, intravenous and intradermal), intravesical, or injection into or around the tumor.
For parenteral administration in an aqueous solution, for example, the solution should be suitably buffered if necessary and the liquid diluent first rendered isotonic with sufficient saline or glucose. These particular aqueous solutions are especially suitable for intravenous, intramuscular, subcutaneous, intraperitoneal, and intratumoral administration. In this connection, sterile aqueous media that can be employed will be known to those of skill in the art in light of the present disclosure (see for example, “Remington's Pharmaceutical Sciences” 15th Edition). Some variation in dosage will necessarily occur depending on the condition of the subject being treated. The person responsible for administration will, in any event, determine the appropriate dose for the individual subject. Moreover, for human administration, preparations should meet sterility, pyrogenicity, and general safety and purity standards as required by the FDA.
For enteral administration, the inhibitor may be administered in a tablet or capsule, which may be enteric coated, or in a formulation for controlled or sustained release. Many suitable formulations are known, including polymeric or protein microparticles encapsulating drug to be released, ointments, gels, or solutions which can be used topically or locally to administer drug, and even patches, which provide controlled release over a prolonged period of time. These can also take the form of implants. Such an implant may be implanted within the tumor.
Therapeutically effective concentrations and amounts may be determined for each application herein empirically by testing the compounds in known in vitro and in vivo systems, such as those described herein, dosages for humans or other animals may then be extrapolated therefrom.
An IDO inhibitor may be administered at once, or may be divided into a number of smaller doses to be administered at intervals of time. It is understood that the precise dosage and duration of treatment is a function of the disease being treated and may be determined empirically using known testing protocols or by extrapolation from in vivo or in vitro test data. It is to be noted that concentrations and dosage values may also vary with the severity of the condition to be alleviated. It is to be further understood that for any particular subject, specific dosage regimens should be adjusted over time according to the individual need and the professional judgment of the person administering or supervising the administration of the compositions, and that the concentration ranges set forth herein are exemplary only and are not intended to limit the scope or practice of the claimed compositions and methods.
IDO inhibitors may also be administered in combination with other modes of treatment. For example, D-isomers of inhibitors of IDO may be administered to a patient in combination with other modes of cancer treatment. Such treatments include, but are not limited to, surgical resection, radiation therapy, chemotherapy, hormone therapy, anti-tumor vaccines, antibody based therapies, whole body irradiation, bone marrow transplantation, and peripheral blood stem cell transplantation. The chemotherapeutic agents used can include, but are not limited to, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, vincristine, ifosfamide, cisplatin, gemcytabine, busulfan (also known as 1,4-butanediol dimethanesulfonate or BU), ara-C (also known as 1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine or cytarabine), adriamycin, mitomycin, cytoxan, methotrexate, and combinations thereof.
D-isomers of IDO inhibitors may also be administered to a patient undergoing treatment with an antiviral agent, such as AZT, ddI or ddC, an antibiotic, or an antimicrobial agent for an infection with an intracellular pathogen.
D-isomers of inhibitors of IDO may also be administered to a patient undergoing treatment with cytokine, including, but not limited to, treatment with an immunostimulatory cytokine such as IL-1α, IL-1β, IL-2, IL-3, IL-4, IL-6, IL-8, IL-9, IL-10, IL-12, IL-18, IL-19, IL-20, IFN-α, IFN-β, IFN-γ, tumor necrosis factor (TNF), transforming growth factor-β (TGF-β), granulocyte colony stimulating factor (G-CSF), macrophage colony stimulating factor (M-CSF), granulocyte-macrophage colony stimulating factor (GM-CSF)) (U.S. Pat. Nos. 5,478,556, 5,837,231, and 5,861,159), or Flt-3 ligand (Shurin et al., Cell Immunol. 1997; 179:174-184).
D-isomers of inhibitors of IDO may also be administered to a patient receiving a vaccine. Such a vaccine may be an anti-viral vaccine, such as, for example, a vaccine against HIV, or a vaccine against tuberculosis or malaria. The vaccine may be a tumor vaccine, including, for example, a melanoma, prostate cancer, colorectal carcinoma, or multiple myeloma vaccine. Dendritic cells (DC) have the ability to stimulate primary T cell antitumor immune responses. Thus, a tumor vaccine may include dendritic cells. Dendritic cell vaccines may be prepared, for example, by pulsing autologous DCs derived from the subject with synthetic antigens, tumor lysates, tumor RNA, or idiotype antibodies, by transfection of DCs with tumor DNA, or by creating tumor cell/DC fusions (Ridgway, Cancer Invest. 2003; 21(6):873-86). The vaccine may include one or more immunogenic peptides, for example, immunogenic HIV peptides, immunogenic tumor peptides, or immunogenic human cytomegalovirus peptides (such as those described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,251,399). The vaccine may include genetically modified cells, including genetically modified tumor cells or cell lines genetically modified to express granulocyte-macrophage stimulating factor (GM-CSF) (Dranoff, Immunol Rev. 2002; 188:147-54).
The administration of an IDO inhibitor may take place before, during, or after the administration of the other mode of therapy.
Inhibitors of IDO may be formulated as a composition. The compositions of the present invention may be formulated in a variety of forms adapted to the chosen route of administration. The formulations may be conveniently presented in unit dosage form and may be prepared by methods well known in the art of pharmacy. Formulations of the present invention include, for example, pharmaceutical compositions including a D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor and a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier. The phrase “pharmaceutically-acceptable” refers to molecular entities and compositions that do not produce an allergic or similar untoward reaction when administered to a human. The preparation of such compositions is well understood in the art. The formulations of this invention may include one or more accessory ingredients including diluents, buffers, binders, disintegrants, surface active agents, thickeners, lubricants, preservatives (including antioxidants), and the like.
In addition, formulations of the present invention may further include one or more additional therapeutic agents. An additional therapeutic agent may be an antineoplastic chemotherapy agent, including, but not limited to, cyclophosphamide, methotrexate, fluorouracil, doxorubicin, vincristine, ifosfamide, cisplatin, gemcytabine, busulfan (also known as 1,4-butanediol dimethanesulfonate or BU), ara-C (also known as 1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine or cytarabine), adriamycin, mitomycin, cytoxan, methotrexate, or a combination thereof. Additional therapeutic agents include cytokines, including, but not limited to, macrophage colony stimulating factor, interferon gamma, granulocyte-macrophage stimulating factor (GM-CSF), flt-3, an antibiotic, antimicrobial agents, antiviral agents, such as AZT, ddI or ddC, and combinations thereof.
As shown in the examples, proliferation in a mixed lymphocyte reaction (MLR) is significantly enhanced by the addition of the D-isomer of an IDO inhibitor, compared to the addition of a racemic mixture of the IDO inhibitor. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, a method of enhancing the signal in a mixed leukocyte response (MLR) by the addition of a D isomer of an inhibitor of indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase to the MLR.
IDO contributes to the pathophysiology of central nervous system infection, autoimmune inflammation, and AIDS dementia, by local tryptophan starvation and by generation of neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites, such as quinolinate (Venkateshan, Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA 1996; 93:1636-1641; Vogelsgang, J. Rheumatol. 1996; 23:850-855; Sardar, Neurosci. Let. 1995; 187:9-12; and Alberati-Giani, J. Neurochem. 1996; 66:996-1004). The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of a D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to treat such IDO-related pathophysiology of central nervous system infection, including, but not limited to, autoimmune inflammation, AIDS dementia, local tryptophan starvation, and the generation of neurotoxic tryptophan metabolites, including, but not limited to, quinolinate.
IDO is induced by several inflammatory mediators, including interferons and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), as well as by viral infection. The most potent inducer of IDO is IFNγ, due to two interferon-stimulated response elements (ISREs) in the IDO promoter (Konan, J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271:19140-19145; Chon, J. Biol. Chem. 1996; 271:17247-17252). In addition to its effect on intracellular organisms, IDO appears to mediate at least part of the antiproliferative effect of IFNγ on replicating host cells, such as virally infected cells and tumor cells (Aune, et al., J. Clin. Invest. 1989; 84:863-875). Mutant cell lines selected for their ability to grow in the presence of IFNγ were found to have acquired mutations in the IDO gene or its promoter (Feng Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci USA 1989; 86:7144-7148). Allogeneic tumor cells being rejected by the host immune system in vivo up regulate IDO, and this effect is mediated by IFNγ (Yu, et al., Intl. Immunol. 1996; 8:855-865). Thus, IDO inhibits the proliferation of both intracellular pathogens and host cells. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of a D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to treat such antiproliferative effects of IDO induced by inflammatory mediators, including, but not limited to LPS and IFNγ.
