SPIROKETALS AND USES THEREOF

Abstract

The invention relates to novel spiroketal antioxidants, including compounds of Formula (I) and (II). The compounds have antioxidant properties and are useful for the treatment and/or prevention of diseases and conditions associated with oxidative stress in the body (e.g., metabolic conditions, neurodegenerative diseases, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, proliferative diseases, renal diseases). The invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising the compounds, and kits comprising the same. Additionally, the invention provides uses of the compounds described herein (e.g., for inhibiting the concentration or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS), inhibiting the concentration or production of reactive nitrogen species (RNS), reducing oxidative stress, inhibiting NADPH oxidase activity, and for slowing or reducing the effects of aging).

Description

BACKGROUND OF THE INVENTION

Diabetes mellitus is a leading cause of chronic kidney disease. The prevalence of diabetes has almost quadrupled since 1980 to 422 million adults worldwide, affecting 29.1 million adults in the U.S. (see, e.g., World Health Organization (WHO), Global Report on Diabetes, 2016; National Diabetes Statistics Report: Estimates of Diabetes and its Burden in the United States, 2014; Atlanta, Ga.: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Of those patients with diabetes, approximately one third develop chronic kidney disease (see, e.g., National Chronic Kidney Disease Fact Sheet: General Information and National Estimates on Chronic Kidney Disease in the United States, 2014; Atlanta, Ga.: US Department of Health and Human Services, Centers for Disease Control and Prevention, 2014). Existing therapies can slow the progression of diabetic nephropathy, but are ultimately unable to prevent advancement to end-stage renal disease. (See, e.g., Gupta et al. J. Nephrol. 2011, 24, 686-695; Balakuma et al. Pharmacol. Res. 2009, 60, 24-32; Small et al. Nephrology 2012, 17, 311-321). Consequently, effective treatments for chronic kidney disease and other metabolic-related diseases remain a major unmet medical need.

Oxidative stress has been shown to play a critical role in the pathogenesis of a wide variety of disease states, including metabolic diseases such as diabetes mellitus (see, e.g., Singh et al. Nat. Rev. Endocrinol. 2011, 7, 176-184; Forbes et al. Diabetes 2008, 57, 1446-1454; Kashihara et al. Curr. Med. Chem. 2010, 17, 4256-4269; Stanton et al. Curr. Diab. Rep. 2011, 11, 330-336), neurodegenerative disorders (see, e.g., Emerit et al. Biomed. Pharmacother. 2004, 58, 39-46; Uttara et al. Curr. Neuropharmacol. 2009, 7, 65-74), and cardiovascular diseases (see, e.g., Madamanchi et al. Arterioscler. Thromb. Vasc. Biol. 2005, 25, 29-38), among others. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) and reactive nitrogen species (RNS) directly damage essential macromolecules and contribute to aberrant cell signaling, leading to activation of proinflammatory and profibrotic pathways that cause downstream cell and tissue damage. Notably, hyperglycemia-induced ROS production is the major mechanism underlying the pathogenesis and progression of diabetic nephropathy and chronic kidney disease. ROS and RNS also play a role in other diseases, such as inflammatory, autoimmune, and proliferative diseases (e.g., cancer). Because oxidative stress plays a central role in many diseases, novel antioxidants with therapeutic use are needed.

Acortatarins A (1) and B (4) are members of a growing family of pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal alkaloid natural products isolated from various medicinal plant sources (See FIG. 1). The acortatarins were isolated from the rhizome of the Acorus tatarinowii plant (see, e.g., Tong et al. Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 1844-1847), and natural products with the same structure as acortatarin A were also discovered contemporaneously from the bee-collected pollen of Brassica campestris (as pollenopyrroside B) (see, e.g., Guo et al. Chem. Pharm. Bull. 2010, 58, 983-985), and from the mature fruit of Capparis spinosa (as capparaisine A) (see, e.g., Li et al. Tetrahedron 2015, 71, 5285-5295). More recently, the epimeric spiroketals shensongines B (3) and C (2) were isolated from capsules of the antiarrhythmic Chinese herbal medicine Shensong Yangxin (see, e.g., Ding et al. J. Asian Nat. Prod. Res. 2015, 17, 559-566). The family also includes pyranose isomers pollenopyrroside A (5) and shensongine A (6). Shensongines A (6) and B (3) have also been isolated from the edible fungus Xylaria nigripes as xylapyrrosides B and A, respectively (see, e.g., Li et al. Tetrahedron 2015, 71, 5285-5295).

Acortatarins A and B have been reported to exhibit antioxidant activity in rat mesangial cells, significantly attenuating high glucose-induced generation of ROS. Acortatarin A was also reported to prevent high glucose-induced extracellular matrix production through the inhibition of NADPH oxidase in mesangial cells (see, e.g., Zhao et al. Chin. Med. J. 2013, 126, 1230-1235), hallmarks of several diseases including diabetic nephropathy. The xylapyrrosides also showed moderate antioxidant effects and prevented tert-butyl peroxide-induced cytotoxicity of rat vascular smooth muscle cells, suggesting additional therapeutic potential for cardiovascular diseases. Such bioactivity demonstrates that the pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal scaffold may have therapeutic utility for the treatment of oxidative stress-related pathologies.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

The invention described herein relates to novel spiroketals, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof, and pharmaceutical kits comprising the same. The compounds described herein have antioxidant properties and are therefore useful in the treatment and/or prevention of diseases and conditions (e.g., metabolic conditions, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, proliferative diseases, renal diseases). In particular, the compounds described herein can inhibit the concentration or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a biological system. The present invention also provides uses for the compounds, pharmaceutical compositions, and kits described herein.

In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, s, p, n, and m are as defined herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, n, and m are as defined herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, wherein R^1a, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, n, and m are as defined herein.

Examples of compounds of Formula (I) include, but are not limited to:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

The present invention also provides compounds of Formula (II):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, s, p, n, and m are as defined herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, n, and m are as defined herein.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, wherein R¹, R², R³, R⁴, R⁵, R⁶, n, and m are as defined herein.

Exemplary compounds of Formula (II) include, but are not limited to, the following:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In another aspect, the present invention provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient. The pharmaceutical compositions described herein are useful for treating and/or preventing diseases (e.g., metabolic conditions, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, proliferative diseases, renal diseases) in a subject.

The invention also provides cosmetic compositions comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a salt, hydrate, solvate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and cosmetically acceptable excipient(s). The cosmetic compositions are useful in cosmetic applications.

In other aspects, the present invention provides the following methods: (1) a method for treating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., metabolic condition, neurodegenerative disorder, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, proliferative disease, renal disease) in a subject; (2) a method for inhibiting reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, biological sample, or subject; (3) a method for inhibiting the activity of NADPH oxidase in a cell, biological sample, or subject; (4) a method for reducing oxidative stress in a cell, biological sample, or subject; and (5) a method for reducing or slowing the effects of aging in a subject. The methods described herein comprise administering to a subject, or contacting a cell or biological sample, with a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

The present invention also provides uses of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, hydrate, solvate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical or cosmetic composition thereof.

Another aspect of the present invention relates to kits comprising a compound, or a salt, hydrate, solvate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or pharmaceutical composition of the invention. The kits described herein may include a single dose or multiple doses of the compound, or pharmaceutical composition thereof. The provided kits may be useful in a method of the invention (e.g., a method of treating and/or preventing a disease in a subject). A kit of the invention may further include instructions for using the kit.

The details of certain embodiments of the invention are set forth herein. Other features, objects, and advantages of the invention will be apparent from the Detailed Description, Figures, Examples, and Claims.

Definitions

Chemical Definitions

Definitions of specific functional groups and chemical terms are described in more detail below. The chemical elements are identified in accordance with the Periodic Table of the Elements, CAS version, Handbook of Chemistry and Physics, 75^th Ed., inside cover, and specific functional groups are generally defined as described therein. Additionally, general principles of organic chemistry, as well as specific functional moieties and reactivity, are described in Organic Chemistry, Thomas Sorrell, University Science Books, Sausalito, 1999; Smith and March, March's Advanced Organic Chemistry, 5^th Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New York, 2001; Larock, Comprehensive Organic Transformations, VCH Publishers, Inc., New York, 1989; and Carruthers, Some Modern Methods of Organic Synthesis, 3^rd Edition, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, 1987.

Compounds described herein can comprise one or more asymmetric centers, and thus can exist in various stereoisomeric forms, e.g., enantiomers and/or diastereomers. For example, the compounds described herein can be in the form of an individual enantiomer, diastereomer, or geometric isomer, or can be in the form of a mixture of stereoisomers, including racemic mixtures and mixtures enriched in one or more stereoisomer. Isomers can be isolated from mixtures by methods known to those skilled in the art, including chiral high pressure liquid chromatography (HPLC) and the formation and crystallization of chiral salts; or preferred isomers can be prepared by asymmetric syntheses. See, for example, Jacques et al., Enantiomers, Racemates and Resolutions (Wiley Interscience, New York, 1981); Wilen et al., Tetrahedron 33:2725 (1977); Eliel, E. L. Stereochemistry of Carbon Compounds (McGraw-Hill, N Y, 1962); and Wilen, S. H., Tables of Resolving Agents and Optical Resolutions, p. 268 (E. L. Eliel, Ed., Univ. of Notre Dame Press, Notre Dame, Ind. 1972). The invention additionally encompasses compounds as individual isomers substantially free of other isomers, and alternatively, as mixtures of various isomers.

Unless otherwise stated, structures depicted herein are also meant to include compounds that differ only in the presence of one or more isotopically enriched atoms. For example, compounds having the present structures except for the replacement of hydrogen by deuterium or tritium, replacement of ¹⁹F with ¹⁸F, or the replacement of ¹²C with ¹³C or ¹⁴C are within the scope of the disclosure. Such compounds are useful, for example, as analytical tools or probes in biological assays.

When a range of values is listed, it is intended to encompass each value and sub-range within the range. For example “C_1-6 alkyl” is intended to encompass, C₁, C₂, C₃, C₄, C₅, C₆, C_1-6, C_1-5, C_1-4, C_1-3, C_1-2, C_2-6, C_2-5, C_2-4, C_2-3, C_3-6, C_3-5, C_3-4, C_4-6, C_4-5, and C_5-6 alkyl.

The term “aliphatic” refers to alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, and carbocyclic groups. Likewise, the term “heteroaliphatic” refers to heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, and heterocyclic groups.

The term “alkyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched saturated hydrocarbon group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms (“C_1-10 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 9 carbon atoms (“C_1-9 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C_1-8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 7 carbon atoms (“C_1-7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C_1-6 alkyl”). In some embodiments an alkyl group has 1 to 5 carbon atoms (“C_1-5 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C_1-4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C_1-3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C_1-2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 1 carbon atom (“C₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, an alkyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C_2-6 alkyl”). Examples of C_1-6 alkyl groups include methyl (C₁), ethyl (C₂), propyl (C₃) (e.g., n-propyl, isopropyl), butyl (C₄) (e.g., n-butyl, tert-butyl, sec-butyl, iso-butyl), pentyl (C₅) (e.g., n-pentyl, 3-pentanyl, amyl, neopentyl, 3-methyl-2-butanyl, tertiary amyl), and hexyl (C₆) (e.g., n-hexyl). Additional examples of alkyl groups include n-heptyl (C₇), n-octyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkyl”) with one or more substituents (e.g., halogen, such as F). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is an unsubstituted C_1-10 alkyl (such as unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl, e.g., —CH₃ (Me), unsubstituted ethyl (Et), unsubstituted propyl (Pr, e.g., unsubstituted n-propyl (n-Pr), unsubstituted isopropyl (i-Pr)), unsubstituted butyl (Bu, e.g., unsubstituted n-butyl (n-Bu), unsubstituted tert-butyl (tert-Bu or t-Bu), unsubstituted sec-butyl (sec-Bu), unsubstituted isobutyl (i-Bu)). In certain embodiments, the alkyl group is a substituted C_1-10 alkyl (such as substituted C_1-6 alkyl, e.g., —CF₃, Bn).

The term “haloalkyl” is a substituted alkyl group, wherein one or more of the hydrogen atoms are independently replaced by a halogen, e.g., fluoro, bromo, chloro, or iodo. In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 8 carbon atoms (“C_1-8 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 6 carbon atoms (“C_1-6 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 4 carbon atoms (“C_1-4 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 3 carbon atoms (“C_1-3 haloalkyl”). In some embodiments, the haloalkyl moiety has 1 to 2 carbon atoms (“C_1-2 haloalkyl”). Examples of haloalkyl groups include —CHF₂, —CH₂F, —CF₃, —CH₂CF₃, —CF₂CF₃, —CF₂CF₂CF₃, —CCl₃, —CFCl₂, —CF₂Cl, and the like.

The term “heteroalkyl” refers to an alkyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkyl group refers to a saturated group having from 1 to 10 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-10 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 9 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-9 alkyl”). In some embodiments a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 8 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-8 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 7 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-7 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-6 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 5 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-5 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 4 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-4 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 3 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-3 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 to 2 carbon atoms and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC_1-2 alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 1 carbon atom and 1 heteroatom (“heteroC₁ alkyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkyl group is a saturated group having 2 to 6 carbon atoms and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-6 alkyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC_1-10 alkyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkyl group is a substituted heteroC_1-10 alkyl.

The term “alkenyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon double bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 double bonds). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C_2-9 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C_2-8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C_2-7 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C_2-6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C_2-5 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C_2-4 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C_2-3 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, an alkenyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkenyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon double bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butenyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butenyl). Examples of C_2-4 alkenyl groups include ethenyl (C₂), 1-propenyl (C₃), 2-propenyl (C₃), 1-butenyl (C₄), 2-butenyl (C₄), butadienyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C_2-6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C_2-4 alkenyl groups as well as pentenyl (C₅), pentadienyl (C₅), hexenyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkenyl include heptenyl (C₇), octenyl (C₈), octatrienyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is an unsubstituted C_2-10 alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the alkenyl group is a substituted C_2-10 alkenyl. In an alkenyl group, a C═C double bond for which the stereochemistry is not specified (e.g., —CH═CHCH₃ or

may be an (E)- or (Z)-double bond.

The term “heteroalkenyl” refers to an alkenyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-10 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-9 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-8 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-7 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-6 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-5 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-4 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-3 alkenyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkenyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one double bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-6 alkenyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkenyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkenyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkenyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC_2-10 alkenyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkenyl group is a substituted heteroC_2-10 alkenyl.