IDO activity is present in macrophage-like and dendritic-like cells in organs of the immune system (Moffett, et al., 1994 Cell Tissue Res. 278:461-469). Macrophages are primed during differentiation in the presence of MCSF to undergo a massive induction of IDO activity in response to a synergistic combination of signals displayed during early T cell activation (IFNγ plus CD40 ligand). In addition, these macrophages markedly increase their rate of tryptophan uptake, via induction of a previously unidentified high-affinity transport pathway. Macrophages that have differentiated under the influence of macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF) inhibit attempted T cell activation via super-induction of the antimicrobial host-defense enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase, which selectively degrades the essential amino acid tryptophan. Simultaneously, these macrophages also markedly increase tryptophan uptake via induction of a novel high-affinity transport pathway. The combination of these two mechanisms allows macrophages of this phenotype to effectively deplete tryptophan from the local microenvironment, thus preventing T cell activation. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of a D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to inhibit IDO activity in macrophages and dendritic cells.
As shown in U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,451,840 and 6,482,416, the role of IDO in the placenta is to suppress T cell responses against the genetically foreign fetus. If IDO activity were inhibited in the placenta, the fetus would be unable to protect itself against maternal T cells and would be rejected. Inhibition of IDO with 1-methyltryptophan results in prompt, T cell-mediated rejection of an allogeneic fetus. There is no effect of the inhibitor on genetically identical (syngeneic) control fetuses, demonstrating that the inhibitor itself was not toxic. Thus, expression of IDO serves as a marker of suppression of T cell activation, and plays a significant role in allogeneic pregnancy and therefore other types of transplantation. The administration of an inhibitor of IDO, 1-methyl-tryptophan, induces specific and uniform rejection of allogeneic conceptus. See U.S. Pat. Nos. 6,451,840 and 6,482,416. Rejection is T cell driven since a single paternally-inherited fetal MHC class I alloantigen provokes embryo loss, and rejection does not occur if maternal lymphocytes are absent when IDO activity is inhibited or the mother does not have functional T cells. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of the D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to treat such IDO-associated suppression of T cell rejection of a fetus. For example, to terminate a pregnancy one administers an effective amount of a D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO.
In addition to a role in pregnancy, IDO-expressing cells are widely distributed in primary and secondary lymphoid organs. Monocytes that have differentiated under the influence of macrophage colony-stimulating factor acquire the ability to suppress T cell proliferation in vitro via rapid and selective degradation of tryptophan by IDO. In Munn et al. (J Exp Med 1999; 189:1363-72), IDO was induced in macrophages by a synergistic combination of the T cell-derived signals IFN-gamma and CD40-ligand. Inhibition of IDO with the 1-methyl analogue of tryptophan prevented macrophage-mediated suppression. Purified T cells activated under tryptophan-deficient conditions were able to synthesize protein, enter the cell cycle, and progress normally through the initial stages of G1, including up regulation of IL-2 receptor and synthesis of IL-2. However, in the absence of tryptophan, cell cycle progression halted at a mid-G1 arrest point. Restoration of tryptophan to arrested cells was not sufficient to allow further cell cycle progression nor was costimulation via CD28. T cells could exit the arrested state only if a second round of T cell receptor signaling was provided in the presence of tryptophan. Antigen-presenting cells can regulate T cell activation via tryptophan catabolism and the expression of IDO by certain antigen presenting cells in vivo allows them to suppress unwanted T cell responses. The administration of a D isomer of an inhibitor of IDO, such as 1-methyl-D-tryptophan can be used to activate T cells and therefore enhance T cell activation when the T cells are suppressed by malignancy, cytokines, such as interferon-γ, or a virus, such as HIV or CMV. The present invention includes, but is not limited to, the administration of the D-isomer of one or more inhibitors of IDO to treat and/or prevent such IDO-associated suppression of T cell activation and/or proliferation.
The methods described herein can be used as indicators of the inhibition of IDO and T cell activation or suppression. Testing for IDO expression in tumor biopsies can be used to determine the suitability of the cancer for therapy with a D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO. The quantitative inhibition of the activity of an IDO enzyme is readily ascertained by the assays described herein, and by assays known to one of skill in the art. The inhibition of the activity of an IDO enzyme can be quantitatively measured and described as a percentage of the IDO activity in a comparable control. IDO activity of the present invention may be reduced to a level that is about 5%, about 10%, about 15%, about 20%, about 25%, about 30%, about 35%, about 40%, about 45%, about 50%, about 55%, about 60%, about 65%, about 70%, about 75%, about 80%, about 85%, about 90%, about 95%, or about 99% of the IDO activity in a suitable control. For example, a determination of the inhibition of IDO activity by a D-isomer of an inhibitor of IDO may be determined in comparison to the inhibition of IDO activity by an L-isomer or a racemic mixture of an inhibitor of IDO.
The present invention is illustrated by the following examples. It is to be understood that the particular examples, materials, amounts, and procedures are to be interpreted broadly in accordance with the scope and spirit of the invention as set forth herein.
This example describes a subset of human APCs that express indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) and inhibit T cell proliferation in vitro. IDO-positive APCs constituted a discrete subset identified by coexpression of the cell-surface markers CD123 and CCR6. In the dendritic cell (DC) lineage, IDO-mediated suppressor activity was present in fully mature as well as immature CD123+ DCs. IDO+ DCs could also be readily detected in vivo, indicating that these cells represent a regulatory subset of APCs in humans.
Using an IDO-specific antibody (
Because serum factors are known to influence DC maturation (Romani et al., J. Immunol. Methods, 1996; 196:137), DCs were derived in both bovine calf serum (BCS)-based medium and serum-free medium (SFM). Both systems yielded IDO+ DCs with the same phenotype, but greater than 90% of the IDONEG cells in SFM were tightly adherent. This allowed facile enrichment of the nonadherent IDO+ population to greater than 90% purity. The IDO+ cells expressed cell-surface markers CD14NEG, CD83+, CD80+, CD86HI, and HLA-DRHI (
As shown previously (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363), resting macrophage colony-stimulating factor (MCSF)-derived Mφs did not express high concentrations of IDO until they received a triggering signal such as IFN-γ (
Interleukin 10 (IL-10) is a regulatory cytokine that has been associated with the development of tolerogenic DCs (Steinbrink et al., J. Immunol., 1997; 159:4772). The presence of IL-10 during maturation prevented IFN-γ-induced down-regulation of IDO, resulting in sustained expression of functional IDO even in mature, IFN-γ-activated DCs (
DCs were next tested for their ability to stimulate T cells in allogeneic mixed-leukocyte reactions (MLRs). In
The experiments in
The staining of tissue from fifteen non-inflamed tonsils removed in routine tonsillectomy showed scattered IDO+ cells in germinal center and T cell regions, indicating that in vivo, few IDO+ cells are detected in normal lymphoid tissue. However, human tonsils displaying features of chronic inflammation often possessed intense focal infiltrates of IDO+ cells, which were morphologically distinct from Ham56+ macrophages (Orenstein and Wahl, Ultrastruct. Pathol., 1999; 23:79) or S100+ interdigitating DCs (Cochran et al., Mod. Pathol., 2001; 14:604). Some IDO+ cells coexpressed CD83, a marker of mature DCs, and some expressed CD123 and CCR6 (
For these studies, lymph nodes were analyzed from 26 patients with malignant melanoma at the Medical College of Georgia; 13 of 26 patients were found to have at least one node (often more than one) with markedly abnormal accumulation of IDO+ cells (3+ or 4+ on a 4+ scale, independently graded by 3 pathologists). The IDO+ cells were morphologically monocytic or plasmacytoid in appearance, and were found infiltrating extensively throughout the lymphoid regions, typically concentrating in the interfollicular and T cell zones. Accumulations were observed around blood vessels, at the margins of medullary sinuses, and the interface between lymphoid tissue and tumor metastases. Recruitment of IDO+ dendritic cells to specific regional lymph nodes was also seen in smaller series of patients with carcinoma of the breast, lung, colon and pancreas (comprising all of the other histologies examined).