The term “alkynyl” refers to a radical of a straight-chain or branched hydrocarbon group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms and one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 triple bonds) (“C_2-10 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms (“C_2-9 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms (“C_2-8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms (“C_2-7 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms (“C_2-6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms (“C_2-5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms (“C_2-4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms (“C_2-3 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, an alkynyl group has 2 carbon atoms (“C₂ alkynyl”). The one or more carbon-carbon triple bonds can be internal (such as in 2-butynyl) or terminal (such as in 1-butynyl). Examples of C_2-4 alkynyl groups include, without limitation, ethynyl (C₂), 1-propynyl (C₃), 2-propynyl (C₃), 1-butynyl (C₄), 2-butynyl (C₄), and the like. Examples of C_2-6 alkenyl groups include the aforementioned C_2-4 alkynyl groups as well as pentynyl (C₅), hexynyl (C₆), and the like. Additional examples of alkynyl include heptynyl (C₇), octynyl (C₈), and the like. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an alkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted alkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted alkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is an unsubstituted C_2-10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the alkynyl group is a substituted C_2-10 alkynyl.

The term “heteroalkynyl” refers to an alkynyl group, which further includes at least one heteroatom (e.g., 1, 2, 3, or 4 heteroatoms) selected from oxygen, nitrogen, or sulfur within (i.e., inserted between adjacent carbon atoms of) and/or placed at one or more terminal position(s) of the parent chain. In certain embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group refers to a group having from 2 to 10 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-10 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 9 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-9 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 8 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-8 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 7 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-7 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or more heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-6 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 5 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-5 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 4 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-4 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 3 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 heteroatom within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-3 alkynyl”). In some embodiments, a heteroalkynyl group has 2 to 6 carbon atoms, at least one triple bond, and 1 or 2 heteroatoms within the parent chain (“heteroC_2-6 alkynyl”). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroalkynyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroalkynyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroalkynyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is an unsubstituted heteroC_2-10 alkynyl. In certain embodiments, the heteroalkynyl group is a substituted heteroC_2-10 alkynyl.

The term “carbocyclyl” or “carbocyclic” refers to a radical of a non-aromatic cyclic hydrocarbon group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-14 carbocyclyl”) and zero heteroatoms in the non-aromatic ring system. In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-10 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-8 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 7 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-7 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_4-6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_5-6 carbocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a carbocyclyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C_5-10 carbocyclyl”). Exemplary C_3-6 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, cyclopropyl (C₃), cyclopropenyl (C₃), cyclobutyl (C₄), cyclobutenyl (C₄), cyclopentyl (C₅), cyclopentenyl (C₅), cyclohexyl (C₆), cyclohexenyl (C₆), cyclohexadienyl (C₆), and the like. Exemplary C_3-8 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C_3-6 carbocyclyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇), cycloheptenyl (C₇), cycloheptadienyl (C₇), cycloheptatrienyl (C₇), cyclooctyl (C₈), cyclooctenyl (C₈), bicyclo[2.2.1]heptanyl (C₇), bicyclo[2.2.2]octanyl (C₈), and the like. Exemplary C_3-10 carbocyclyl groups include, without limitation, the aforementioned C_3-8 carbocyclyl groups as well as cyclononyl (C₉), cyclononenyl (C₉), cyclodecyl (C₁₀), cyclodecenyl (C₁₀), octahydro-1H-indenyl (C₉), decahydronaphthalenyl (C₁₀), spiro[4.5]decanyl (C₁₀), and the like. As the foregoing examples illustrate, in certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is either monocyclic (“monocyclic carbocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., containing a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic carbocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic carbocyclyl”)) and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. “Carbocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the carbocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the carbocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbons continue to designate the number of carbons in the carbocyclic ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a carbocyclyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted carbocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted carbocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is an unsubstituted C_3-14 carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the carbocyclyl group is a substituted C_3-14 carbocyclyl. In some embodiments, “carbocyclyl” is a monocyclic, saturated carbocyclyl group having from 3 to 14 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-14 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-10 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 8 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-8 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 3 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_3-6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 4 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_4-6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 6 ring carbon atoms (“C_5-6 cycloalkyl”). In some embodiments, a cycloalkyl group has 5 to 10 ring carbon atoms (“C_5-10 cycloalkyl”). Examples of C_5-6 cycloalkyl groups include cyclopentyl (C₅) and cyclohexyl (C₅). Examples of C_3-6 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C_5-6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cyclopropyl (C₃) and cyclobutyl (C₄). Examples of C_3-8 cycloalkyl groups include the aforementioned C_3-6 cycloalkyl groups as well as cycloheptyl (C₇) and cyclooctyl (C₈). Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a cycloalkyl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted cycloalkyl”) or substituted (a “substituted cycloalkyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is an unsubstituted C_3-14 cycloalkyl. In certain embodiments, the cycloalkyl group is a substituted C_3-14 cycloalkyl.

The term “heterocyclyl” or “heterocyclic” refers to a radical of a 3- to 14-membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1 to 4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“3-14 membered heterocyclyl”). In heterocyclyl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. A heterocyclyl group can either be monocyclic (“monocyclic heterocyclyl”) or polycyclic (e.g., a fused, bridged or spiro ring system such as a bicyclic system (“bicyclic heterocyclyl”) or tricyclic system (“tricyclic heterocyclyl”)), and can be saturated or can contain one or more carbon-carbon double or triple bonds. Heterocyclyl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heterocyclyl” also includes ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl ring, or ring systems wherein the heterocyclyl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl or heteroaryl groups, wherein the point of attachment is on the heterocyclyl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heterocyclyl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of heterocyclyl is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heterocyclyl”) or substituted (a “substituted heterocyclyl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is an unsubstituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, the heterocyclyl group is a substituted 3-14 membered heterocyclyl. In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-10 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-8 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, a heterocyclyl group is a 5-6 membered non-aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heterocyclyl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heterocyclyl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur.

Exemplary 3-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azirdinyl, oxiranyl, and thiiranyl. Exemplary 4-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azetidinyl, oxetanyl, and thietanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, tetrahydrofuranyl, dihydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiophenyl, dihydrothiophenyl, pyrrolidinyl, dihydropyrrolyl, and pyrrolyl-2,5-dione. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, dioxolanyl, oxathiolanyl and dithiolanyl. Exemplary 5-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolinyl, oxadiazolinyl, and thiadiazolinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, piperidinyl, tetrahydropyranyl, dihydropyridinyl, and thianyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include without limitation, piperazinyl, morpholinyl, dithianyl, and dioxanyl. Exemplary 6-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl. Exemplary 7-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepanyl, oxepanyl and thiepanyl. Exemplary 8-membered heterocyclyl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azocanyl, oxecanyl and thiocanyl. Exemplary bicyclic heterocyclyl groups include, without limitation, indolinyl, isoindolinyl, dihydrobenzofuranyl, dihydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzothienyl, tetrahydrobenzofuranyl, tetrahydroindolyl, tetrahydroquinolinyl, tetrahydroisoquinolinyl, decahydroquinolinyl, decahydroisoquinolinyl, octahydrochromenyl, octahydroisochromenyl, decahydronaphthyridinyl, decahydro-1,8-naphthyridinyl, octahydropyrrolo[3,2-b]pyrrole, indolinyl, phthalimidyl, naphthalimidyl, chromanyl, chromenyl, 1H-benzo[e][1,4]diazepinyl, 1,4,5,7-tetrahydropyrano[3,4-b]pyrrolyl, 5,6-dihydro-4H-furo[3,2-b]pyrrolyl, 6,7-dihydro-5H-furo[3,2-b]pyranyl, 5,7-dihydro-4H-thieno[2,3-c]pyranyl, 2,3-dihydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 2,3-dihydrofuro[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydro-1H-pyrrolo[2,3-b]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrofuro[3,2-c]pyridinyl, 4,5,6,7-tetrahydrothieno[3,2-b]pyridinyl, 1,2,3,4-tetrahydro-1,6-naphthyridinyl, and the like.

The term “aryl” refers to a radical of a monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic or tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having 6-14 ring carbon atoms and zero heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system (“C_6-14 aryl”). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 6 ring carbon atoms (“C₆ aryl”; e.g., phenyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 10 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₀ aryl”; e.g., naphthyl such as 1-naphthyl and 2-naphthyl). In some embodiments, an aryl group has 14 ring carbon atoms (“C₁₄ aryl”; e.g., anthracyl). “Aryl” also includes ring systems wherein the aryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the radical or point of attachment is on the aryl ring, and in such instances, the number of carbon atoms continue to designate the number of carbon atoms in the aryl ring system. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of an aryl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted aryl”) or substituted (a “substituted aryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is an unsubstituted C_6-14 aryl. In certain embodiments, the aryl group is a substituted C_6-14 aryl.

The term “heteroaryl” refers to a radical of a 5-14 membered monocyclic or polycyclic (e.g., bicyclic, tricyclic) 4n+2 aromatic ring system (e.g., having 6, 10, or 14 π electrons shared in a cyclic array) having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-14 membered heteroaryl”). In heteroaryl groups that contain one or more nitrogen atoms, the point of attachment can be a carbon or nitrogen atom, as valency permits. Heteroaryl polycyclic ring systems can include one or more heteroatoms in one or both rings. “Heteroaryl” includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more carbocyclyl or heterocyclyl groups wherein the point of attachment is on the heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members continue to designate the number of ring members in the heteroaryl ring system. “Heteroaryl” also includes ring systems wherein the heteroaryl ring, as defined above, is fused with one or more aryl groups wherein the point of attachment is either on the aryl or heteroaryl ring, and in such instances, the number of ring members designates the number of ring members in the fused polycyclic (aryl/heteroaryl) ring system. Polycyclic heteroaryl groups wherein one ring does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., indolyl, quinolinyl, carbazolyl, and the like) the point of attachment can be on either ring, i.e., either the ring bearing a heteroatom (e.g., 2-indolyl) or the ring that does not contain a heteroatom (e.g., 5-indolyl).

In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-10 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-10 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-8 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-8 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, a heteroaryl group is a 5-6 membered aromatic ring system having ring carbon atoms and 1-4 ring heteroatoms provided in the aromatic ring system, wherein each heteroatom is independently selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur (“5-6 membered heteroaryl”). In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-3 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1-2 ring heteroatoms selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. In some embodiments, the 5-6 membered heteroaryl has 1 ring heteroatom selected from nitrogen, oxygen, and sulfur. Unless otherwise specified, each instance of a heteroaryl group is independently unsubstituted (an “unsubstituted heteroaryl”) or substituted (a “substituted heteroaryl”) with one or more substituents. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is an unsubstituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, the heteroaryl group is a substituted 5-14 membered heteroaryl.

Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyrrolyl, furanyl, and thiophenyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, imidazolyl, pyrazolyl, oxazolyl, isoxazolyl, thiazolyl, and isothiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazolyl, oxadiazolyl, and thiadiazolyl. Exemplary 5-membered heteroaryl groups containing 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, tetrazolyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, pyridinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 2 heteroatoms include, without limitation, pyridazinyl, pyrimidinyl, and pyrazinyl. Exemplary 6-membered heteroaryl groups containing 3 or 4 heteroatoms include, without limitation, triazinyl and tetrazinyl, respectively. Exemplary 7-membered heteroaryl groups containing 1 heteroatom include, without limitation, azepinyl, oxepinyl, and thiepinyl. Exemplary 5,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, indolyl, isoindolyl, indazolyl, benzotriazolyl, benzothiophenyl, isobenzothiophenyl, benzofuranyl, benzoisofuranyl, benzimidazolyl, benzoxazolyl, benzisoxazolyl, benzoxadiazolyl, benzthiazolyl, benzisothiazolyl, benzthiadiazolyl, indolizinyl, and purinyl. Exemplary 6,6-bicyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, naphthyridinyl, pteridinyl, quinolinyl, isoquinolinyl, cinnolinyl, quinoxalinyl, phthalazinyl, and quinazolinyl. Exemplary tricyclic heteroaryl groups include, without limitation, phenanthridinyl, dibenzofuranyl, carbazolyl, acridinyl, phenothiazinyl, phenoxazinyl, and phenazinyl.

The term “unsaturated bond” refers to a double or triple bond.

The term “unsaturated” or “partially unsaturated” refers to a moiety that includes at least one double or triple bond.

The term “saturated” refers to a moiety that does not contain a double or triple bond, i.e., the moiety only contains single bonds.

Affixing the suffix “-ene” to a group indicates the group is a divalent moiety, e.g., alkylene is the divalent moiety of alkyl, alkenylene is the divalent moiety of alkenyl, alkynylene is the divalent moiety of alkynyl, heteroalkylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkyl, heteroalkenylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynylene is the divalent moiety of heteroalkynyl, carbocyclylene is the divalent moiety of carbocyclyl, heterocyclylene is the divalent moiety of heterocyclyl, arylene is the divalent moiety of aryl, and heteroarylene is the divalent moiety of heteroaryl.

A group is optionally substituted unless expressly provided otherwise. The term “optionally substituted” refers to being substituted or unsubstituted. In certain embodiments, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl groups are optionally substituted. “Optionally substituted” refers to a group which may be substituted or unsubstituted (e.g., “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” alkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkenyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroalkynyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” carbocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heterocyclyl, “substituted” or “unsubstituted” aryl or “substituted” or “unsubstituted” heteroaryl group). In general, the term “substituted” means that at least one hydrogen present on a group is replaced with a permissible substituent, e.g., a substituent which upon substitution results in a stable compound, e.g., a compound which does not spontaneously undergo transformation such as by rearrangement, cyclization, elimination, or other reaction. Unless otherwise indicated, a “substituted” group has a substituent at one or more substitutable positions of the group, and when more than one position in any given structure is substituted, the substituent is either the same or different at each position. The term “substituted” is contemplated to include substitution with all permissible substituents of organic compounds, and includes any of the substituents described herein that results in the formation of a stable compound. The present invention contemplates any and all such combinations in order to arrive at a stable compound. For purposes of this invention, heteroatoms such as nitrogen may have hydrogen substituents and/or any suitable substituent as described herein which satisfy the valencies of the heteroatoms and results in the formation of a stable moiety. The invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the exemplary substituents described herein.

Exemplary carbon atom substituents include, but are not limited to, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^aa, —ON(R^bb)₂, —N(R^bb)₂, —N(R^bb)₃⁺X⁻, —N(OR^cc)R^bb, —SH, —SR^aa, —SSR^cc, —C(═O)R^aa, —CO₂H, —CHO, —C(OR^cc)₃, —CO₂R^aa, —OC(═O)R^aa, —OCO₂R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —OC(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —NR^bbC(═O)R^aa, —NR^bbCO₂R^aa, —NR^bbC(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═NR^bb)R^aa, —C(═NR^bb)OR^aa, —OC(═NR^bb)R^aa, —OC(═NR^bb)OR^aa, —C(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —OC(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —NR^bbC(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═O)NR^bbSO₂R^aa, —NR^bbSO₂R^aa, —SO₂N(R^bb)₂, —SO₂R^aa, —SO₂OR^aa, —OSO₂R^aa, —S(═O)R^aa, —OS(═O)R^aa, —Si(R^aa)₃, —OSi(R^aa)₃—C(═S)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═O)SR^aa, —C(═S)SR^aa, —SC(═S)SR^aa, —SC(═O)SR^aa, —OC(═O)SR^aa, —SC(═O)OR^aa, —SC(═O)R^aa, —P(═O)(R^aa)₂, —P(═O)(OR^cc)₂, —OP(═O)(R^aa)₂, —OP(═O)(OR^cc)₂, —P(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, —OP(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, —NR^bbP(═O)(R^aa)₂, —NR^bbP(═O)(OR^cc)₂, —NR^bbP(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, —P(R^cc)₂, —P(OR^cc)₂, —P(R^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(R^cc)₄, —P(OR^cc)₄, —OP(R^cc)₂, —OP(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —OP(OR^cc)₂, —OP(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —OP(R^cc)₄, —OP(OR^cc)₄, —B(R^aa)₂, —B(OR^cc)₂, —BR^aa(OR^cc), C_1-10 alkyl, C_1-10 perhaloalkyl, C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10 alkyl, heteroC_2-10 alkenyl, heteroC_2-10 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 Rad groups; wherein X⁻ is a counterion;

or two geminal hydrogens on a carbon atom are replaced with the group ═O, ═S, ═NN(R^bb)₂, ═NNR^bbC(═O)R^aa, ═NNR^bbC(═O)OR^aa, ═NNR^bbS(═O)₂R^aa, ═NR^bb, or ═NOR^cc;

each instance of R^aa is, independently, selected from C_1-10 alkyl, C_1-10 perhaloalkyl, C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10 alkyl, heteroC_2-10 alkenyl, heteroC_2-10alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^aa groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^dd groups;

each instance of R^bb is, independently, selected from hydrogen, —OH, —OR^aa, —N(R^cc)₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^cc)₂, —CO₂R^aa, —SO₂R^aa, —C(═NR^cc)OR^aa, —C(═NR^cc)N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂R^cc, —SO₂OR^cc, —SOR^aa, —C(═S)N(R^cc)₂, —C(═O)SR^cc, —C(═S)SR^cc, —P(═O)(R^aa)₂, —P(═O)(OR^cc)₂, —P(═O)(N(R^cc)₂)₂, C_1-10 alkyl, C_1-10 perhaloalkyl, C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10 alkyl, heteroC_2-10 alkenyl, heteroC_2-10alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^bb groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^dd groups; wherein X⁻ is a counterion;

each instance of R^cc is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C_1-10 alkyl, C_1-10 perhaloalkyl, C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10 alkyl, heteroC_2-10 alkenyl, heteroC_2-10 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^cc groups are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^dd groups;

each instance of R^dd is, independently, selected from halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OR^ee, —ON(R^ff)₂, —N(R^ff)₂, —N(R^ff)₃⁺X⁻, —N(OR^ee)R^ff, —SH, —SR^ee, —SSR^ee, —C(═O)R^ee, —CO₂H, —CO₂R^ee, —OC(═O)R^ee, —OCO₂R^ee, —C(═O)N(R^ff)₂, —OC(═O)N(R^ff)₂, —NR^ffC(═O)R^ee, —NR^ffCO₂R^ee, —NR^ffC(═O)N(R^ff)₂, —C(═NR)OR^ee, —OC(═NR)R^ee, —OC(═NR^ff)OR^ee, —C(═NR^ff)N(R^ff)₂, —OC(═NR^ff)N(R^ff)₂, —NR^ffC(═NR^ff)N(R^ff)₂, —NR^ffSO₂R^ee, —SO₂N(R^ff)₂, —SO₂R^ee, —SO₂OR^ee, —OSO₂R^ee, S(═O)R^ee, —Si(R^ee)₃, —OSi(R^ee)₃, —C(═S)N(R^ff)₂, —C(═O)SR^ee, —C(═S)SR^ee, —SC(═S)SR^ee, —P(═O)(OR^ee)₂, —P(═O)(R^ee)₂, —OP(═O)(R^ee)₂, —OP(═O)(OR^ee)₂, C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^gg groups, or two geminal R^dd substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X⁻ is a counterion;

each instance of R^ee is, independently, selected from C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, and 3-10 membered heteroaryl, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^gg groups;

each instance of R^ff is, independently, selected from hydrogen, C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl and 5-10 membered heteroaryl, or two R^ff groups are joined to form a 3-10 membered heterocyclyl or 5-10 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^gg groups; and

each instance of R^gg is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC_1-6 alkyl, —ON(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₃⁺X⁻, —NH(C_1-6 alkyl)₂⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C_1-6 alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃⁺X⁻, —N(OC_1-6 alkyl)(C_1-6 alkyl), —N(OH)(C_1-6 alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC_1-6 alkyl, —SS(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —OCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —N(C_1-6 alkyl)C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC_1-6 alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OC(═NH)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)NH₂, —NHC(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂O(C_1-6 alkyl), —OSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO(C_1-6 alkyl), —Si(C_1-6 alkyl)₃, —OSi(C_1-6 alkyl)₃ —C(═S)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═S)SC_1-6 alkyl, —SC(═S)SC_1-6 alkyl, —P(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, —P(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal R^gg substituents can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X⁻ is a counterion.

In certain embodiments, each instance of a substituent is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC_1-6 alkyl, —ON(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₃⁺X⁻, —NH(C_1-6 alkyl)₂⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C_1-6 alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃⁺X⁻, —N(OC_1-6 alkyl)(C_1-6 alkyl), —N(OH)(C_1-6 alkyl), —NH(OH), —SH, —SC_1-6 alkyl, —SS(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —OCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —N(C_1-6 alkyl)C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —C(═NH)O(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)OC_1-6 alkyl, —C(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —C(═NH)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═NH)NH₂, —OC(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OC(═NH)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═NH)NH₂, —NHC(═NH)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —NHC(═NH)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂O(C_1-6 alkyl), —OSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO(C_1-6 alkyl), —Si(C_1-6 alkyl)₃, —OSi(C_1-6 alkyl)₃—C(═S)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, C(═S)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), C(═S)NH₂, —C(═O)S(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═S)SC_1-6 alkyl, —SC(═S)SC_1-6 alkyl, —P(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, —P(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal hydrogen can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X is a counterion.

In certain embodiments, each instance of a substituent is, independently, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, —SO₂H, —SO₃H, —OH, —OC_1-6 alkyl, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —N(C_1-6 alkyl)₃⁺X⁻, —NH(C_1-6 alkyl)₂⁺X⁻, —NH₂(C_1-6 alkyl)⁺X⁻, —NH₃⁺X⁻, —SH, —SC_1-6 alkyl, —C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —CO₂H, —CO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —OC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —OCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —C(═O)NH₂, —C(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —N(C_1-6 alkyl)C(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHCO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —NHC(═O)NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —NHC(═O)NH₂, —NHSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂N(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —SO₂NH(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂NH₂, —SO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —SO₂O(C_1-6 alkyl), —OSO₂(C_1-6 alkyl), —Si(C_1-6 alkyl)₃, —OSi(C_1-6 alkyl)₃, —P(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, —P(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(C_1-6 alkyl)₂, —OP(═O)(OC_1-6 alkyl)₂, C_1-6 alkyl, C_1-6 perhaloalkyl, C_2-6 alkenyl, C_2-6 alkynyl, heteroC_1-6 alkyl, heteroC_2-6 alkenyl, heteroC_2-6 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, C_6-10 aryl, 3-10 membered heterocyclyl, 5-10 membered heteroaryl; or two geminal hydrogen can be joined to form ═O or ═S; wherein X⁻ is a counterion.

The term “halo” or “halogen” refers to fluorine (fluoro, —F), chlorine (chloro, —Cl), bromine (bromo, —Br), or iodine (iodo, —I).

The term “hydroxyl” or “hydroxy” refers to the group —OH. The term “substituted hydroxyl” or “substituted hydroxyl,” by extension, refers to a hydroxyl group wherein the oxygen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with a group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from —OR^aa, —ON(R^bb)₂, —OC(═O)SR^aa, —OC(═O)R^aa, —OCO₂R^aa, —OC(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —OC(═NR^bb)R^aa, —OC(═NR^bb)OR^aa, —OC(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —OS(═O)R^aa, —OSO₂R^aa, —OSi(R^aa)₃, —OP(R^cc)₂, —OP(R^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —OP(OR^cc)₂, —OP(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —OP(═O)(R^aa)₂, —OP(═O)(OR^cc)₂, and —OP(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, wherein X⁻, R^aa, R^bb, and R^cc are as defined herein.

The term “amino” refers to the group —NH₂. The term “substituted amino,” by extension, refers to a monosubstituted amino, a disubstituted amino, or a trisubstituted amino. In certain embodiments, the “substituted amino” is a monosubstituted amino or a disubstituted amino group.

The term “monosubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with one hydrogen and one group other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from —NH(R^bb), —NHC(═O)R^aa, —NHCO₂R^aa, —NHC(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —NHC(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —NHSO₂R^aa, —NHP(═O)(OR^cc)₂, and —NHP(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, wherein R^aa, R^bb and R^cc are as defined herein, and wherein R^bb of the group —NH(R^bb) is not hydrogen.

The term “disubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with two groups other than hydrogen, and includes groups selected from —N(R^bb)₂, —NR^bbC(═O)R^aa, —NR^bbCO₂R^aa, —NR^bbC(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —NR^bbC(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —NR^bbSO₂R^aa, —NR^bbP(═O)(OR^cc)₂, and —NR^bbP(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, wherein R^aa, R^bb, and R^cc are as defined herein, with the proviso that the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is not substituted with hydrogen.

The term “trisubstituted amino” refers to an amino group wherein the nitrogen atom directly attached to the parent molecule is substituted with three groups, and includes groups selected from —N(R^bb)₃ and —N(R^bb)₃⁺X⁻, wherein R^bb and X⁻ are as defined herein.

The term “sulfonyl” refers to a group selected from —SO₂N(R^bb)₂, —SO₂R^aa, and —SO₂OR^aa, wherein R^aa and R^bb are as defined herein.

The term “sulfinyl” refers to the group —S(═O)R^aa, wherein R^aa is as defined herein.

The term “acyl” refers to a group having the general formula —C(═O)R^X1, —C(═O)OR^X1, —C(═O)—O—C(═O)R^X1, —C(═O)SR^X1, —C(═O)N(R^X1)₂, —C(═S)R^X1, —C(═S)N(R^X1)₂, —C(═S)O(R^X1), —C(═S)S(R^X1), —C(NR^X1)R^X1, —C(═NR^X1)OR^X1, —C(═NR^X1)SR^X1, and —C(═NR^X1)N(R^X1)₂, wherein R^X1 is hydrogen; halogen; substituted or unsubstituted hydroxyl; substituted or unsubstituted thiol; substituted or unsubstituted amino; substituted or unsubstituted acyl, cyclic or acyclic, substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched aliphatic; cyclic or acyclic, substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched heteroaliphatic; cyclic or acyclic, substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched alkyl; cyclic or acyclic, substituted or unsubstituted, branched or unbranched alkenyl; substituted or unsubstituted alkynyl; substituted or unsubstituted aryl, substituted or unsubstituted heteroaryl, aliphaticoxy, heteroaliphaticoxy, alkyloxy, heteroalkyloxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aliphaticthioxy, heteroaliphaticthioxy, alkylthioxy, heteroalkylthioxy, arylthioxy, heteroarylthioxy, mono- or di-aliphaticamino, mono- or di-heteroaliphaticamino, mono- or di-alkylamino, mono- or di-heteroalkylamino, mono- or di-arylamino, or mono- or di-heteroarylamino; or two R^X1 groups taken together form a 5- to 6-membered heterocyclic ring. Exemplary acyl groups include aldehydes (—CHO), carboxylic acids (—CO₂H), ketones, acyl halides, esters, amides, imines, carbonates, carbamates, and ureas. Acyl substituents include, but are not limited to, any of the substituents described herein, that result in the formation of a stable moiety (e.g., aliphatic, alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroaliphatic, heterocyclic, aryl, heteroaryl, acyl, oxo, imino, thiooxo, cyano, isocyano, amino, azido, nitro, hydroxyl, thiol, halo, aliphaticamino, heteroaliphaticamino, alkylamino, heteroalkylamino, arylamino, heteroarylamino, alkylaryl, arylalkyl, aliphaticoxy, heteroaliphaticoxy, alkyloxy, heteroalkyloxy, aryloxy, heteroaryloxy, aliphaticthioxy, heteroaliphaticthioxy, alkylthioxy, heteroalkylthioxy, arylthioxy, heteroarylthioxy, acyloxy, and the like, each of which may or may not be further substituted).

The term “carbonyl” refers a group wherein the carbon directly attached to the parent molecule is sp² hybridized, and is substituted with an oxygen, nitrogen or sulfur atom, e.g., a group selected from ketones (e.g., —C(═O)R^aa), carboxylic acids (e.g., —CO₂H), aldehydes (—CHO), esters (e.g., —CO₂R^aa, —C(═O)SR^aa, —C(═S)SR^aa), amides (e.g., —C(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═O)NR^bbSO₂R^aa, —C(═S)N(R^bb)₂), and imines (e.g., —C(═NR^bb)R^aa, —C(═NR^bb)OR^aa), —C(═NR^bb)R(R^bb)₂), wherein R^aa and R^bb are as defined herein.)

The term “oxo” refers to the group ═O, and the term “thiooxo” refers to the group ═S.

Nitrogen atoms can be substituted or unsubstituted as valency permits, and include primary, secondary, tertiary, and quaternary nitrogen atoms. Exemplary nitrogen atom substituents include, but are not limited to, hydrogen, —OH, —OR^aa, —N(R^cc)₂, —CN, —C(═O)R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^cc)₂, —CO₂R^aa, —SO₂R^aa, —C(═NR^bb)R^aa, —C(═NR^cc)OR^aa, —C(═NR^cc)N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂R^cc, —SO₂OR^cc, —SOR^aa, —C(═S)N(R^cc)₂, —C(═O)SR^cc, —C(═S)SR^cc, —P(═O)(OR^cc)₂, —P(═O)(R^aa)₂, —P(═O)(N(R^cc)₂)₂, C_1-10 alkyl, C_1-10 perhaloalkyl, C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10alkyl, heteroC_2-10alkenyl, heteroC_2-10alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl, or two R^cc groups attached to an N atom are joined to form a 3-14 membered heterocyclyl or 5-14 membered heteroaryl ring, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^dd groups, and wherein R^aa, R^bb, R^cc and R^dd are as defined above.