In a separate study, sentinel lymph nodes were obtained from patients with malignant melanoma. Each node was documented to be the initial tumor-draining lymph node by in vivo lymphoscintigraphy, and all were negative for metastatic tumor by conventional pathologic studies. Twelve of these 40 sentinel nodes were found to have abnormal accumulation of IDO+ cells (grades 1+ to 4+). In many of these patients, accumulation of IDO+ cells in the sentinel node occurred before overt metastasis. Similar accumulation of IDO+ cells was found in nodes from patients with breast, colon, lung, and pancreatic cancers.
In this example, a subset of human monocyte-derived DCs that use IDO to inhibit T cell proliferation in vitro is described. In both DC and M lineages, IDO+ cells could be characterized by coexpression of CD123 and CCR6 (despite the expression of otherwise distinct lineage-specific markers), which suggests that the IDO+ population may represent a discrete subset of professional APCs. IDO+ DCs expressed major histocompatibility complex class II and costimulatory molecules and were effective stimulators of T cell proliferation when IDO was blocked by 1MT, which suggests that these cells could act as competent APCs. This may reflect a regulatory subset of APCs specialized to cause antigen-specific depletion (Munn et al., J. Immunol., 1996; 156:523) or otherwise negatively regulate the responding population of T cells. In light of the finding that large numbers of such cells are present in a proportion of tumor-draining lymph nodes, it appears that IDO+ APCs may participate in the state of apparent immunologic unresponsiveness displayed by many cancer patients toward tumor-associated antigens. However, the extent to which IDO-expressing APCs might influence immunologic unresponsiveness in vivo remains to be determined.
The peptide LIESGQLRERVEKLNMLC (SEQ ID NO:1) was prepared based on the GenBank sequence of human IDO (GenBank Accession Number M34455; Dai and Gupta, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1990; 168:1-8) and conjugated to keyhole limpet cyanogen. Rabbits were immunized with conjugated peptide in complete Freund's adjuvant and boosted three times in incomplete Freund's adjuvant (all antibody preparation and affinity purification steps were performed by QCB/BioSource International). This peptide gave the best results out of several sequences screened for their ability to detect IDO in formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tissue and flow cytometry. Using THP1 monocytic leukemia cell lysates, the antibody detected a single band of the expected 45 kD molecular mass (Dai and Gupta, Biochem. Biophys. Res. Commun., 1990; 168:1-8) by western blot (
Distinction of IDO+ Cells from CD123+ Plasmacytoid DCs
CD123 is also found on “plasmacytoid” DCs or pre-DC2 cells. However, the CD123 expression observed on the IDO+ subset of monocyte-derived DCs was at the lower level described on myeloid DCs (Cella et al., Nat. Med., 1999; 5:919), not the 10- to 100-fold higher levels that we observed on plasmacytoid DCs. The IDO+ cells also expressed myeloid markers (CD11b, CD11c) and did not express the pre-DC2 marker BDCA2 (Dzionek et al., J. Immunol., 2000; 165:6037). Plasmacytoid dendritic cells (CD123+ CD11cNEG cells) showed no detectable expression of IDO (fresh or following activation with IFNγ). The CD123+ IDO+ subset of monocyte-derived DCs and Mφs co-expressed CCR6. While CD123 was expressed constitutively, CCR6 was inducible, and was expressed under the same conditions in which IDO protein was induced. Thus, in MCSF-derived Mφs CCR6 required induction by IFNγ, whereas in DCs CCR6 was constitutively expressed on CD123+ DCs.
Human monocytes (typically greater than 95% purity) were isolated by leukocytapheresis and counterflow elutriation as described (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363), then cryopreserved in replicate aliquots. Monocyte-derived Mφs were cultured in RPMI-1640 medium supplemented with 10% bovine calf serum (Hyclone) (“BCS system”) and received MCSF (200 μg/ml, gift of Genetics Institute) on day 0 (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363). Monocyte-derived DCs were cultured in 100 mm petri dishes in either BCS medium (Sallusto and Lanzavecchia, J. Exp. Med., 1994; 179:1109) or in serum-free medium (X-vivo 15, BioWhitaker, “SFM system”) (Chen et al., Blood, 1998; 91:4652). SFM yielded a somewhat higher proportion of IDO+ cells, but the phenotype and function of the cells was identical. DCs received GMCSF (50 ng/ml, R&D Systems)+IL4 (50 ng/ml, R&D Systems) on days 0, 2 and 4. For experiments where CCR6 expression was of interest, cultures received a single dose of GMCSF+IL4 (100 ng/ml each) on day 0, which gave higher expression of CCR6 (Yang et al., J. Immunol., 1999; 163:1737). Non-adherent DCs were harvested by aspiration; adherent cells and MCSF-derived macrophages were harvested with 5 mM EDTA. For maturation studies, cells were treated for the final 48 hours with one of the following: 0.5 ug/ml activating anti-CD40 antibody (Mabtech); a cytokine cocktail comprising TNFα (1100 units/ml, Pharmingen), IL1β (1870 units/ml, Pharmingen), IL6 (1000 units/ml, Pharmingen) and PGE2 (1 ug/ml, Sigma) (Jonuleit et al., Eur. J. Immunol., 1997; 27:3135) (12); or 50% v/v conditioned medium (X-vivo 15) from activated monocytes (allowed to adhere overnight to petri dishes coated with immobilized IgG (Cappel ICN) (Reddy et al. Blood, 1997; 90:3640). In some experiments, DCs also received IL10 (R&D Systems, 100 ng/ml) with the maturation stimuli. For activation studies, cells received 100 units/ml IFNγ (Genentech) during the final 18 hours of culture.
All antibodies and reagents were from BD-Pharmingen unless specified. Fresh whole blood was stained using BD FACS Lysing Solution. For cultured cells, nonadherent cells were pooled with adherent cells (harvested with 5 mM EDTA in PBS for 10 minutes) prior to analysis, unless otherwise specified. Cells were triple-stained with anti-CD123-biotin (clone 7G3) followed by streptavidin-perCP, plus anti-CD11c-allophycocyanin (clone S-HCL-3) or anti-CCR6-fluorescein (clone 53103.111, R&D systems). CCR6 results were confirmed using a second antibody (11A9, BD-Pharmingen). After fixation and permeablization (Cytofix/Cytoperm), cells were stained with rabbit anti-IDO antibody followed by PE-labeled anti-rabbit secondary antibody (Jackson Immunoreasearch, cross-adsorbed against mouse, human and bovine IgG). For all experiments, the negative control for IDO staining was the anti-IDO antibody pre-adsorbed with a 50-fold molar excess of the immunizing peptide. Dendritic cells and Mφs were gated on forward and side scatter to exclude contaminating lymphocytes and debris. For phenotyping experiments, cells were stained without permeablization, using a multicolor panel of CD123 versus various markers (all from BD-Pharmingen).
Dendritic cells were mixed with 5×105 allogeneic lymphocytes (80-85% T cells, balance B cells and NK cells, less than 1% monocytes) in 250 ul of MLR culture medium (10% fetal calf serum in RPMI-1640). Replicate wells received 1-methyl-tryptophan (Aldrich) at a final concentration of 200 uM at the time of T cell addition, or buffer control. Unless otherwise specified, the D-isomer of 1MT was used. After 5 days, proliferation was measured by 4 hour thymidine incorporation assay. “V”-bottom culture wells (Nunc) were used in MLR assays to maximize cell-cell contact. It was found that this geometry gave significantly greater sensitivity for measuring suppression, as compared to flat-bottom wells. However, V-bottom wells were not a prerequisite for detecting suppression (e.g., all of the experiments in both Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363; and Mellor et al., J. Immunol., 2002; 168:3771 used flat-bottom wells). The V-bottom geometry itself was not suppressive, as shown by the brisk T cell proliferation observed when IDO was inhibited by 1MT (
For paraffin blocks, sections were deparaffinized, treated for 8 minutes with proteinase K (Dako), and stained with rabbit anti-human IDO antibody (5 ug/ml in phosphate-buffered saline with 0.05% Tween-20 and 10% goat serum). Detection was via secondary antibody conjugated to alkaline phosphatase (LSAB2-rabbit kit, Dako) with Fast Red or nitro-blue tetrazolium chromogen. In all experiments, negative controls consisted of the anti-IDO antibody neutralized with a molar excess of the immunizing peptide. For two-color immunofluorescent staining, frozen sections of human tonsil were fixed for 10 minutes in 10% formalin, then primary antibodies were applied against IDO (0.05 ug/ml) and either CD83 (Immunotech), CD123 (Santa Cruz) or CCR6 (R&D Systems). IDO was detected with rabbit-specific secondary antibody conjugated to Alexa-488 (Molecular Probes); mouse antibodies were detected with species-specific secondary antibody conjugated to Alexa-568 (all secondary antibodies were cross-adsorbed for multiple labeling). Some CD4+ T cells showed low-level staining for IDO, consistent with previous reports (Curreli et al., J. Interferon Cytokine Res., 2001; 21:431). This T cell staining was minimal by the less-sensitive immunohistochemistry technique, and with immunofluorescence could be unambiguously distinguished from the high-level IDO expression seen in APCs through the use of two-color staining.
When DCs or Mφs were tested in isolation (i.e., without T cells, as in
Inhibition of T cell proliferation by immature DCs was seen in 10/10 experiments using seven different donors. In seven of these ten experiments, T cell proliferation was significantly enhanced by 1MT. With mature DCs, inhibition of T cell proliferation was observed in 12/13 experiments (six different donors) using sorted CD123+ DCs (BCS system) as shown in
In all experiments, the D-isomer of 1MT was used unless otherwise specified, because it gave better reversal of suppression with less toxicity than the DL-racemic mixture used previously (Munn et al., Science, 1998; 281:1191). As previously published (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363), 1MT is not an efficient inhibitor of IDO (Km of approximately 30 uM). When the number of IDO+ DCs is large, a racemic mixture of 1MT is only partially effective in reversing IDO-mediated inhibition of T cell proliferation. While this could in theory imply a second, unrelated mechanism of suppression that happened to co-segregate with IDO in our system, it more likely reflects the less-than-perfect efficiency of a racemic mixture of 1MT as an inhibitor of IDO. The effectiveness of 1MT was significantly enhanced if the DCs were matured (e.g.,
Expression of IDO Protein without Constitutive Activity
Thus, it appears that a constitutive presence in immature DCs of immunoreactive IDO protein, but with functional enzymatic activity being induced only after IFNγ activation, reflects an additional layer of specific, biologically relevant regulation of IDO. In this regard, it should also be noted that, while flow cytometry failed to detect significant IDO in resting MCSF-derived Mφs (
The specific role of tolerogenic dendritic cells (DCs) in tumor immunology remains unclear. In part, this is because the specific molecular mechanisms by which DCs create tolerance are still poorly understood (Moser, Immunity, 2003; 19:5). The present example focuses on the immunoregulatory enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO) (Taylor et al., FASEB J., 1991; 5:2516). IDO is a tryptophan-degrading enzyme; its expression by cultured macrophages and DC allows them to inhibit T cell proliferation in vitro (Munn et al., J. Exp. Med., 1999; 189:1363; Hwu et al., J. Immunol., 2000; 164:3596; and Munn et al., Science, 2002; 297: 1867). Transfection of recombinant IDO into tumor cell lines confers the ability to inhibit antigen-specific T cell responses in vitro (Mellor et al., J. Immunol., 2002; 168:3771), and protects immunogenic tumor from rejection in vivo (Uyttenhove et al., Nat. Med., 2003; 9:1269). Endogenous IDO has been implicated in maternal tolerance toward the allogeneic fetus (Munn et al., Science, 1998; 281:1191), tolerance to self antigens in NOD mice (Grohmann et al., J. Exp. Med., 2003; 198:153), and as a downstream effector mechanism for the tolerance-Inducing agent CTLA4-Ig (Grohmann et al., Nat. Immunol., 2002; 3:985). Thus, IDO represents a potent endogenous immunoregulatory system that may be exploited by some tumors as a mechanism of immune evasion.
IDO can be expressed by a variety of human tumors and tumor cell lines (Uyttenhove et al., Nat. Med., 2003; 9:1269; Logan et al., Immunol., 2002; 105:478; and Friberg et al., Int. J. Cancer, 2002; 101:151). This observation, combined with evidence from IDO-transfected tumors (Uyttenhove et al., Nat. Med., 2003; 9:1269), suggests that expression of IDO by malignant cells may contribute to local immunosuppression within tumors. As shown in Example 1, IDO is expressed by a population of host cells found in certain tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLNs), indicating that these cells represent a population of immunosuppressive host DCs that are recruited by the tumor. In the present example, a murine tumor model was developed to isolate and characterize the IDO-expressing DCs from TDLNs was developed and used to study IDO-dependent T cell suppression.
The present example demonstrates that tumor-draining lymph nodes in mice contain a population of plasmacytoid dendritic cells (pDCs) that constitutively express immunosuppressive levels of the enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). These cells expressed multiple markers of mature pDCs, but also co-expressed CD19 and pax5, suggesting derivation from a lymphoid B-cell progenitor. CD19+ pDCs comprised less than 0.5% of cells in tumor-draining lymph nodes (TDLN) but could potently and dominantly suppress CD8+ T cell responses in vitro, in an IDO-dependent fashion. Adoptive transfer of DCs from tumor-draining lymph nodes created T cell unresponsiveness and dominant immunosuppression to a strong nominal antigen in naive, non-tumor-bearing hosts. These effects were abrogated by targeted disruption of the IDO gene in the transferred DCs, or by administration of the IDO inhibitor drug 1-methyl-tryptophan following adoptive transfer. These results indicate that IDO-expressing DCs create a local microenvironment in tumor-draining lymph nodes that suppresses host anti-tumor cytotoxic T cell responses.
Clinical studies. A series of samples from patients with malignant melanoma were randomly selected, based on the following inclusion criteria: radiographically mapped sentinel LN at the time of diagnosis; no metastases at presentation; and no further therapy given following initial surgical resection. Sentinel LN biopsies were stained for IDO by immunohistochemistry, expression was graded by three pathologists as described (Lee et al., Lab. Invest., 2003; 83:1457), and a consensus score obtained. Patients were stratified into normal (grade 0) versus abnormal (grade 1+ or higher) expression, and compared by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis. Sentinel LN biopsies from patients with breast cancer were selected from the archives of the Medical College of Georgia. Studies with human subjects were approved by the appropriate Institutional Review Board.
Mouse tumor models. C57BL/6 mice (Jackson, Bar Harbor, Me.) were implanted with tumors in the anteriomedial thigh, using either 4×104 B16F10 (ATCC, Bethesda, Md.) or 1×106 B78H1•GM-CSF. B78H1•GM-CSF cells recruit large numbers of APCs (Dranoff et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1993; 90:3539) and were originally designed as a vaccine strategy. GMCSF-transfected tumors are immunogenic if lethally irradiated prior to injection (Borrello et al., Hum. Gene Ther., 1999; 10:1983), but live tumors grow progressively and create systemic tolerance to tumor antigens (Bronte et al., J. Immunol., 1999; 162:5728). Thus, B78H1•GM-CSF represented an excellent model for our studies, since it recruited many DCs but nevertheless provoke a protective immune response. Tumors were 10-12 days after implantation, well prior to the stage of large, metastatic tumors (day 21) in which the hosts began to show alteration in spleen and non-tumor-draining LNs. FACS analysis showed that the pDCs recruited by B78H1•GM-CSF tumors were phenotypically identical to those recruited by B16F10 tumors, but with the advantage that they could be recovered in quantities sufficient for functional analysis. Immunohistochemical studies of established B16F10 and B78H1•GM-CSF tumors showed that neither expressed IDO in the tumor cells themselves. Studies, presented herein, using IDO-deficient hosts formally showed that the relevant IDO expression was in host-derived APCs, not the tumor cell lines themselves.