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on the nitrogen atom is an nitrogen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “amino protecting group”). Nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —OH, —OR^aa, —N(R^cc)₂, —C(═O)R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^cc)₂, —CO₂R^aa, —SO₂R^aa, —C(═NR^cc)R^aa, —C(═NR^cc)OR^aa, —C(═NR^cc)N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂N(R^cc)₂, —SO₂R^cc, —SO₂OR^cc, —SOR^aa, —C(═S)\T(R^cc)₂, —C(═O)SR^ee, —C(═S)SR^ee, C_1-10 alkyl (e.g., aralkyl, heteroaralkyl), C_2-10 alkenyl, C_2-10 alkynyl, heteroC_1-10 alkyl, heteroC_2-10 alkenyl, heteroC_2-10 alkynyl, C_3-10 carbocyclyl, 3-14 membered heterocyclyl, C_6-14 aryl, and 5-14 membered heteroaryl groups, wherein each alkyl, alkenyl, alkynyl, heteroalkyl, heteroalkenyl, heteroalkynyl, carbocyclyl, heterocyclyl, aralkyl, aryl, and heteroaryl is independently substituted with 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, or 5 R^dd groups, and wherein R^aa, R^bb, R^cc and R^dd are as defined herein. Nitrogen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

For example, nitrogen protecting groups such as amide groups (e.g., —C(═O)R^aa) include, but are not limited to, formamide, acetamide, chloroacetamide, trichloroacetamide, trifluoroacetamide, phenylacetamide, 3-phenylpropanamide, picolinamide, 3-pyridylcarboxamide, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, benzamide, p-phenylbenzamide, o-nitophenylacetamide, o-nitrophenoxyacetamide, acetoacetamide, (N′-dithiobenzyloxyacylamino)acetamide, 3-(p-hydroxyphenyl)propanamide, 3-(o-nitrophenyl)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-nitrophenoxy)propanamide, 2-methyl-2-(o-phenylazophenoxy)propanamide, 4-chlorobutanamide, 3-methyl-3-nitrobutanamide, o-nitrocinnamide, N-acetylmethionine derivative, o-nitrobenzamide, and o-(benzoyloxymethyl)benzamide.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as carbamate groups (e.g., C(═O)OR^aa) include, but are not limited to, methyl carbamate, ethyl carbamate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbamate (Fmoc), 9-(2-sulfo)fluorenylmethyl carbamate, 9-(2,7-dibromo)fluoroenylmethyl carbamate, 2,7-di-t-butyl-[9-(10,10-dioxo-10,10,10,10-tetrahydrothioxanthyl)] methyl carbamate (DBD-Tmoc), 4-methoxyphenacyl carbamate (Phenoc), 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbamate (Teoc), 2-phenylethyl carbamate (hZ), 1-(1-adamantyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (Adpoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-haloethyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-2,2-dibromoethyl carbamate (DB-t-BOC), 1,1-dimethyl-2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbamate (TCBOC), 1-methyl-1-(4-biphenylyl)ethyl carbamate (Bpoc), 1-(3,5-di-t-butylphenyl)-1-methylethyl carbamate (t-Bumeoc), 2-(2′- and 4′-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate (Pyoc), 2-(N,N-dicyclohexylcarboxamido)ethyl carbamate, t-butyl carbamate (BOC or Boc), 1-adamantyl carbamate (Adoc), vinyl carbamate (Voc), allyl carbamate (Alloc), 1-isopropylallyl carbamate (Ipaoc), cinnamyl carbamate (Coc), 4-nitrocinnamyl carbamate (Noc), 8-quinolyl carbamate, N-hydroxypiperidinyl carbamate, alkyldithio carbamate, benzyl carbamate (Cbz), p-methoxybenzyl carbamate (Moz), p-nitrobenzyl carbamate, p-bromobenzyl carbamate, p-chlorobenzyl carbamate, 2,4-dichlorobenzyl carbamate, 4-methylsulfinylbenzyl carbamate (Msz), 9-anthrylmethyl carbamate, diphenylmethyl carbamate, 2-methylthioethyl carbamate, 2-methylsulfonylethyl carbamate, 2-(p-toluenesulfonyl)ethyl carbamate, [2-(1,3-dithianyl)]methyl carbamate (Dmoc), 4-methylthiophenyl carbamate (Mtpc), 2,4-dimethylthiophenyl carbamate (Bmpc), 2-phosphonoethyl carbamate (Peoc), 2-triphenylphosphonioisopropyl carbamate (Ppoc), 1,1-dimethyl-2-cyanoethyl carbamate, m-chloro-p-acyloxybenzyl carbamate, p-(dihydroxyboryl)benzyl carbamate, 5-benzisoxazolylmethyl carbamate, 2-(trifluoromethyl)-6-chromonylmethyl carbamate (Tcroc), m-nitrophenyl carbamate, 3,5-dimethoxybenzyl carbamate, o-nitrobenzyl carbamate, 3,4-dimethoxy-6-nitrobenzyl carbamate, phenyl(o-nitrophenyl)methyl carbamate, t-amyl carbamate, S-benzyl thiocarbamate, p-cyanobenzyl carbamate, cyclobutyl carbamate, cyclohexyl carbamate, cyclopentyl carbamate, cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, p-decyloxybenzyl carbamate, 2,2-dimethoxyacylvinyl carbamate, o-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)benzyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethyl-3-(N,N-dimethylcarboxamido)propyl carbamate, 1,1-dimethylpropynyl carbamate, di(2-pyridyl)methyl carbamate, 2-furanylmethyl carbamate, 2-iodoethyl carbamate, isobornyl carbamate, isobutyl carbamate, isonicotinyl carbamate, p-(p′-methoxyphenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclobutyl carbamate, 1-methylcyclohexyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-cyclopropylmethyl carbamate, I-methyl-1-(3,5-dimethoxyphenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(p-phenylazophenyl)ethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-phenylethyl carbamate, 1-methyl-1-(4-pyridyl)ethyl carbamate, phenyl carbamate, p-(phenylazo)benzyl carbamate, 2,4,6-tri-t-butylphenyl carbamate, 4-(trimethylammonium)benzyl carbamate, and 2,4,6-trimethylbenzyl carbamate.

Nitrogen protecting groups such as sulfonamide groups (e.g., S(═O)₂R^aa) include, but are not limited to, p-toluenesulfonamide (Ts), benzenesulfonamide, 2,3,6-trimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtr), 2,4,6-trimethoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mtb), 2,6-dimethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Pme), 2,3,5,6-tetramethyl-4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mte), 4-methoxybenzenesulfonamide (Mbs), 2,4,6-trimethylbenzenesulfonamide (Mts), 2,6-dimethoxy-4-methylbenzenesulfonamide (iMds), 2,2,5,7,8-pentamethylchroman-6-sulfonamide (Pmc), methanesulfonamide (Ms), β-trimethylsilylethanesulfonamide (SES), 9-anthracenesulfonamide, 4-(4′,8′-dimethoxynaphthylmethyl)benzenesulfonamide (DNMBS), benzylsulfonamide, trifluoromethylsulfonamide, and phenacylsulfonamide.

Other nitrogen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, phenothiazinyl-(10)-acyl derivative, N′-p-toluenesulfonylaminoacyl derivative, N′-phenylaminothioacyl derivative, N-benzoylphenylalanyl derivative, N-acetylmethionine derivative, 4,5-diphenyl-3-oxazolin-2-one, N-phthalimide, N-dithiasuccinimide (Dts), N-2,3-diphenylmaleimide, N-2,5-dimethylpyrrole, N-1,1,4,4-tetramethyldisilylazacyclopentane adduct (STABASE), 5-substituted 1,3-dimethyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 5-substituted 1,3-dibenzyl-1,3,5-triazacyclohexan-2-one, 1-substituted 3,5-dinitro-4-pyridone, N-methylamine, N-allylamine, N-[2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxy]methylamine (SEM), N-3-acetoxypropylamine, N-(1-isopropyl-4-nitro-2-oxo-3-pyroolin-3-yl)amine, quaternary ammonium salts, N-benzylamine, N-di(4-methoxyphenyl)methylamine, N-5-dibenzosuberylamine, N-triphenylmethylamine (Tr), N-[(4-methoxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl] amine (MMTr), N-9-phenylfluorenylamine (PhF), N-2,7-dichloro-9-fluorenylmethyleneamine, N-ferrocenylmethylamino (Fcm), N-2-picolylamino N′-oxide, N-1,1-dimethylthiomethyleneamine, N-benzylideneamine, N-p-methoxybenzylideneamine, N-diphenylmethyleneamine, N-[(2-pyridyl)mesityl]methyleneamine, N—(N′,N′-dimethylaminomethylene)amine, N,N′-isopropylidenediamine, N-p-nitrobenzylideneamine, N-salicylideneamine, N-5-chlorosalicylideneamine, N-(5-chloro-2-hydroxyphenyl)phenylmethyleneamine, N-cyclohexylideneamine, N-(5,5-dimethyl-3-oxo-1-cyclohexenyl)amine, N-borane derivative, N-diphenylborinic acid derivative, N-[phenyl(pentaacylchromium- or tungsten)acyl]amine, N-copper chelate, N-zinc chelate, N-nitroamine, N-nitrosoamine, amine N-oxide, diphenylphosphinamide (Dpp), dimethylthiophosphinamide (Mpt), diphenylthiophosphinamide (Ppt), dialkyl phosphoramidates, dibenzyl phosphoramidate, diphenyl phosphoramidate, benzenesulfenamide, o-nitrobenzenesulfenamide (Nps), 2,4-dinitrobenzenesulfenamide, pentachlorobenzenesulfenamide, 2-nitro-4-methoxybenzenesulfenamide, triphenylmethylsulfenamide, and 3-nitropyridinesulfenamide (Npys). In certain embodiments, a nitrogen protecting group is benzyl (Bn), tert-butyloxycarbonyl (BOC), carbobenzyloxy (Cbz), 9-flurenylmethyloxycarbonyl (Fmoc), trifluoroacetyl, triphenylmethyl, acetyl (Ac), benzoyl (Bz), p-methoxybenzyl (PMB), 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl (DMPM), p-methoxyphenyl (PMP), 2,2,2-trichloroethyloxycarbonyl (Troc), triphenylmethyl (Tr), tosyl (Ts), brosyl (Bs), nosyl (Ns), mesyl (Ms), triflyl (Tf), or dansyl (Ds).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on an oxygen atom is an oxygen protecting group (also referred to herein as an “hydroxyl protecting group”). Oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^aa, —N(R^bb)₂, —C(═O)SR^aa, —C(═O)R^aa, —CO₂R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═NR^bb)R^aa, —C(═NR^bb)OR^aa, —C(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —S(═)R^aa, —SO₂R^aa, —Si(R^aa)₃, —P(R^cc)₂, —P(R^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(O)(R^aa)₂, —P(═O)(OR^cc)₂, and —P(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, wherein X⁻, R^aa, R^bb, and R^cc are as defined herein. Oxygen protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference.

Exemplary oxygen protecting groups include, but are not limited to, methyl, methoxylmethyl (MOM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), t-butylthiomethyl, (phenyldimethylsilyl)methoxymethyl (SMOM), benzyloxymethyl (BOM), p-methoxybenzyloxymethyl (PMBM), (4-methoxyphenoxy)methyl (p-AOM), guaiacolmethyl (GUM), t-butoxymethyl, 4-pentenyloxymethyl (POM), siloxymethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxymethyl, bis(2-chloroethoxy)methyl, 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethoxymethyl (SEMOR), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), 3-bromotetrahydropyranyl, tetrahydrothiopyranyl, 1-methoxycyclohexyl, 4-methoxytetrahydropyranyl (MTHP), 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl, 4-methoxytetrahydrothiopyranyl S,S-dioxide, 1-[(2-chloro-4-methyl)phenyl]-4-methoxypiperidin-4-yl (CTMP), 1,4-dioxan-2-yl, tetrahydrofuranyl, tetrahydrothiofuranyl, 2,3,3a,4,5,6,7,7a-octahydro-7,8,8-trimethyl-4,7-methanobenzofuran-2-yl, 1-ethoxyethyl, 1-(2-chloroethoxy)ethyl, 1-methyl-1-methoxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxyethyl, 1-methyl-1-benzyloxy-2-fluoroethyl, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl, 2-trimethylsilylethyl, 2-(phenylselenyl)ethyl, t-butyl, allyl, p-chlorophenyl, p-methoxyphenyl, 2,4-dinitrophenyl, benzyl (Bn), p-methoxybenzyl, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl, o-nitrobenzyl, p-nitrobenzyl, p-halobenzyl, 2,6-dichlorobenzyl, p-cyanobenzyl, p-phenylbenzyl, 2-picolyl, 4-picolyl, 3-methyl-2-picolyl N-oxido, diphenylmethyl, p,p′-dinitrobenzhydryl, 5-dibenzosuberyl, triphenylmethyl, α-naphthyldiphenylmethyl, p-methoxyphenyldiphenylmethyl, di(p-methoxyphenyl)phenylmethyl, tri(p-methoxyphenyl)methyl, 4-(4′-bromophenacyloxyphenyl)diphenylmethyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(4,5-dichlorophthalimidophenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(levulinoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 4,4′,4″-tris(benzoyloxyphenyl)methyl, 3-(imidazol-1-yl)bis(4′,4″-dimethoxyphenyl)methyl, 1,1-bis(4-methoxyphenyl)-1′-pyrenylmethyl, 9-anthryl, 9-(9-phenyl)xanthenyl, 9-(9-phenyl-10-oxo)anthryl, 1,3-benzodithiolan-2-yl, benzisothiazolyl S,S-dioxido, trimethylsilyl (TMS), triethylsilyl (TES), triisopropylsilyl (TIPS), dimethylisopropylsilyl (IPDMS), diethylisopropylsilyl (DEIPS), dimethylthexylsilyl, t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), t-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), tribenzylsilyl, tri-p-xylylsilyl, triphenylsilyl, diphenylmethylsilyl (DPMS), t-butylmethoxyphenylsilyl (TBMPS), formate, benzoylformate, acetate, chloroacetate, dichloroacetate, trichloroacetate, trifluoroacetate, methoxyacetate, triphenylmethoxyacetate, phenoxyacetate, p-chlorophenoxyacetate, 3-phenylpropionate, 4-oxopentanoate (levulinate), 4,4-(ethylenedithio)pentanoate (levulinoyldithioacetal), pivaloate, adamantoate, crotonate, 4-methoxycrotonate, benzoate, p-phenylbenzoate, 2,4,6-trimethylbenzoate (mesitoate), methyl carbonate, 9-fluorenylmethyl carbonate (Fmoc), ethyl carbonate, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-(trimethylsilyl)ethyl carbonate (TMSEC), 2-(phenylsulfonyl) ethyl carbonate (Psec), 2-(triphenylphosphonio) ethyl carbonate (Peoc), isobutyl carbonate, vinyl carbonate, allyl carbonate, t-butyl carbonate (BOC or Boc), p-nitrophenyl carbonate, benzyl carbonate, p-methoxybenzyl carbonate, 3,4-dimethoxybenzyl carbonate, o-nitrobenzyl carbonate, p-nitrobenzyl carbonate, S-benzyl thiocarbonate, 4-ethoxy-1-napththyl carbonate, methyl dithiocarbonate, 2-iodobenzoate, 4-azidobutyrate, 4-nitro-4-methylpentanoate, o-(dibromomethyl)benzoate, 2-formylbenzenesulfonate, 2-(methylthiomethoxy)ethyl, 4-(methylthiomethoxy)butyrate, 2-(methylthiomethoxymethyl)benzoate, 2,6-dichloro-4-methylphenoxyacetate, 2,6-dichloro-4-(1,1,3,3-tetramethylbutyl)phenoxyacetate, 2,4-bis(1,1-dimethylpropyl)phenoxyacetate, chlorodiphenylacetate, isobutyrate, monosuccinoate, (E)-2-methyl-2-butenoate, o-(methoxyacyl)benzoate, a-naphthoate, nitrate, alkyl N,N,N′,N′-tetramethylphosphorodiamidate, alkyl N-phenylcarbamate, borate, dimethylphosphinothioyl, alkyl 2,4-dinitrophenylsulfenate, sulfate, methanesulfonate (mesylate), benzylsulfonate, and tosylate (Ts). In certain embodiments, an oxygen protecting group is silyl. In certain embodiments, an oxygen protecting group is t-butyldiphenylsilyl (TBDPS), t-butyldimethylsilyl (TBDMS), triisoproylsilyl (TIPS), triphenylsilyl (TPS), triethylsilyl (TES), trimethylsilyl (TMS), triisopropylsiloxymethyl (TOM), acetyl (Ac), benzoyl (Bz), allyl carbonate, 2,2,2-trichloroethyl carbonate (Troc), 2-trimethylsilylethyl carbonate, methoxymethyl (MOM), 1-ethoxyethyl (EE), 2-methyoxy-2-propyl (MOP), 2,2,2-trichloroethoxyethyl, 2-methoxyethoxymethyl (MEM), 2-trimethylsilylethoxymethyl (SEM), methylthiomethyl (MTM), tetrahydropyranyl (THP), tetrahydrofuranyl (THF), p-methoxyphenyl (PMP), triphenylmethyl (Tr), methoxytrityl (MMT), dimethoxytrityl (DMT), allyl, p-methoxybenzyl (PMB), t-butyl, benzyl (Bn), allyl, or pivaloyl (Piv).

In certain embodiments, the substituent present on a sulfur atom is a sulfur protecting group (also referred to as a “thiol protecting group”). Sulfur protecting groups include, but are not limited to, —R^aa, —N(R^bb)₂, —C(═O)SR^aa, —C(═O)R^aa, —CO₂R^aa, —C(═O)N(R^bb)₂, —C(═NR^bb)R^aa, —C(═NR^bb)OR^aa, —C(═NR^bb)N(R^bb)₂, —S(═O)R^aa, —SO₂R^aa, —Si(R^aa)₃, —P(R^cc)₂, —P(R^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(OR^cc)₂, —P(OR^cc)₃⁺X⁻, —P(═O)(R^aa)₂, —P(═O)(OR^cc)₂, and —P(═O)(N(R^bb)₂)₂, wherein R^aa, R^bb, and R^cc are as defined herein. Sulfur protecting groups are well known in the art and include those described in detail in Protecting Groups in Organic Synthesis, T. W. Greene and P. G. M. Wuts, 3^rd edition, John Wiley & Sons, 1999, incorporated herein by reference. In certain embodiments, a sulfur protecting group is acetamidomethyl, t-Bu, 3-nitro-2-pyridine sulfenyl, 2-pyridine-sulfenyl, or triphenylmethyl.

A “counterion” or “anionic counterion” is a negatively charged group associated with a positively charged group in order to maintain electronic neutrality. An anionic counterion may be monovalent (i.e., including one formal negative charge). An anionic counterion may also be multivalent (i.e., including more than one formal negative charge), such as divalent or trivalent. Exemplary counterions include halide ions (e.g., F⁻, Cl⁻, Br⁻, I⁻), NO₃⁻, ClO₄⁻, OH⁻, H₂PO₄⁻, HCO₃⁻, HSO₄⁻, sulfonate ions (e.g., methansulfonate, trifluoromethanesulfonate, p-toluenesulfonate, benzenesulfonate, 10-camphor sulfonate, naphthalene-2-sulfonate, naphthalene-1-sulfonic acid-5-sulfonate, ethan-1-sulfonic acid-2-sulfonate, and the like), carboxylate ions (e.g., acetate, propanoate, benzoate, glycerate, lactate, tartrate, glycolate, gluconate, and the like), BF₄⁻, PF₄⁻, PF₆⁻, AsF₆⁻, SbF₆⁻, B[3,5-(CF₃)₂C₆H₃]₄]⁻, B(C₆F₅)₄⁻, BPh₄⁻, Al(OC(CF₃)₃)₄⁻, and carborane anions (e.g., CB₁₁H₁₂⁻ or (HCB₁₁Me₅Br₆)⁻). Exemplary counterions which may be multivalent include CO₃²⁻, HPO₄²⁻, PO₄³⁻, B₄O₇²⁻, SO₄²⁻, S₂O₃²⁻, carboxylate anions (e.g., tartrate, citrate, fumarate, maleate, malate, malonate, gluconate, succinate, glutarate, adipate, pimelate, suberate, azelate, sebacate, salicylate, phthalates, aspartate, glutamate, and the like), and carboranes.

As used herein, use of the phrase “at least one instance” refers to 1, 2, 3, 4, or more instances, but also encompasses a range, e.g., for example, from 1 to 4, from 1 to 3, from 1 to 2, from 2 to 4, from 2 to 3, or from 3 to 4 instances, inclusive.

These and other exemplary substituents are described in more detail in the Detailed Description, Examples, and Claims. The invention is not intended to be limited in any manner by the above exemplary listing of substituents.

Other Definitions

The following definitions are more general terms used throughout the present application.

“Oxidative stress” refers to the imbalance between the presence of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a system and the system's ability to adequately inhibit or detoxify the reactive species or to repair the resulting damage. Oxidative stress may result in significant damage to cellular structure. As an example, the production of peroxides and free radicals can be toxic and can cause damage all components of the cell, including proteins, lipids, and DNA. For instance, oxidative stress from oxidative metabolism causes damage to DNA, including base damage and strand breaks in DNA. Reactive oxidative species can also act as cellular messengers in redox signaling and therefore oxidative stress can cause disruptions in normal cellular signaling. Oxidative stress is involved in the development and/or exacerbation of various diseases and conditions, including those described herein.

“Reactive oxygen species” (ROS) are reactive chemical species containing oxygen. Typically, reactive oxygen species are oxidative in nature. Common examples of ROS include, but are not limited to, peroxides, superoxide, oxygen-centered radicals (e.g., hydroxyl radical), and singlet oxygen. ROS are exogenously formed as a byproduct of oxygen metabolism and play important roles in cell signaling and homeostasis. Increases in ROS may result in significant damage to cell structures and lead to oxidative stress. External stress (e.g., environmental stressors such as UV or heat exposure, ionizing radiation) can promote the formation of ROS.

Similarly, “reactive nitrogen species” (RNS) are reactive chemical species containing nitrogen. In certain embodiments, ROS and RNS work in concert to cause damage to cells (e.g., nitrosative stress).

As used herein, the term “salt” refers to any and all salts, and encompasses pharmaceutically acceptable salts.

The term “pharmaceutically acceptable salt” refers to those salts which are, within the scope of sound medical judgment, suitable for use in contact with the tissues of humans and lower animals without undue toxicity, irritation, allergic response, and the like, and are commensurate with a reasonable benefit/risk ratio. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts are well known in the art. For example, Berge et al. describe pharmaceutically acceptable salts in detail in J. Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1977, 66, 1-19, incorporated herein by reference. Pharmaceutically acceptable salts of the compounds of this invention include those derived from suitable inorganic and organic acids and bases. Examples of pharmaceutically acceptable, nontoxic acid addition salts are salts of an amino group formed with inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric acid, hydrobromic acid, phosphoric acid, sulfuric acid, and perchloric acid or with organic acids, such as acetic acid, oxalic acid, maleic acid, tartaric acid, citric acid, succinic acid, or malonic acid or by using other methods known in the art such as ion exchange. Other pharmaceutically acceptable salts include adipate, alginate, ascorbate, aspartate, benzenesulfonate, benzoate, bisulfate, borate, butyrate, camphorate, camphorsulfonate, citrate, cyclopentanepropionate, digluconate, dodecylsulfate, ethanesulfonate, formate, fumarate, glucoheptonate, glycerophosphate, gluconate, hemisulfate, heptanoate, hexanoate, hydroiodide, 2-hydroxy-ethanesulfonate, lactobionate, lactate, laurate, lauryl sulfate, malate, maleate, malonate, methanesulfonate, 2-naphthalenesulfonate, nicotinate, nitrate, oleate, oxalate, palmitate, pamoate, pectinate, persulfate, 3-phenylpropionate, phosphate, picrate, pivalate, propionate, stearate, succinate, sulfate, tartrate, thiocyanate, p-toluenesulfonate, undecanoate, valerate salts, and the like. Salts derived from appropriate bases include alkali metal, alkaline earth metal, ammonium, and N⁺(C_1-4 alkyl)₄⁻ salts. Representative alkali or alkaline earth metal salts include sodium, lithium, potassium, calcium, magnesium, and the like. Further pharmaceutically acceptable salts include, when appropriate, nontoxic ammonium, quaternary ammonium, and amine cations formed using counterions such as halide, hydroxide, carboxylate, sulfate, phosphate, nitrate lower alkyl sulfonate and aryl sulfonate.

The term “solvate” refers to forms of the compound, or a salt thereof, that are associated with a solvent, usually by a solvolysis reaction. This physical association may include hydrogen bonding. Conventional solvents include water, methanol, ethanol, acetic acid, DMSO, THF, diethyl ether, and the like. The compounds described herein may be prepared, e.g., in crystalline form, and may be solvated. Suitable solvates include pharmaceutically acceptable solvates and further include both stoichiometric solvates and non-stoichiometric solvates. In certain instances, the solvate will be capable of isolation, for example, when one or more solvent molecules are incorporated in the crystal lattice of a crystalline solid. “Solvate” encompasses both solution-phase and isolatable solvates. Representative solvates include hydrates, ethanolates, and methanolates.

The term “hydrate” refers to a compound that is associated with water. Typically, the number of the water molecules contained in a hydrate of a compound is in a definite ratio to the number of the compound molecules in the hydrate. Therefore, a hydrate of a compound may be represented, for example, by the general formula R.x H₂O, wherein R is the compound, and x is a number greater than 0. A given compound may form more than one type of hydrate, including, e.g., monohydrates (x is 1), lower hydrates (x is a number greater than 0 and smaller than 1, e.g., hemihydrates (R.0.5 H₂O)), and polyhydrates (x is a number greater than 1, e.g., dihydrates (R.2 H₂O) and hexahydrates (R.6 H₂O)).

The term “tautomers” or “tautomeric” refers to two or more interconvertible compounds resulting from at least one formal migration of a hydrogen atom and at least one change in valency (e.g., a single bond to a double bond, a triple bond to a single bond, or vice versa). The exact ratio of the tautomers depends on several factors, including temperature, solvent, and pH. Tautomerizations (i.e., the reaction providing a tautomeric pair) may catalyzed by acid or base. Exemplary tautomerizations include keto-to-enol, amide-to-imide, lactam-to-lactim, enamine-to-imine, and enamine-to-(a different enamine) tautomerizations.

It is also to be understood that compounds that have the same molecular formula but differ in the nature or sequence of bonding of their atoms or the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “isomers”. Isomers that differ in the arrangement of their atoms in space are termed “stereoisomers.”

Stereoisomers that are not mirror images of one another are termed “diastereomers” and those that are non-superimposable mirror images of each other are termed “enantiomers”. When a compound has an asymmetric center, for example, it is bonded to four different groups, a pair of enantiomers is possible. An enantiomer can be characterized by the absolute configuration of its asymmetric center and is described by the R- and S-sequencing rules of Cahn and Prelog, or by the manner in which the molecule rotates the plane of polarized light and designated as dextrorotatory or levorotatory (i.e., as (+) or (−)-isomers respectively). A chiral compound can exist as either individual enantiomer or as a mixture thereof. A mixture containing equal proportions of the enantiomers is called a “racemic mixture”.

The term “polymorph” refers to a crystalline form of a compound (or a salt, hydrate, or solvate thereof). All polymorphs have the same elemental composition. Different crystalline forms usually have different X-ray diffraction patterns, infrared spectra, melting points, density, hardness, crystal shape, optical and electrical properties, stability, and solubility. Recrystallization solvent, rate of crystallization, storage temperature, and other factors may cause one crystal form to dominate. Various polymorphs of a compound can be prepared by crystallization under different conditions.

The term “prodrugs” refers to compounds that have cleavable groups and become by solvolysis or under physiological conditions the compounds described herein, which are pharmaceutically active in vivo. Such examples include, but are not limited to, choline ester derivatives and the like, N-alkylmorpholine esters and the like. Other derivatives of the compounds described herein have activity in both their acid and acid derivative forms, but in the acid sensitive form often offer advantages of solubility, tissue compatibility, or delayed release in the mammalian organism (see, e.g., Bundgard, H., Design of Prodrugs, pp. 7-9, 21-24, Elsevier, Amsterdam 1985). Prodrugs include acid derivatives well known to practitioners of the art, such as, for example, esters prepared by reaction of the parent acid with a suitable alcohol, or amides prepared by reaction of the parent acid compound with a substituted or unsubstituted amine, or acid anhydrides, or mixed anhydrides. Simple aliphatic or aromatic esters, amides, and anhydrides derived from acidic groups pendant on the compounds described herein are particular prodrugs. In some cases it is desirable to prepare double ester type prodrugs such as (acyloxy)alkyl esters or ((alkoxycarbonyl)oxy)alkylesters. C₁-C₈ alkyl, C₂-C₈ alkenyl, C₂-C₈ alkynyl, aryl, C₇-C₁₂ substituted aryl, and C₇-C₁₂ arylalkyl esters of the compounds described herein may be preferred.

The terms “composition” and “formulation” are used interchangeably.

A “subject” to which administration is contemplated refers to a human (i.e., male or female of any age group, e.g., pediatric subject (e.g., infant, child, or adolescent) or adult subject (e.g., young adult, middle-aged adult, or senior adult)) or non-human animal. In certain embodiments, the non-human animal is a mammal (e.g., primate (e.g., cynomolgus monkey or rhesus monkey) commercially relevant mammal (e.g., cattle, pig, horse, sheep, goat, cat, or dog), or bird (e.g., commercially relevant bird, such as chicken, duck, goose, or turkey)). In certain embodiments, the non-human animal is a fish, reptile, or amphibian. The non-human animal may be a male or female at any stage of development. The non-human animal may be a transgenic animal or genetically engineered animal. The term “patient” refers to a human subject in need of treatment of a disease.