Immunohistochemistry. Immunohistochemistry was performed on human materials as described in Example 1, following proteinase K antigen retrieval of formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded sections. Mouse tissues were fixed overnight in 10% formalin and paraffin embedded. Since the IDO epitope was not stable to prolonged storage in thin sections, staining was performed within 24 hours of sectioning. Staining was performed using a rabbit anti-mouse IDO polyclonal antibody (Mellor et al., J. Immunol., 2003; 171:1652). Cytocentrifuge preparations were made from cell suspensions following fluorescence-activated cell sorting, fixed for 10 minutes in 10% formalin, and stained within 24 hours. Controls for human and mouse staining included the anti-IDO antibody neutralized with a molar excess of the immunizing peptide.
Flow cytometry and cell sorting. Single-cell suspensions of LNs were obtained by teasing and disaggregation through a 40 micron mesh. Spleen cells were obtained by ground-glass homogenization and hypotonic lysis of erythrocytes. Cells were stained by 4-color immunofluorescence, using CD11c versus B220 versus CD19 versus a panel of other markers. Fc binding was blocked using a commercial anti-CD16/CD32 cocktail (BD Pharmingen, San Diego, Calif.). All acquisitions and sorts were performed using pulse-processing doublet discrimination. Antibodies against the following antigens were from BD-Pharmingen: CD11c (clone HL3), B220 (clone RA3-6B2), CD19 (clone 1D3), CD4 (clone H129.19), CD8α (clone 53.6.7), Ly6c (clone AL-21), CD45RA (clone HI100), MHC class II (anti-I-Ab, clone 25-9-17), CD80 (clone 16-10A1), CD86 (clone GL1), H-2 Kb (clone AF6-88.5), CD123 (clone 5B11), and CD135/FLT3 (clone A2F10.1). Anti-mouse CCR6 (clone 140706) was from R&D Systems (Minneapolis, Minn.). Anti-clonotypic antibody Ti98 against the BM3 TCR was biotinylated and used as described (Tarazona et al., Int. Immunol., 1996; 8:351). All antibodies were used with isotype-matched negative controls. To adjust for differences in nonspecific binding between cell populations, each isotype control was gated on the specific population of interest. Analytical flow cytometry was also performed on a 4-color FACS-Caliber (Becton-Dickinson) with similar results.
T cell activation in MLR. BM3 responder T cells were prepared from spleen by nylon-wool enrichment. Stimulators (sorted DCs or unfractionated TDLN) were mixed with 1×105 BM3 responder cells in 200 ul IMDM at the ratios shown in each figure. After 3 days, proliferation was measured by 4-hour thymidine incorporation assay. Where indicated, replicate groups of wells received 200 uM 1-methyl-[D]-tryptophan (Sigma-Aldrich, St. Louis, Mo.) or 250 uM [L]-tryptophan (Sigma). To prepare a 100×1MT stock, a 20 mM solution was dissolved in 0.1 N NaOH and then adjusted to pH 7.4. All MLRs were performed in V-bottom culture wells (Nalge-Nunc, Rochester, N.Y.), as previously described in Example 1, because the close cell-cell contact gave the maximum sensitivity to IDO-mediated suppression.
In these studies, it was important that the stimulator DCs not be irradiated, because initial validation studies showed that irradiation significantly altered the viability and functional attributes of IDO+ pDCs. MLRs were thus “two-way” reactions. However, the small number of sorted DCs used as stimulators contributed negligible proliferation compared to the large population of TCR-transgenic responder cells. Since the relevant readout was dominant suppression, the two-way MLR design presented no problem in interpretation.
Quantitative real-time PCR. Total RNA was extracted from sorted cells using Trizol (Gibco-BRL, Gaithersburg, Md.). RNA was reverse-transcribed and amplified using the LightCycler real-time PCR system (Roche, Pleasanton, Calif.) with the RNA SYBR Green kit (Roche). All groups were compared in the same run, and quantitated against a standard curve of spleen RNA. Primers for mouse γ-actin were as follows. Sense was GATGACGCAGATAATGTTT (SEQ ID NO:2) and antisense was TCTCCTTTATGTCACGAAC (SEQ ID NO:3), yielding a 290 basepair product. Primers for mouse CD19 were as follows. Sense was GGCACCTATTATTGTCTCCG (SEQ ID NO:4) and antisense was GGGTCAGTCATTCGCTTC (SEQ ID NO:5), yielding a 218 basepair product). The primers for mouse pax5 were as follows. Sense was GCATAGTGTCTACAGGCTCCG (SEQ ID NO:6) and antisense was GATGGGTTCCGTGGTGGT (SEQ ID NO:7), yielding a 299 basepair product. Conditions were optimized for each set of primers to give a linear standard curve over a 1000-fold range, with a correlation coefficient of r greater than 0.99. An aliquot of each experimental sample was pre-screened to determine γ-actin message, then each sample was loaded to amplify an equivalent amount of γ-actin. For gels, RT-PCR was performed for the pre-determined optimum number of cycles yielding amplification in the linear range, and products resolved by formaldehyde gel electrophoresis. All primers gave single bands of the expected molecular weight.
Adoptive transfer studies. Recipient CBA mice (Jackson) were prepared by intravenous injection of 4×107 BM3 splenocytes (termed CBA+BM3 mice). It has been previously shown that adoptively transferred BM3 T cells are stable in CBA hosts for over 100 days (Tarazona et al., Int. Immunol., 1996; 8:351). CD11c+ DCs were isolated from TDLNs, or from normal LNs of C57BL/6 and CBA mice, using a Cytomation MoFlo high-speed cell sorter. Two aliquots of 1×105 DCs were injected into each recipient, subcutaneously in each anteriomedial thigh (analogous to the position of the original tumor). After 10 to 12 days, recipient mice were euthanized and the inguinal LNs (draining the sites of injection) and spleen (a representative distant site) removed for analysis. In some experiments, mice received 1-methyl-[D]-tryptophan (compound designation NSC 721782, Drug Development Group, Division of Cancer Treatment and Diagnosis, National Cancer Institute, Rockville, Md.) by continuous subcutaneous infusion (5 mg/day) using implantable copolymer pellets as previously described (Munn et al., Science, 1998; 281:1191). Control mice received vehicle pellets alone.
Screening studies of radiographically mapped tumor-draining (sentinel) lymph nodes from patients with breast carcinoma and malignant melanoma demonstrated that a subset of patients had abnormal accumulation of cells expressing IDO in sentinel nodes. Similar cells were also seen in regional LNs dissections from other solid tumors (colon, lung and pancreas, not shown). Melanoma was chosen for further analysis because of the availability of archived sentinel LNs with paired long-term clinical follow-up. In a retrospective study of 40 patients with malignant melanoma, the presence of an abnormal number of IDO+ cells in the sentinel LN at the time of diagnosis was found to be a significantly adverse prognostic factor. None of these patients had detectable metastases at the time of the biopsy, so recruitment of IDO+ cells occurred early in the course of the disease. In this example, a murine system to model these cells was developed and used to determine that the IDO-expressing cells in TDLNs represented a population of immunoregulatory APCs.