The term “biological sample” refers to any sample including tissue samples (such as tissue sections and needle biopsies of a tissue); cell samples (e.g., cytological smears (such as Pap or blood smears) or samples of cells obtained by microdissection); samples of whole organisms (such as samples of yeasts or bacteria); or cell fractions, fragments or organelles (such as obtained by lysing cells and separating the components thereof by centrifugation or otherwise). Other examples of biological samples include blood, serum, urine, semen, fecal matter, cerebrospinal fluid, interstitial fluid, mucous, tears, sweat, pus, biopsied tissue (e.g., obtained by a surgical biopsy or needle biopsy), nipple aspirates, milk, vaginal fluid, saliva, swabs (such as buccal swabs), or any material containing biomolecules that is derived from a first biological sample.

The term “administer,” “administering,” and “administration” refer to implanting, absorbing, ingesting, injecting, inhaling, or otherwise introducing a compound described herein, or a composition thereof, into or onto a subject.

The terms “treatment,” “treat,” and “treating” refer to reversing, alleviating, delaying the onset of, or inhibiting the progress of a disease described herein. In some embodiments, treatment may be administered after one or more signs or symptoms of the disease have developed or have been observed. In other embodiments, treatment may be administered in the absence of signs or symptoms of the disease. For example, treatment may be administered to a susceptible subject prior to the onset of symptoms (e.g., in light of a history of symptoms and/or in light of exposure to a pathogen). Treatment may also be continued after symptoms have resolved, for example, to delay or prevent recurrence.

The terms “condition,” “disease,” and “disorder” are used interchangeably.

An “effective amount” of a compound described herein refers to an amount sufficient to elicit the desired biological response. An effective amount of a compound described herein may vary depending on such factors as the desired biological endpoint, the pharmacokinetics of the compound, the condition being treated, the mode of administration, and the age and health of the subject. In certain embodiments, an effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, an effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments, an effective amount is the amount of a compound described herein in a single dose. In certain embodiments, an effective amount is the combined amounts of a compound described herein in multiple doses.

A “therapeutically effective amount” of a compound described herein is an amount sufficient to provide a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of a condition or to delay or minimize one or more symptoms associated with the condition. A therapeutically effective amount of a compound means an amount of therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other therapies, which provides a therapeutic benefit in the treatment of the condition. The term “therapeutically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall therapy, reduces or avoids symptoms, signs, or causes of the condition, and/or enhances the therapeutic efficacy of another therapeutic agent. In certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount is an amount sufficient for inhibiting the production or concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, biological sample, or subject. In certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount is an amount sufficient for inhibiting NADPH oxidase in a subject, biological sample, or cell. In certain embodiments, a therapeutically effective amount is an amount sufficient for reducing oxidative stress in a subject, biological sample, or cell.

A “prophylactically effective amount” of a compound described herein is an amount sufficient to prevent a condition, or one or more symptoms associated with the condition or prevent its recurrence. A prophylactically effective amount of a compound means an amount of a therapeutic agent, alone or in combination with other agents, which provides a prophylactic benefit in the prevention of the condition. The term “prophylactically effective amount” can encompass an amount that improves overall prophylaxis or enhances the prophylactic efficacy of another prophylactic agent. In certain embodiments, a prophylactically effective amount is an amount sufficient for inhibiting the production or concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, biological sample, or subject. In certain embodiments, a prophylactically effective amount is an amount sufficient for inhibiting NADPH oxidase in a cell, biological sample, or subject. In certain embodiments, a prophylactically effective amount is an amount sufficient for reducing oxidative stress in a cell, biological sample, or subject.

As used herein, “inhibition”, “inhibiting”, “inhibit” and “inhibitor”, and the like, refer to the ability of a compound to reduce, slow, halt, or prevent the activity of a biological process (e.g., a biological process in a cell). In some embodiments, the term refers to a reduction of the level of enzyme activity, e.g., NADPH oxidase activity, to a level that is statistically significantly lower than an initial level which may, for example, be a baseline level of enzyme activity. In some embodiments, the term refers to a reduction of the level of ROS or RNS, to a level that is statistically significantly lower than an initial level. In certain embodiments, such inhibition is of about 1% to 99.9%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 1% to about 95%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 5% to 90%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 10% to 85%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 15% to 80%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 20% to 75%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 25% to 70%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 30% to 65%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 35% to 60%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 40% to 55%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 45% to 50%. In certain embodiments, the inhibition is about 5%, 10%, 15%, 20%, 25%, 30%, 35%, 40%, 45%, 50%, 55%, 60%, 65%, 70%, 75%, 80%, 85%, 90%, 95%, or 99.9%.

A “proliferative disease” refers to a disease that occurs due to abnormal growth or extension by the multiplication of cells (Walker, Cambridge Dictionary of Biology; Cambridge University Press: Cambridge, UK, 1990). A proliferative disease may be associated with: 1) the pathological proliferation of normally quiescent cells; 2) the pathological migration of cells from their normal location (e.g., metastasis of neoplastic cells); 3) the pathological expression of proteolytic enzymes such as the matrix metalloproteinases (e.g., collagenases, gelatinases, and elastases); or 4) the pathological angiogenesis as in proliferative retinopathy and tumor metastasis. Exemplary proliferative diseases include cancers (i.e., “malignant neoplasms”), benign neoplasms, angiogenesis, inflammatory diseases, and autoimmune diseases.

The term “angiogenesis” refers to the physiological process through which new blood vessels form from pre-existing vessels. Angiogenesis is distinct from vasculogenesis, which is the de novo formation of endothelial cells from mesoderm cell precursors. The first vessels in a developing embryo form through vasculogenesis, after which angiogenesis is responsible for most blood vessel growth during normal or abnormal development. Angiogenesis is a vital process in growth and development, as well as in wound healing and in the formation of granulation tissue. However, angiogenesis is also a fundamental step in the transition of tumors from a benign state to a malignant one, leading to the use of angiogenesis inhibitors in the treatment of cancer. Angiogenesis may be chemically stimulated by angiogenic proteins, such as growth factors (e.g., VEGF). “Pathological angiogenesis” refers to abnormal (e.g., excessive or insufficient) angiogenesis that amounts to and/or is associated with a disease.

The terms “neoplasm” and “tumor” are used herein interchangeably and refer to an abnormal mass of tissue wherein the growth of the mass surpasses and is not coordinated with the growth of a normal tissue. A neoplasm or tumor may be “benign” or “malignant,” depending on the following characteristics: degree of cellular differentiation (including morphology and functionality), rate of growth, local invasion, and metastasis. A “benign neoplasm” is generally well differentiated, has characteristically slower growth than a malignant neoplasm, and remains localized to the site of origin. In addition, a benign neoplasm does not have the capacity to infiltrate, invade, or metastasize to distant sites. Exemplary benign neoplasms include, but are not limited to, lipoma, chondroma, adenomas, acrochordon, senile angiomas, seborrheic keratoses, lentigos, and sebaceous hyperplasias. In some cases, certain “benign” tumors may later give rise to malignant neoplasms, which may result from additional genetic changes in a subpopulation of the tumor's neoplastic cells, and these tumors are referred to as “pre-malignant neoplasms.” An exemplary pre-malignant neoplasm is a teratoma. In contrast, a “malignant neoplasm” is generally poorly differentiated (anaplasia) and has characteristically rapid growth accompanied by progressive infiltration, invasion, and destruction of the surrounding tissue. Furthermore, a malignant neoplasm generally has the capacity to metastasize to distant sites. The term “metastasis,” “metastatic,” or “metastasize” refers to the spread or migration of cancerous cells from a primary or original tumor to another organ or tissue and is typically identifiable by the presence of a “secondary tumor” or “secondary cell mass” of the tissue type of the primary or original tumor and not of that of the organ or tissue in which the secondary (metastatic) tumor is located. For example, a prostate cancer that has migrated to bone is said to be metastasized prostate cancer and includes cancerous prostate cancer cells growing in bone tissue.

The term “cancer” refers to a class of diseases characterized by the development of abnormal cells that proliferate uncontrollably and have the ability to infiltrate and destroy normal body tissues. See, e.g., Stedman's Medical Dictionary, 25th ed.; Hensyl ed.; Williams & Wilkins Philadelphia, 1990. Exemplary cancers include, but are not limited to, acoustic neuroma; adenocarcinoma; adrenal gland cancer; anal cancer; angiosarcoma (e.g., lymphangiosarcoma, lymphangioendotheliosarcoma, hemangiosarcoma); appendix cancer; benign monoclonal gammopathy; biliary cancer (e.g., cholangiocarcinoma); bladder cancer; breast cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the breast, papillary carcinoma of the breast, mammary cancer, medullary carcinoma of the breast); brain cancer (e.g., meningioma, glioblastomas, glioma (e.g., astrocytoma, oligodendroglioma), medulloblastoma); bronchus cancer; carcinoid tumor; cervical cancer (e.g., cervical adenocarcinoma); choriocarcinoma; chordoma; craniopharyngioma; colorectal cancer (e.g., colon cancer, rectal cancer, colorectal adenocarcinoma); connective tissue cancer; epithelial carcinoma; ependymoma; endotheliosarcoma (e.g., Kaposi's sarcoma, multiple idiopathic hemorrhagic sarcoma); endometrial cancer (e.g., uterine cancer, uterine sarcoma); esophageal cancer (e.g., adenocarcinoma of the esophagus, Barrett's adenocarcinoma); Ewing's sarcoma; ocular cancer (e.g., intraocular melanoma, retinoblastoma); familiar hypereosinophilia; gall bladder cancer; gastric cancer (e.g., stomach adenocarcinoma); gastrointestinal stromal tumor (GIST); germ cell cancer; head and neck cancer (e.g., head and neck squamous cell carcinoma, oral cancer (e.g., oral squamous cell carcinoma), throat cancer (e.g., laryngeal cancer, pharyngeal cancer, nasopharyngeal cancer, oropharyngeal cancer)); hematopoietic cancers (e.g., leukemia such as acute lymphocytic leukemia (ALL) (e.g., B-cell ALL, T-cell ALL), acute myelocytic leukemia (AML) (e.g., B-cell AML, T-cell AML), chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML) (e.g., B-cell CML, T-cell CML), and chronic lymphocytic leukemia (CLL) (e.g., B-cell CLL, T-cell CLL)); lymphoma such as Hodgkin lymphoma (HL) (e.g., B-cell HL, T-cell HL) and non-Hodgkin lymphoma (NHL) (e.g., B-cell NHL such as diffuse large cell lymphoma (DLCL) (e.g., diffuse large B-cell lymphoma), follicular lymphoma, chronic lymphocytic leukemia/small lymphocytic lymphoma (CLL/SLL), mantle cell lymphoma (MCL), marginal zone B-cell lymphomas (e.g., mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT) lymphomas, nodal marginal zone B-cell lymphoma, splenic marginal zone B-cell lymphoma), primary mediastinal B-cell lymphoma, Burkitt lymphoma, lymphoplasmacytic lymphoma (i.e., Waldenström's macroglobulinemia), hairy cell leukemia (HCL), immunoblastic large cell lymphoma, precursor B-lymphoblastic lymphoma and primary central nervous system (CNS) lymphoma; and T-cell NHL such as precursor T-lymphoblastic lymphoma/leukemia, peripheral T-cell lymphoma (PTCL) (e.g., cutaneous T-cell lymphoma (CTCL) (e.g., mycosis fungoides, Sezary syndrome), angioimmunoblastic T-cell lymphoma, extranodal natural killer T-cell lymphoma, enteropathy type T-cell lymphoma, subcutaneous panniculitis-like T-cell lymphoma, and anaplastic large cell lymphoma); a mixture of one or more leukemia/lymphoma as described above; and multiple myeloma (MM)), heavy chain disease (e.g., alpha chain disease, gamma chain disease, mu chain disease); hemangioblastoma; hypopharynx cancer; inflammatory myofibroblastic tumors; immunocytic amyloidosis; kidney cancer (e.g., nephroblastoma a. k a. Wilms' tumor, renal cell carcinoma); liver cancer (e.g., hepatocellular cancer (HCC), malignant hepatoma); lung cancer (e.g., bronchogenic carcinoma, small cell lung cancer (SCLC), non-small cell lung cancer (NSCLC) adenocarcinoma of the lung); leiomyosarcoma (LMS); mastocytosis (e.g., systemic mastocytosis); muscle cancer; myelodysplastic syndrome (MDS); mesothelioma; myeloproliferative disorder (MPD) (e.g., polycythemia vera (PV), essential thrombocytosis (ET), agnogenic myeloid metaplasia (AMM) a.k.a. myelofibrosis (MF), chronic idiopathic myelofibrosis, chronic myelocytic leukemia (CML), chronic neutrophilic leukemia (CNL), hypereosinophilic syndrome (HES)); neuroblastoma; neurofibroma (e.g., neurofibromatosis (NF) type 1 or type 2, schwannomatosis); neuroendocrine cancer (e.g., gastroenteropancreatic neuroendoctrine tumor (GEP-NET), carcinoid tumor); osteosarcoma (e.g., bone cancer); ovarian cancer (e.g., cystadenocarcinoma, ovarian embryonal carcinoma, ovarian adenocarcinoma); papillary adenocarcinoma; pancreatic cancer (e.g., pancreatic andenocarcinoma, intraductal papillary mucinous neoplasm (IPMN), Islet cell tumors); penile cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the penis and scrotum); pinealoma; primitive neuroectodermal tumor (PNT); plasma cell neoplasia; paraneoplastic syndromes; intraepithelial neoplasms; prostate cancer (e.g., prostate adenocarcinoma); rectal cancer; rhabdomyosarcoma; salivary gland cancer; skin cancer (e.g., squamous cell carcinoma (SCC), keratoacanthoma (KA), melanoma, basal cell carcinoma (BCC)); small bowel cancer (e.g., appendix cancer); soft tissue sarcoma (e.g., malignant fibrous histiocytoma (MFH), liposarcoma, malignant peripheral nerve sheath tumor (MPNST), chondrosarcoma, fibrosarcoma, myxosarcoma); sebaceous gland carcinoma; small intestine cancer; sweat gland carcinoma; synovioma; testicular cancer (e.g., seminoma, testicular embryonal carcinoma); thyroid cancer (e.g., papillary carcinoma of the thyroid, papillary thyroid carcinoma (PTC), medullary thyroid cancer); urethral cancer; vaginal cancer; and vulvar cancer (e.g., Paget's disease of the vulva).

The term “inflammatory disease” refers to a disease caused by, resulting from, or resulting in inflammation. The term “inflammatory disease” may also refer to a dysregulated inflammatory reaction that causes an exaggerated response by macrophages, granulocytes, and/or T-lymphocytes leading to abnormal tissue damage and/or cell death. An inflammatory disease can be either an acute or chronic inflammatory condition and can result from infections or non-infectious causes Inflammatory diseases include, without limitation, atherosclerosis, arteriosclerosis, autoimmune disorders, multiple sclerosis, systemic lupus erythematosus, polymyalgia rheumatica (PMR), gouty arthritis, degenerative arthritis, tendonitis, bursitis, psoriasis, cystic fibrosis, arthrosteitis, rheumatoid arthritis, inflammatory arthritis, Sjogren's syndrome, giant cell arteritis, progressive systemic sclerosis (scleroderma), ankylosing spondylitis, polymyositis, dermatomyositis, pemphigus, pemphigoid, diabetes (e.g., Type I), myasthenia gravis, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, Graves' disease, Goodpasture's disease, mixed connective tissue disease, sclerosing cholangitis, inflammatory bowel disease, Crohn's disease, ulcerative colitis, pernicious anemia, inflammatory dermatoses, usual interstitial pneumonitis (UIP), asbestosis, silicosis, bronchiectasis, berylliosis, talcosis, pneumoconiosis, sarcoidosis, desquamative interstitial pneumonia, lymphoid interstitial pneumonia, giant cell interstitial pneumonia, cellular interstitial pneumonia, extrinsic allergic alveolitis, Wegener's granulomatosis and related forms of angiitis (temporal arteritis and polyarteritis nodosa), inflammatory dermatoses, hepatitis, delayed-type hypersensitivity reactions (e.g., poison ivy dermatitis), pneumonia, respiratory tract inflammation, Adult Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS), encephalitis, immediate hypersensitivity reactions, asthma, hayfever, allergies, acute anaphylaxis, rheumatic fever, glomerulonephritis, pyelonephritis, cellulitis, cystitis, chronic cholecystitis, ischemia (ischemic injury), reperfusion injury, allograft rejection, host-versus-graft rejection, appendicitis, arteritis, blepharitis, bronchiolitis, bronchitis, cervicitis, cholangitis, chorioamnionitis, conjunctivitis, dacryoadenitis, dermatomyositis, endocarditis, endometritis, enteritis, enterocolitis, epicondylitis, epididymitis, fasciitis, fibrositis, gastritis, gastroenteritis, gingivitis, ileitis, iritis, laryngitis, myelitis, myocarditis, nephritis, omphalitis, oophoritis, orchitis, osteitis, otitis, pancreatitis, parotitis, pericarditis, pharyngitis, pleuritis, phlebitis, pneumonitis, proctitis, prostatitis, rhinitis, salpingitis, sinusitis, stomatitis, synovitis, testitis, tonsillitis, urethritis, urocystitis, uveitis, vaginitis, vasculitis, vulvitis, vulvovaginitis, angitis, chronic bronchitis, osteomyelitis, optic neuritis, temporal arteritis, transverse myelitis, necrotizing fasciitis, and necrotizing enterocolitis. An ocular inflammatory disease includes, but is not limited to, post-surgical inflammation.

An “autoimmune disease” refers to a disease arising from an inappropriate immune response of the body of a subject against substances and tissues normally present in the body. In other words, the immune system mistakes some part of the body as a pathogen and attacks its own cells. This may be restricted to certain organs (e.g., in autoimmune thyroiditis) or involve a particular tissue in different places (e.g., Goodpasture's disease which may affect the basement membrane in both the lung and kidney). The treatment of autoimmune diseases is typically with immunosuppression, e.g., medications which decrease the immune response. Exemplary autoimmune diseases include, but are not limited to, glomerulonephritis, Goodpasture's syndrome, necrotizing vasculitis, lymphadenitis, peri-arteritis nodosa, systemic lupus erythematosis, rheumatoid arthritis, psoriatic arthritis, systemic lupus erythematosis, psoriasis, ulcerative colitis, systemic sclerosis, dermatomyositis/polymyositis, anti-phospholipid antibody syndrome, scleroderma, pemphigus vulgaris, ANCA-associated vasculitis (e.g., Wegener's granulomatosis, microscopic polyangiitis), uveitis, Sjogren's syndrome, Crohn's disease, Reiter's syndrome, ankylosing spondylitis, Lyme disease, Guillain-Barré syndrome, Hashimoto's thyroiditis, and cardiomyopathy.

The term “neurological disease” refers to any disease of the nervous system, including diseases that involve the central nervous system (brain, brainstem and cerebellum), the peripheral nervous system (including cranial nerves), and the autonomic nervous system (parts of which are located in both central and peripheral nervous system). “Neurodegenerative diseases” refer to a type of neurological disease marked by the loss of nerve cells, including, but not limited to, Alzheimer's disease, Parkinson's disease, amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, tauopathies (including frontotemporal dementia), and Huntington's disease. Examples of neurological diseases include, but are not limited to, headache, stupor and coma, dementia, seizure, sleep disorders, trauma, infections, neoplasms, neuro-ophthalmology, movement disorders, demyelinating diseases, spinal cord disorders, and disorders of peripheral nerves, muscle and neuromuscular junctions. Addiction and mental illness, include, but are not limited to, bipolar disorder and schizophrenia, are also included in the definition of neurological diseases. Further examples of neurological diseases include acquired epileptiform aphasia; acute disseminated encephalomyelitis; adrenoleukodystrophy; agenesis of the corpus callosum; agnosia; Aicardi syndrome; Alexander disease; Alpers' disease; alternating hemiplegia; Alzheimer's disease; amyotrophic lateral sclerosis; anencephaly; Angelman syndrome; angiomatosis; anoxia; aphasia; apraxia; arachnoid cysts; arachnoiditis; Arnold-Chiari malformation; arteriovenous malformation; Asperger syndrome; ataxia telangiectasia; attention deficit hyperactivity disorder; autism; autonomic dysfunction; back pain; Batten disease; Behcet's disease; Bell's palsy; benign essential blepharospasm; benign focal; amyotrophy; benign intracranial hypertension; Binswanger's disease; blepharospasm; Bloch Sulzberger syndrome; brachial plexus injury; brain abscess; brain injury; brain tumors (including glioblastoma multiforme); spinal tumor; Brown-Sequard syndrome; Canavan disease; carpal tunnel syndrome (CTS); causalgia; central pain syndrome; central pontine myelinolysis; cephalic disorder; cerebral aneurysm; cerebral arteriosclerosis; cerebral atrophy; cerebral gigantism; cerebral palsy; Charcot-Marie-Tooth disease; chemotherapy-induced neuropathy and neuropathic pain; Chiari malformation; chorea; chronic inflammatory demyelinating polyneuropathy (CIDP); chronic pain; chronic regional pain syndrome; Coffin Lowry syndrome; coma, including persistent vegetative state; congenital facial diplegia; corticobasal degeneration; cranial arteritis; craniosynostosis; Creutzfeldt-Jakob disease; cumulative trauma disorders; Cushing's syndrome; cytomegalic inclusion body disease (CIBD); cytomegalovirus infection; dancing eyes-dancing feet syndrome; Dandy-Walker syndrome; Dawson disease; De Morsier's syndrome; Dejerine-Klumpke palsy; dementia; dermatomyositis; diabetic neuropathy; diffuse sclerosis; dysautonomia; dysgraphia; dyslexia; dystonias; early infantile epileptic encephalopathy; empty sella syndrome; encephalitis; encephaloceles; encephalotrigeminal angiomatosis; epilepsy; Erb's palsy; essential tremor; Fabry's disease; Fahr's syndrome; fainting; familial spastic paralysis; febrile seizures; Fisher syndrome; Friedreich's ataxia; frontotemporal dementia and other “tauopathies”; Gaucher's disease; Gerstmann's syndrome; giant cell arteritis; giant cell inclusion disease; globoid cell leukodystrophy; Guillain-Barre syndrome; HTLV-1 associated myelopathy; Hallervorden-Spatz disease; head injury; headache; hemifacial spasm; hereditary spastic paraplegia; heredopathia atactica polyneuritiformis; herpes zoster oticus; herpes zoster; Hirayama syndrome; HIV-associated dementia and neuropathy (see also neurological manifestations of AIDS); holoprosencephaly; Huntington's disease and other polyglutamine repeat diseases; hydranencephaly; hydrocephalus; hypercortisolism; hypoxia; immune-mediated encephalomyelitis; inclusion body myositis; incontinentia pigmenti; infantile; phytanic acid storage disease; Infantile Refsum disease; infantile spasms; inflammatory myopathy; intracranial cyst; intracranial hypertension; Joubert syndrome; Kearns-Sayre syndrome; Kennedy disease; Kinsbourne syndrome; Klippel Feil syndrome; Krabbe disease; Kugelberg-Welander disease; kuru; Lafora disease; Lambert-Eaton myasthenic syndrome; Landau-Kleffner syndrome; lateral medullary (Wallenberg) syndrome; learning disabilities; Leigh's disease; Lennox-Gastaut syndrome; Lesch-Nyhan syndrome; leukodystrophy; Lewy body dementia; lissencephaly; locked-in syndrome; Lou Gehrig's disease (aka motor neuron disease or amyotrophic lateral sclerosis); lumbar disc disease; lyme disease-neurological sequelae; Machado-Joseph disease; macrencephaly; megalencephaly; Melkersson-Rosenthal syndrome; Menieres disease; meningitis; Menkes disease; metachromatic leukodystrophy; microcephaly; migraine; Miller Fisher syndrome; mini-strokes; mitochondrial myopathies; Mobius syndrome; monomelic amyotrophy; motor neurone disease; moyamoya disease; mucopolysaccharidoses; multi-infarct dementia; multifocal motor neuropathy; multiple sclerosis and other demyelinating disorders; multiple system atrophy with postural hypotension; muscular dystrophy; myasthenia gravis; myelinoclastic diffuse sclerosis; myoclonic encephalopathy of infants; myoclonus; myopathy; myotonia congenital; narcolepsy; neurofibromatosis; neuroleptic malignant syndrome; neurological manifestations of AIDS; neurological sequelae of lupus; neuromyotonia; neuronal ceroid linofuscinosis; neuronal migration disorders; Niemann-Pick disease; O'Sullivan-McLeod syndrome; occipital neuralgia; occult spinal dysraphism sequence; Ohtahara syndrome; olivopontocerebellar atrophy; opsoclonus myoclonus; optic neuritis; orthostatic hypotension; overuse syndrome; paresthesia; Parkinson's disease; paramyotonia congenita; paraneoplastic diseases; paroxysmal attacks; Parry Romberg syndrome; Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease; periodic paralyses; peripheral neuropathy; painful neuropathy and neuropathic pain; persistent vegetative state; pervasive developmental disorders; photic sneeze reflex; phytanic acid storage disease; Pick's disease; pinched nerve; pituitary tumors; polymyositis; porencephaly; Post-Polio syndrome; postherpetic neuralgia (PHN); postinfectious encephalomyelitis; postural hypotension; Prader-Willi syndrome; primary lateral sclerosis; prion diseases; progressive; hemifacial atrophy; progressive multifocal leukoencephalopathy; progressive sclerosing poliodystrophy; progressive supranuclear palsy; pseudotumor cerebri; Ramsay-Hunt syndrome (Type I and Type II); Rasmussen's Encephalitis; reflex sympathetic dystrophy syndrome; Refsum disease; repetitive motion disorders; repetitive stress injuries; restless legs syndrome; retrovirus-associated myelopathy; Rett syndrome; Reye's syndrome; Saint Vitus Dance; Sandhoff disease; Schilder's disease; schizencephaly; septo-optic dysplasia; shaken baby syndrome; shingles; Shy-Drager syndrome; Sjogren's syndrome; sleep apnea; Soto's syndrome; spasticity; spina bifida; spinal cord injury; spinal cord tumors; spinal muscular atrophy; stiff-person syndrome; stroke; Sturge-Weber syndrome; subacute sclerosing panencephalitis; subarachnoid hemorrhage; subcortical arteriosclerotic encephalopathy; sydenham chorea; syncope; syringomyelia; tardive dyskinesia; Tay-Sachs disease; temporal arteritis; tethered spinal cord syndrome; Thomsen disease; thoracic outlet syndrome; tic douloureux; Todd's paralysis; Tourette syndrome; transient ischemic attack; transmissible spongiform encephalopathies; transverse myelitis; traumatic brain injury; tremor; trigeminal neuralgia; tropical spastic paraparesis; tuberous sclerosis; vascular dementia (multi-infarct dementia); vasculitis including temporal arteritis; Von Hippel-Lindau Disease (VHL); Wallenberg's syndrome; Werdnig-Hoffman disease; West syndrome; whiplash; Williams syndrome; Wilson's disease; and Zellweger syndrome.

The term “metabolic disorder” refers to any disorder that involves an alteration in the normal metabolism of carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, nucleic acids, or a combination thereof. A metabolic disorder is associated with either a deficiency or excess in a metabolic pathway resulting in an imbalance in metabolism of nucleic acids, proteins, lipids, and/or carbohydrates. Factors affecting metabolism include, and are not limited to, the endocrine (hormonal) control system (e.g., the insulin pathway, the enteroendocrine hormones including GLP-1, PYY or the like), the neural control system (e.g., GLP-1 in the brain), or the like. Examples of metabolic disorders include, but are not limited to, diabetes (e.g., Type I diabetes, Type II diabetes, gestational diabetes), hyperglycemia, hyperinsulinemia, insulin resistance, and obesity.

A “diabetic condition” refers to diabetes and pre-diabetes. Diabetes refers to a group of metabolic diseases in which a person has high blood sugar, either because the body does not produce enough insulin, or because cells do not respond to the insulin that is produced. This high blood sugar produces the classical symptoms of polyuria (frequent urination), polydipsia (increased thirst) and polyphagia (increased hunger). There are several types of diabetes. Type I diabetes results from the body's failure to produce insulin, and presently requires the person to inject insulin or wear an insulin pump. Type II diabetes results from insulin resistance a condition in which cells fail to use insulin properly, sometimes combined with an absolute insulin deficiency. Gestational diabetes occurs when pregnant women without a previous diagnosis of diabetes develop a high blood glucose level. Other forms of diabetes include congenital diabetes, which is due to genetic defects of insulin secretion, cystic fibrosis-related diabetes, steroid diabetes induced by high doses of glucocorticoids, and several forms of monogenic diabetes, e.g., mature onset diabetes of the young (e.g., MODY 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 7, 8, 9, or 10). Pre-diabetes indicates a condition that occurs when a person's blood glucose levels are higher than normal but not high enough for a diagnosis of diabetes. All forms of diabetes increase the risk of long-term complications. These typically develop after many years, but may be the first symptom in those who have otherwise not received a diagnosis before that time. The major long-term complications relate to damage to blood vessels. Diabetes doubles the risk of cardiovascular disease and macrovascular diseases such as ischemic heart disease (angina, myocardial infarction), stroke, and peripheral vascular disease. Diabetes also causes microvascular complications, e.g., damage to the small blood vessels. Diabetic retinopathy, which affects blood vessel formation in the retina of the eye, can lead to visual symptoms, reduced vision, and potentially blindness. “Diabetic nephropathy,” the impact of diabetes on the kidneys, can lead to scarring changes in the kidney tissue, loss of small or progressively larger amounts of protein in the urine, and eventually chronic kidney disease requiring dialysis. Diabetic neuropathy is the impact of diabetes on the nervous system, most commonly causing numbness, tingling and pain in the feet and also increasing the risk of skin damage due to altered sensation. Together with vascular disease in the legs, neuropathy contributes to the risk of diabetes-related foot problems, e.g., diabetic foot ulcers, that can be difficult to treat and occasionally require amputation.