The presence of IDO+ cells in TDLNs of mice with Lewis Lung Carcinoma has been previously reported (Friberg et al., Int. J. Cancer, 2002; 101:151). With the present example, IDO+ cells were also found in TDLNs in the well-characterized B16F10 melanoma model. LNs were harvested 7-12 days after tumor implantation, well before any detectable metastases to the LNs. The accumulation of IDO+ cells occurred only in LNs draining the tumors; few or none were present in contralateral (non-tumor-draining) LNs from the same animals. Morphologically, the IDO+ cells were plasmacytoid mononuclear cells similar to those found in human nodes. However, the number of such cells recruited by B16F10 tumors was lower than observed in heavily-infiltrated human LNs. To increase the number of APCs in the draining LNs, a subline of B16 melanoma (clone B78H1) transfected with the cytokine GM-CSF (Huang et al., Science, 1994; 264:961) was also stained for IDO expression. GM-CSF markedly increases the number of APCs recruited into TDLNs (Dranoff et al., Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. USA, 1993; 90:3539), and many primary human melanomas and other tumors constitutively express mRNA for GM-CSF (Mattei et al., Int. J. Cancer, 1994; 56:853; Smith et al., Clin. Exp. Metastasis, 1998; 16:655; Colasante et al., Hum. Pathol., 1995; 26:866; and Bronte et al., J. Immunol., 1999; 162:5728). B78H1•GM-CSF tumors recruited large number of IDO-expressing cells, comparable to heavily infiltrated humans LNs. As in B16F10, IDO expression was localized to the draining node, and was not observed in contralateral nodes from the same mice, nor in systemic sites such as spleen. Subsequent experiments therefore used TDLNs from mice with B78H1•GM-CSF tumors
Single-cell suspensions of TDLNs, or the paired contralateral LNs, were used as stimulator cells in mixed leukocyte reactions (MLRs). The responder cells in MLRs were TCR-transgenic CD8+ T cells from BM3 mice, which recognize a nominal antigen (H-2Kb) constitutively expressed by all APCs from the C57BL/6 tumor-bearing hosts (Tarazona et al., Int. Immunol., 1996; 8:351). Preliminary validation studies confirmed that expression of the target antigen was high and comparable in DCs from TDLNs and normal LNs.
Sorting experiments (
Immunosuppression by pDCs is Mediated by IDO
To test whether T cell suppression by pDCs was mediated by IDO, MLRs were performed in the presence or absence of the IDO inhibitor 1-methyl-tryptophan (1MT).
To further confirm that suppression by pDCs was mediated via IDO, tumors were implanted in mice with a targeted disruption of the IDO gene (IDO-knockout mice). The pDCs isolated from TDLNs in these mice showed no suppressor activity (
Finally, the suppressive effect of pDCs was abrogated by adding supraphysiologic, ten fold increased (10×), levels of L-tryptophan to the MLR (
Adoptive Transfer of DCs from TDLNs Creates Immunologic Unresponsiveness In Vivo
Next, whether the DCs from TDLNs were sufficient to create immunologic unresponsiveness in vivo, independent of the original tumor, was addressed. CD11c+DCs were isolated from TDLNs and adoptively transferred to new hosts. For these experiments, all of the DCs from TDLNs were used, not just the pDCs, in order to accurately reflect the mixed population found in TDLNs, and to ask whether stimulation of suppression would predominate in vivo. Ten days after adoptive transfer, T cells in the recipient host were tested for b) responsiveness to a nominal antigen (H-2Kb) presented by the transferred DCs. Recipients were allogeneic (H-2Kb-negative) CBA mice that had been pre-loaded with a large cohort of H-2 Kb-specific BM3 T cells.
Inguinal LN cells from recipient mice were assayed for functional responsiveness using MLRs stimulated by irradiated C57BL/6 (H-2Kb-positive) splenocytes.
To test whether the state of acquired T cell unresponsiveness was created by IDO expression in the transferred TDLN DCs, recipient mice were treated with the IDO inhibitor 1MT at the time of adoptive transfer (control mice received pellets without 1MT). After 10 days, T cells were harvested and tested for responsiveness to antigen. Recall MLRs did not contain 1MT.
In the same experiments, the systemic response of T cells isolated from spleens were also rested (
It was not clear whether T cells in the spleen became “aware” of antigens introduced on the transferred DCs. To address this question, the down regulation of clonotype-specific TCR on transgenic T cells was examined as a surrogate marker for antigen encounter (Tafuri et al., Science, 1995; 270:630). Although descriptive, this helps make the important distinction between true immunologic “ignorance” (no encounter with antigen) from encounter without activation. In vitro, it was found that BM3 T cells encountering antigen on TDLN cells showed a rapid and sustained down regulation of clonotype-specific TCR (
Applying this marker to adoptive transfer studies (
IDO+ DCs Create Secondary Suppressor Mechanisms that are Independent of IDO
Next, it was addressed whether the T cell unresponsiveness created by adoptive transfer was due to intrinsic anergy of the responding T cells, or to some form of active suppression. Mixing experiments were performed using two groups of responder cells. One group of responder cells was control T cells isolated from CBA+BM3 recipients following adoptive transfer of normal DCs (fully responsive); and the second group of responder cells was T cells from the same mice following adoptive transfer of TDLN DCs (unresponsive). Mixing experiments (
To test whether this suppression was mediated by IDO, recall MLRs were performed in the presence or absence of 1MT.
IDO-Mediated Suppression Segregates with a Small Subset of CD19+ DCs
The preceding studies showed that some IDO-expressing cell type in TDLNs was responsible for creating immunologic unresponsiveness in vivo. To better define the specific DC subset, more detailed sorting experiments were performed. The experiments in
Despite comprising almost all of the IDO-mediated suppression, CD19+ pDCs were a small fraction of total LN cells. In a total of 13 experiments (analyzing 2-6 pooled TDLNs each), the total CD11c+DCs were found to comprise 1-1.5% of cells. Of these, CD19+ pDCs comprised 31±15% of DCs. Thus, the potent IDO-induced suppression seen in
To confirm that the apparent expression of CD19 was authentic, mRNA for CD19 was measured by quantitative RT-PCR. The upstream transcription factor pax5 was also measured, since expression of CD19 is obligately dependent on expression of pax5 (Nutt et al., EMBO J., 1998; 17:2319; and Mikkola et al., Science, 2002; 297:110).
In other experiments CD19+ pDCs of the same phenotype (CD11c+ CD19+, B220+, Ly6c+, CD45RA+) were also found in normal LNs from non-tumor-bearing hosts, as well as in the contralateral LNs of mice with B78H1•GM-CSF tumors, and in TDLNs from mice with B16F10 tumors. In the normal LNs they comprised 18±6% of total DCs (n=6 experiments), compared to 31±15% of total DCs in B78H1•GM-CSF TDLNs.
CD19+ pDCs TDLNs uniformly expressed high levels of MHC class II molecules, and costimulatory molecules CD80 and CD86, suggestive of a mature phenotype (
In addition to maturation markers, the CD19+ pDCs also expressed two markers observed in the human system. As shown in Example 1, CD123 (IL3Ra) and the chemokine receptor CCR6 segregate closely with IDO expression in human monocyte-derived DCs and macrophages. In this example, it was found that in murine TDLNs, expression of CD123 and CCR6 preferentially associated with the CD19+ subset of DCs in TDLNs (
The current example identifies a small population of immunoregulatory DCs in TDLNs that are capable of mediating dominant immunosuppression in vitro, and creating profound immunologic unresponsiveness in vivo. Of the limited number of studies assessing DCs from TDLNs, most have reported a defect in their ability to stimulate T cells (Vicari et al., J. Exp. Med., 2002; 196:541; Almand et al., Clin. Cancer Res., 2000; 6:1755; and Yang et al., J. Clin. Invest., 2003; 111:727). However, it has been unclear whether this was due to immaturity of the DCs, or to some form of active suppression. This example shows that one subset of DCs in TDLNs can create potent active suppression, mediated via the molecular mechanism of IDO.
The suppression created by IDO-expressing DCs was profound, but it was fundamentally local. First, the expression of IDO itself was strictly localized, being found in the LNs draining tumors, but not in other LNs from the same animal. Second, adoptive transfer of DCs from these nodes created complete T cell unresponsiveness in the new nodes draining the site of injection, while T cells in spleens of the same animals remained reactive. An analogous dichotomy has been observed in tumor-bearing hosts, where tumors may be locally tolerated despite the systemic presence of competent, tumor-specific T cells (Wick et al., J. Exp. Med., 1997; 186:229; Speiser et al., J. Exp. Med., 1997; 186:645; and Nguyen et al., J. Exp. Med., 2002; 195:423). The fact that tumors in this situation grow unchecked, ultimately killing their hosts, emphasizes the point that immunosuppression does not have to be systemic in order to be effective. Functionally, if all the draining LNs of all the sites of tumor create local unresponsiveness, the tumor is de facto tolerated.
In this regard, it is relevant to note that the immunosuppression created by IDO-expressing DCs was dominant. This was shown by in vitro mixing experiments, in which a small population of CD19+ pDCs from TDLNs could completely suppress T cell responses, despite the presence of many other stimulatory APCs (for example, see
This example demonstrated that the adoptive transfer of TDLN DCs in vivo was able to create local immunologic unresponsiveness to a strong nominal antigen (H-2Kb), even in the presence of a large cohort of antigen-specific, TCR-transgenic T cells. This local effect was accompanied by a systemic effect on all transgenic T cells, as shown by sustained down regulation of TCR expression. It has been suggested that such TCR down regulation may serve as a marker for anergy (Benson et al., J. Clin. Invest., 2000; 106:1031; and Tafuri et al., Science, 1995; 270:630), but anergy alone could not account for all of the immunosuppression created by the TDLN DCs. Mixing experiments revealed that there was also a potent component of active suppression, capable of inhibiting other, fully competent responder T cells in vitro (see
This secondary suppressor activity was not itself mediated by IDO, but it was obligately dependent on expression of functional IDO by TDLN DCs for its creation. Thus, the IDO expressed by TDLN DCs elicited a secondary mechanism to amplify and sustain its immunosuppressive effect.
These observations are consistent with findings in other studies using CD8a+ DCs from spleen, activated in vitro to express IDO. Adoptive transfer of even small numbers of such IDO-expressing DCs was capable of creating systemic unresponsiveness to antigen (Grohmann et al., J. Immunol., 2000; 165:1357; and Fallarino et al., Nat. Immunol., 2003; 4:1206-12).
In the present system, the immunosuppression mediated by IDO-expressing DCs was an active process, not merely a passive failure of immature DCs to stimulate T cells. It is well established that immature DCs can be tolerogenic (Hawiger et al., J. Exp. Med., 2001; 194:769; and Probst et al., Immunity, 2003; 18:713), which has been attributed to their failure to provide adequate costimulation. However, it has been more controversial whether certain DCs may be tolerogenic even when mature (Moser, Immunity, 2003; 19:5). The CD19+ pDCs found in TDLNs appeared phenotypically mature (positive for CD80 and CD86, high MHC-II expression, and excellent stimulators of T cell proliferation when IDO was blocked). Despite this, they were also actively suppressive in vitro, as shown by mixing experiments. In order to clearly demonstrate the active nature of this suppression in vivo, the present adoptive transfer studies were designed so that vigorous T cell activation was the default response. A strong alloantigen (H-2 Kb) was employed, constitutively expressed on all transferred DCs, recognized by a massive population of pre-positioned TCR-transgenic T cells (up to 40% of recipient CD8+ T cells). Because of this large “pre-expanded” clone of T cells, there was no need for any initial priming step in order to see a robust proliferative response in MLR assays. Even in this system, DCs from TDLNs were able to create acquired unresponsiveness to the H-2Kb antigen, in an IDO-dependent fashion.
Fractionation studies of TDLN cells showed that virtually all of the IDO-mediated suppressor activity segregated with a novel population of CD19+ DCs. CD19, and its obligate transcription factor pax5, are markers of the B cell lineage (Fearon and Carroll, Ann. Rev. Immunol., 2000; 18:393; and Nutt et al., Nature, 1999; 401:556), so expression of these genes suggests derivation from a B-lineage precursor (or a common lymphoid progenitor cell). Consistent with this possibility, it is known that early CD19+ pro-B cells can give rise to DCs in vitro (Bjorck and Kincade, J. Immunol., 1998; 161:5795; and Izon et al., J. Immunol., 2001; 167:1387). Recent analyses of both human and murine plasmacytoid DCs suggests a B-cell origin for a subset of pDCs (Rissoan et al., Blood, 2002; 100:3295; and Corcoran et al., J. Immunol., 2003; 170:4926); in mice, up to one-third of DNA from murine splenic plasmacytoid DCs was found to show D-J rearrangement of the IgH locus (Corcoran et al., J. Immunol., 2003; 170:4926). Despite this link, previous studies have failed to identify the CD19+ subset of pDCs. In part, this may be because many studies have specifically excluded the CD19+ cells, either by depletion or by back-gating (O'Keeffe et al., J. Exp. Med., 2002; 196:1307; and Asselin-Paturel et al., Nat. Immunol., 2001; 2:1144). Even if recognized as DCs, it would not be obvious that the CD19+ cells were tolerogenic, because resting CD19+ DCs do not constitutively express IDO, and are not suppressive. It was only in the context of TDLNs that the regulatory attributes of these cells became evident.
The key difference between TDLNs and normal LNs was not the presence or absence of CD19+ DCs, as they were present in both, although at higher numbers in the TDLNs, but rather the fact that CD19+ DCs from TDLNs constitutively expressed IDO. It has been previously shown that the IDO-inducing agent CTLA4-Ig up regulates IDO preferentially in the B220+ and CD8a+ DC subsets (Mellor et al., J. Immunol., 2003; 171:1652). Prior to CTLA4-Ig treatment, these DCs were not inhibitory, but they became so after IDO was induced (Mellor et al., J. Immunol., 2003; 171:1652), indicating that some factor in TDLNs acts to induce constitutive expression of IDO in CD19+ pDCs. This factor might be a microenvironmental signal, such as a cytokine, found selectively in TDLNs. Alternatively, it has recently been shown that CD25+CD4+ Tregs can induce IDO in DCs via expression of CTLA4 (Fallarino et al., Nat. Immunol., 2003; 4:1206-12). Thus, it is possible that TDLNs might contain a population of Tregs that triggers IDO. Elucidating the upstream factors responsible for the constitutive induction of IDO in TDLNs may offer significant insight into how tumors evolve to exploit the IDO mechanism.
Tumors actively create a state of tolerance toward their own antigens. This pathologic situation allows the tumors to escape from host immune surveillance and also imposes a barrier to effective anti-tumor immunotherapy. One molecular mechanism by which tumors may inhibit immune responses is via the immunosuppressive enzyme indoleamine 2,3-dioxygenase (IDO). IDO degrades the amino acid tryptophan, and this acts to inhibit T cell responses. The small-molecule 1-methyl-D-tryptophan (1MT) acts as an inhibitor of IDO enzyme activity in vitro, and is capable of preventing IDO-mediated immunosuppression in vivo. 1MT thus acts as an immune-enhancing agent in a variety of animal models where IDO limits or suppresses immunologic responses. In this example, administration of 1MT to tumor-bearing hosts in conjunction with low-dose chemotherapy or radiation shows synergistic immune-mediated anti-tumor effect. 1MT thus represents a novel small-molecule, orally-bioavailable immune modulator for use in cancer immunotherapy.
1MT targets a previously unrecognized immunosuppressive pathway. This endogenous pathway may limit the efficacy of current immunotherapy approaches. One application of 1MT is as a vaccine adjuvant, since anti-tumor vaccines have shown occasional encouraging responses but their overall response rates remain limited (Yu and Restifo, Journal of Clinical Investigation 2002; 110:289-294). Thus, adding 1MT as an adjuvant to an existing (Phase II) anti-tumor vaccine would be ethical and appropriate. Further, it is likely unnecessary to supply exogenous tumor antigen in the form of a vaccine. Chemotherapy and radiation already release large amounts of antigen from dying tumor cells, but these do not normally generate a useful immune response. 1MT will allow immune responses to such antigens.
Cultured human dendritic cells (DCs) enriched for IDO expression were prepared as described by Munn et al., Science 2002; 297:1867-1870. DCs were used as stimulators in allogeneic mixed-leukocyte reactions (MLRs), with allogeneic lymphocytes as responder cells. The ability of 1MT to inhibit IDO-mediated suppression is measured as the amount of T cell proliferation.
Using a polyclonal antibody against human IDO, abnormal accumulation of IDO+ cells was seen in many tumor-draining (sentinel) lymph nodes from patients with malignant melanoma (Example 2 and as described in Lee et al., Laboratory Investigation 2003; 83:1457-1466). A retrospective analysis of sentinel nodes from 40 patients with locally-confined disease at diagnosis showed the presence of these IDO+ cells was an adverse prognostic factor, even prior to detectable metastasis.
IDO+ Cells are Selectively Recruited into Mouse Tumor-Draining Lymph Nodes
Tumor-draining lymph nodes from C57BL/6 mice implanted with B16F10 melanoma cells (day 14) showed significant accumulation of IDO+ cells compared contralateral lymph nodes from the same animals. Phenotypically, the IDO+ cells were mostly CD11c+B220+ “plasmacytoid” dendritic cells. To obtain larger lymph nodes for functional studies, B78H1.GMCSF, a GMCSF-transfected sub-line of B16 was also used (Huang et al., Science 1994; 264:961-965; and Borrello et al., Human Gene Therapy 1999; 10:1983-1991). These tumors recruited the same IDO+ cells, but yielded quantitatively more cells for study. GMCSF-transfected cell lines recruit large numbers of DCs (Dranoff, Immunological Reviews 2002; 188:147-154), but as viable tumors they have been found to induce tolerance instead of spontaneous immunity (Bronte et al., J. Immunol. 1999; 162:5728-5737).
IDO-Mediated Suppression Segregates with the Plasmacytoid DCs
Cells were harvested from tumor-draining lymph nodes (day 12) and used as APCs in allogeneic mixed-leukocyte reactions (MLRs). Responder T cells were taken from “BM3” TCR-transgenic mice (CD8+, recognizing H-2 Kb(Tarazona et al., International Immunology 1996; 8:351-358)). Cells were sorted into B220+ CD11c+ plasmacytoid DCs, and a separate CD25+CD4+ fraction of regulatory T cells. It was important to separate out these Tregs, otherwise they would nonspecifically inhibit proliferation in the readout MLRs. The third fraction collected comprised the remaining 96% of the lymph-node cells; these cells stimulated good T cell proliferation, and there was no enhancement by 1MT (thus confirming that 1MT had no nonspecific stimulatory effect in the absence of IDO). The plasmacytoid DC fraction was potently inhibitory, and this was fully reversed by 1MT. Mice with a targeted deletion of IDO were as described in Mellor et al., J. Immunol. 2003; 171:1652-1655 9. These IDO-knockout mice showed no suppressor activity by plasmacytoid DCs, and no effect of 1MT, thus confirming that the molecular target of 1MT was indeed IDO.
Effect of 1MT on Established Tumors, and Synergy with Radiation or Cyclophosphamide
B16F10 melanomas were implanted in C57BL/6 mice, then 7 days later mice were treated with 1MT or vehicle control (administered by SQ continuous infusion using implantable co-polymer pellets (Munn et al., Science 1998; 281:1191-1193)). The initial studies used the DL racemic form of 1MT, at a total dose of 20 mg per mouse per day. In this established-tumor model, 1MT alone had no effect. Not unexpected, given that the tumor had already been allowed to create tolerance in the host. However, when the established host/tumor milieu was transiently perturbed by a single dose of total-body radiation (500 cGy) or cyclophosphamide (150 mg/kg×1 dose), 1MT acted synergistically with both interventions, to significantly reduce tumor growth (
The radiation studies shown in
Comparative pharmacokinetic studies were initiated to characterize the in vivo disposition of the stereo-isomers of 1-MT when administered by different routes, to determine the oral bioavailability, and to define the plasma concentrations associated with effective dosing regimens. Studies were conducted in conventional mice after IV, PO and SC doses of 50 mg/kg, and IP doses of 25 mg/kg, 50 mg/kg, and 100 mg/kg. In addition, plasma concentrations of 1-MT were determined in nude mice with implanted timed-release pellets designed to release the DL isomer for 7 days, and the D isomer for 14 days.
Peak plasma concentrations of D or L 1-MT were attained 2 hours after PO administration. The maximum concentration observed for the L isomer was approximately seven times greater than that for the D isomer. The AUC0-∞ for the L isomer was also substantially greater (9 fold) than that for the D isomer. Terminal disposition phase half-lives were similar for the two isomers, and also similar to those found after IV administration. The oral bioavailability for D and L 1-MT were 64% and 105%, respectively.
The in vivo disposition of the D and L isomers of 1-MT are remarkably different considering their nearly identical chemical structures. Analysis of their plasma pharmacokinetics suggests that the basis for the difference is a rapid partitioning of the D isomer into tissues compartments other than the plasma, while the L isomer is more predominantly distributed in the plasma. As a consequence, the AUC0-∞ observed for L 1-MT were from 5 to 9 times greater than those found for D 1-MT with equivalent routes of administration and doses. Given the comparatively lower plasma levels of the D isomer, while tempting to speculate regarding where the D isomer does reside, the experimental design of these studies did not encompass examination of the tissue or cellular distribution of 1-MT. However, one possible explanation to account for the relatively greater apparent volume of distribution of the D isomer is a higher intracellular localization, raising the possibility of a unique cellular transport mechanism for D 1-MT not shared by L1-MT. Cellular uptake studies will be performed with the two isomers to address this pivotal issue.
Both isomers were absorbed efficiently following IP, SC and PO administration, and the plasma pharmacokinetics were comparable regardless of the route of administration, indicating that any of the routes studied are equally suitable for efficacy testing. The oral bioavailability of the D isomer (64%) was somewhat lower than that observed when it was given by the IP or SC route, and also lower than the oral bioavailability of L1-MT.
Mice were given 1MT as the DL racemic mixture (10 mg/day, SQ implanted copolymer pellets, 72 hour infusion), then tissues were harvested, extracted, and tissue levels of the respective D and L isomers determined by generation of diastereomeric isoindoyl derivatives with OPA and Boc-L-Cys (Hashimoto et al., J Chromatography 1992; 582:41-48). Initial results showed at least equal, and possibly preferential, accumulation of the D isomer in liver, with equivalent distribution of D and L isomers into muscle and spleen. The results noted with spleen are particularly relevant because it is a lymphoid organ, and thus likely to be similar to tumor-draining lymph nodes. Initial results also showed lower levels of the D isomer in plasma and in brain, suggesting that the D isomer may not cross the blood-brain barrier efficiently. Thus, the lower plasma levels and shorter intravascular half-life do not necessarily imply lower levels in the relevant tissues.
1-MT represents the lead compound in a new class of immunomodulatory agents, designed to block immunosuppression mediated by IDO. Many tumors, under the selection pressure of host immune surveillance, have evolved some means to exploit the tolerogenic activity of IDO, either directly, through expression of IDO by tumor cells, or by recruiting IDO-expressing APCs to induce systemic tolerance. Thus, 1MT will be indicated as an immunologic adjuvant in combination with anti-tumor vaccines, including peptide, cell-lysate, or dendritic cell-based vaccines, and as an immunomodulatory agent in combination with chemotherapy or radiation. 1MT is a lead compound, representative of a new class of immunomodulatory drugs designed to inhibit the IDO pathway. It is one of a number of small-molecule, orally-bioavailable immunostimulatory agents.
The complete disclosure of all patents, patent applications, and publications, and electronically available material (including, for instance, nucleotide sequence submissions in, e.g., GenBank and RefSeq, and amino acid sequence submissions in, e.g., SwissProt, PIR, PRF, PDB, and translations from annotated coding regions in GenBank and RefSeq) cited herein are incorporated by reference. The foregoing detailed description and examples have been given for clarity of understanding only. No unnecessary limitations are to be understood therefrom. The invention is not limited to the exact details shown and described, for variations obvious to one skilled in the art will be included within the invention defined by the claims.
All headings are for the convenience of the reader and should not be used to limit the meaning of the text that follows the heading, unless so specified.
SEQ ID NO:1 peptide; human indoleamine-2,3-dioxygenase (IDO)
SEQ ID NO:2-7 Synthetic oligonucleotide primers
This application claims the benefit of U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/459,489, filed Apr. 1, 2003, and U.S. Provisional Application Ser. No. 60/538,647, filed Jan. 22, 2004. Both of these provisional applications are incorporated herein by reference in their entireties.
The present invention was made with government support under Grant Nos. K08 HL03395, 1R01CA103320, and 1R01CA096651, awarded by the National Institutes of Health. The Government may have certain rights in this invention.
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 60459489 | Apr 2003 | US | |
| 60538647 | Jan 2004 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 10780150 | Feb 2004 | US |
| Child | 12175518 | US |