A “cardiovascular disease” (CVD) refers to a disease that involves the heart or blood vessels. Cardiovascular disease includes coronary artery diseases (e.g., angina and myocardial infarction (i.e., heart attack). Other types of cardiovascular disease include, but are not limited to, stroke, hypertensive heart disease, rheumatic heart disease, cardiomyopathy, atrial fibrillation, congenital heart disease, endocarditis, aortic aneurysms, peripheral artery disease and venous thrombosis. CVDs that affect the blood vessels (i.e., “vascular diseases”) include, but are not limited to, coronary artery disease (i.e., coronary heart disease or ischemic heart disease), peripheral arterial disease, cerebrovascular disease (e.g., stroke), renal artery stenosis, and aortic aneurysm. CVDs that affect the heart include, but are not limited to, cardiomyopathy, hypertensive heart disease, heart failure, pulmonary heart disease, cardiac dysrhythmias, inflammatory heart disease (e.g., endocarditis, inflammatory cardiomegaly, myocarditis), valvular heart disease, congenital heart disease, and rheumatic heart disease.

A “Renal disease” refers to any disease of the kidneys including, but not limited to, kidney failure, chronic kidney disease, acute kidney injury, polycystic kidney disease, glomerulonephritis, and reflux nephropathy. “Chronic kidney disease” refers to a disease associated with a loss of kidney function over time. Chronic kidney disease may be caused, e.g., by damaged blood vessels in the kidneys due to high blood pressure, diabetes, etc.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

The accompanying drawings, which constitute a part of this specification, illustrate several embodiments of the invention and together with the description, serve to explain the principles of the invention.

FIG. 1 shows the pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal natural product family.

FIG. 2 shows acortatarin A analogues designed to probe structure-activity relationship (SAR) of discrete structural motifs.

FIG. 3 shows the synthesis of desformylbenzene analogue 7 via Stille coupling and Hg-mediated spirocyclization. TIPS=triisopropylsilyl; HMDS=hexamethyldisilazide.

FIG. 4 shows a radical coupling route to formylbenzene analogue 8. AIBN=azobisisobutyronitrile; DIBAL-H=diisobutylaluminum hydride.

FIG. 5 shows syntheses of aldehyde-modified analogues 9ad by (a) direct modification of acortatarin aldehyde, or (b) convergent synthesis from corresponding pyrroles.

FIG. 6 shows exemplary syntheses of despyrrolo analogues 10 and 11.

FIG. 7 shows dose-response curves for antioxidant activity studies of compound 7.

FIG. 8 shows dose-response curves for antioxidant activity studies of compound 8.

FIG. 9 shows a comparison of the antioxidant activity of pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal natural products with novel compounds.

FIG. 10 shows the antioxidant activity of D-acortatarin A against exogenous H₂O₂ treatment. Dichlorofluorescin diacetate (DCFDA) assay measured ROS levels upon treatment with 200 μM H₂O₂. As shown, D-acortatarin A does not block the direct effect of the ROS H₂O₂ in rat mesangial cells, indicating that the compound acts upstream of the effects of the ROS (i.e., blocking its production).

FIG. 11 shows the antioxidant activity of D-α-desformybenzene against exogenous H₂O₂ treatment. DCFDA assay measured ROS levels upon treatment with 200 μM H₂O₂. Similar to the results in FIG. 10, D-α-desformybenzene does not block the direct effect of the ROS H₂O₂ in rat mesangial cells, indicating that the compound acts upstream of the effects of the ROS (i.e., blocking its production).

FIG. 12 shows the antioxidant activity of the L-enantiomer of acortatarin A. Activity against hyperglycemia-induced ROS generation in rat mesangial cells (DCFDA assay) was measured. The procedure involved concomitant treatment with the compound plus high glucose for 3 h, followed by measurement of ROS levels. L-acortatarin A is inactive, supportive of the presence of a discrete molecular target as the basis for the mechanism of action.

FIG. 13 shows the antioxidant activity of L-desformybenzene. Activity against hyperglycemia-induced ROS generation in rat mesangial cells (DCFDA assay) was examined. The procedure involved concomitant treatment with the compound plus high glucose for 3 h, followed by measurement of ROS levels. L-desformybenzene is inactive, supportive of the presence of a discrete molecular target as the basis for the mechanism of action.

FIG. 14 shows the antioxidant activity of D-β-desformylbenzene. Activity against hyperglycemia-induced ROS generation in rat mesangial cells (DCFDA assay) was examined. The procedure involved concomitant treatment with the compound plus high glucose for 3 hours, followed by measurement of ROS levels. D-β-desformylbenzene is inactive, indicating the presence of a discrete molecular target as the basis for the mechanism of action.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION OF CERTAIN EMBODIMENTS

Provided herein are novel spiroketals, including compounds of Formulae (I) and (II), and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, and pharmaceutical compositions thereof. The compounds provided herein have antioxidant properties, and therefore are useful in the treatment of diseases and/or conditions (e.g., metabolic conditions, neurodegenerative disorders, cardiovascular diseases, inflammatory diseases, autoimmune diseases, proliferative diseases, renal diseases). In particular, the compounds are useful for treating and/or preventing diseases and conditions associated with oxidative stress in a subject. The compounds are also useful for reducing oxidative stress in a cell, biological sample, or subject, for inhibiting NADPH oxidase activity in a cell, biological sample, or subject, and for inhibiting the concentration or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, biological sample, or subject.

Compounds

One aspect of the present invention relates to novel spiroketal compounds. In one aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (I):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, wherein:

R¹ is optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^1a, —N(R^1b)₂, or —SR^1c;

R² is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^2a, —N(R^2b)₂, or —SR^2c;

R³ is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S;

each instance of R⁴ is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂′, or —SR^S;

each instance of R⁵ is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted sulfonyl, optionally substituted sulfinyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S;

each instance of R^1a, R^2a, and R^O is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;

each instance of R^1b, R^2b, and R^N is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; or optionally two R^1b, R^2b, and R^N on the same nitrogen are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

each instance of R^1c, R^2c, and R^S is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a sulfur protecting group;

s is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

p is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

provided that the sum of s and p is 1, 2, or 3;

n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and

m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the sum of p and s is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the sum of p and s is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following

formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (I) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OR^1a; R² is —OR^2a; and R³ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OR^1a; R² is —OR^2a; and R³ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OH; R² is —OH; and R³ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OH; R² is —OH; and R³ is —OH.

In another aspect, the present invention provides compounds of Formula (II):

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, wherein:

R¹ is halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^1a, —N(R^1b)₂, or —SR^1c;

R² is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^2a, —N(R^2b)₂, or —SR^2c;

R³ is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S;

R⁶ is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S;

each instance of R⁴ is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted acyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)_2′, or —SR^S;

each instance of R⁵ is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted sulfonyl, optionally substituted sulfinyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S;

each instance of R^1a, R^2a, and R^O is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group;

each instance of R^1b, R^2b, and R^N is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; or optionally two R^1b, R^2b, or R^N on the same nitrogen atom are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl;

each instance of R^1c, R^2c, and R^S is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a sulfur protecting group;

s is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

p is 0, 1, 2, or 3;

provided that the sum of s and p is 1, 2, or 3;

n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6; and

m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the sum of p and s is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of one of the following formulae:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is of the formula:

or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is selected from the group consisting of:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In certain embodiments, the compound of Formula (II) is selected from the group consisting of:

and pharmaceutically acceptable salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof.

In certain embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen; R¹ is —OR^1a; R² is —OR^2a; and R³ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen; R¹ is —OR^1a; R² is —OR^2a; and R³ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen; R¹ is —OH; R² is —OH; and R³ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen; R¹ is —OH; R² is —OH; and R³ is —OH.

Group R¹

As generally defined herein, R¹ is halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^1a, —N(R^1b)₂, or —SR^1c. In certain embodiments, R¹ is optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^1a, —N(R^1b)₂, or —SR^1c. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OR^1a, —N(R^1b)₂, or —SR^1c. In certain embodiments, R¹ is halogen. In certain embodiments, R¹ is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OR^1a. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —N(R^1b)₂. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —SR^1c. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —NH₂. In certain embodiments, R¹ is —SH.

As generally defined herein, R^1a is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^1a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^1a is an oxygen protecting group.

As generally defined herein, each instance of R^1b is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; or optionally two R^1b are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^1b is a nitrogen protecting group. In certain embodiments, two R^1b are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl

As generally defined herein, R^1c is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a sulfur protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^1c is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^1c is a sulfur protecting group.

Group R²

As generally defined herein, R² is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^2a, —N(R^2b)₂, or —SR^2c. In certain embodiments, R² is —OR^2a, —N(R^2b)₂, or —SR^2c. In certain embodiments, R² is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R² is halogen (e.g., —Cl, —F, —Br, —I). In certain embodiments, R² is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R² is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R² is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R² is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R² is —OR^1a. In certain embodiments, R² is —N(R^2b)₂. In certain embodiments, R² is SR^2c. In certain embodiments, R² is —OH. In certain embodiments, R² is —NH₂. In certain embodiments, R² is SH.

As generally defined herein, R^2a is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^2a is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments. R^2a is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^2a is an oxygen protecting group.

As generally defined herein, each instance of R^2b is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; or optionally two R^2b are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^2b is a nitrogen protecting group. In certain embodiments, two R^2b are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl

As generally defined herein, R^2c is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a sulfur protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^2c is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments. R^2c is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^2c is a sulfur protecting group.

Group R³

As generally defined herein, R³ is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R³ is —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R³ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R³ is halogen (e.g., —Cl, —F, —Br, —I). In certain embodiments, R³ is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R³ is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R³ is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R³ is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R³ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, R³ is —N(R^N)₂. In certain embodiments, R³ is —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R³ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R³ is —NH₂. In certain embodiments, R³ is —SH.

Group R⁴

As generally defined herein, each instance of R⁴ is independently hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, each instance of R⁴ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is halogen (e.g., —Cl, —F, —Br, —I). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is —N(R^N)₂. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁴ is —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is —NH₂. In certain embodiments, R⁴ is —SH.

Group R⁵

As generally defined herein, each instance of R⁵ is independently hydrogen, halogen, —CN, —NO₂, —N₃, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, optionally substituted sulfonyl, optionally substituted sulfinyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, each instance of R⁵ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is halogen (e.g., —Cl, —F, —Br, —I). In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —Cl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —Br. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —I. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —F. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —CN. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —NO₂. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —N₃. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁵ is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁵ is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁵ is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted C_1-6 acyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted C_1-3 acyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is unsubstituted C_1-3 acyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —C(═O)H. In certain embodiments, one instance of R⁵ is —C(═O)H. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is an aldehyde, ester, amide, or carboxylic acid moiety. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted sulfonyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is optionally substituted sulfinyl. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is —N(R^N)₂. In certain embodiments, at least one instance of R⁵ is or —SR^S.

In certain embodiments, the group represented by the formula:

is of one of the following formulae:

In certain embodiments, the group represented by the formula:

is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, the group represented by the formula:

is of the formula:

In certain embodiments, the group represented by the formula:

is of the formula:

Group R⁶

As generally defined herein, R⁶ is hydrogen, halogen, optionally substituted alkyl, —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —OR^O, —N(R^N)₂, or —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is halogen (e.g., —Cl, —F, —Br, —I). In certain embodiments, R⁶ is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —OR^O. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —N(R^N)₂. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —SR^S. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —OH. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —NH₂. In certain embodiments, R⁶ is —SH.

Groups R^O, R^N, and R^S

As generally defined herein, R^O is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or an oxygen protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^O is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^O is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^O is an oxygen protecting group.

As generally defined herein, each instance of R^N is independently hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a nitrogen protecting group; or optionally two R^N are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^N is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^N is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^N is a nitrogen protecting group. In certain embodiments, two R^N are joined together with the intervening atoms to form optionally substituted heterocyclyl or optionally substituted heteroaryl

As generally defined herein, R^S is hydrogen, optionally substituted alkyl, optionally substituted alkenyl, optionally substituted alkynyl, optionally substituted carbocyclyl, optionally substituted heterocyclyl, optionally substituted aryl, optionally substituted heteroaryl, optionally substituted acyl, or a sulfur protecting group. In certain embodiments, R^S is hydrogen. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is unsubstituted C_1-6 alkyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is selected from methyl, ethyl, n-propyl, iso-propyl, n-butyl, iso-butyl, sec-butyl, and tert-butyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted alkenyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted alkynyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted carbocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted heterocyclyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted aryl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted heteroaryl. In certain embodiments, R^S is optionally substituted acyl. In certain embodiments, R^S is a sulfur protecting group.

s, p, n, and m

As generally defined herein, s is 0, 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, s is 0. In certain embodiments, s is 1. In certain embodiments, s is 2. In certain embodiments, s is 3.

As generally defined herein, p is 0, 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, p is 0. In certain embodiments, p is 1. In certain embodiments, p is 2. In certain embodiments, p is 3.

In certain embodiments, the sum of s and p is 1, 2, or 3. In certain embodiments, the sum of s and p is 1. In certain embodiments, s is 0 and p is 1. In certain embodiments, s is 1 and p is 0. In certain embodiments, the sum of s and p is 2. In certain embodiments, s is 2 and p is 0. In certain embodiments, s is 1 and p is 1. In certain embodiments, s is 0 and p is 2. In certain embodiments, the sum of s and p is 3. In certain embodiments, s is 3 and p is 0. In certain embodiments, s is 2 and p is 1. In certain embodiments, s is 1 and p is 2. In certain embodiments, s is 0 and p is 3.

As generally defined herein, n is 0, 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, or 6. In certain embodiments, n is 0. In certain embodiments, n is 1. In certain embodiments, n is 2. In certain embodiments, n is 3. In certain embodiments, n is 4. In certain embodiments, n is 5. In certain embodiments, n is 6.

As generally defined herein, m is 0, 1, 2, 3, or 4. In certain embodiments, m is 0. In certain embodiments, m is 1. In certain embodiments, m is 2. In certain embodiments, m is 3. In certain embodiments, m is 4.

Compositions, Kits, and Administration

The present disclosure provides pharmaceutical compositions comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

In certain embodiments, the compound described herein, or pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, is provided in an effective amount in the pharmaceutical composition. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a disease associated with oxidative stress in a subject. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for reducing oxidative stress in a subject or cell. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a metabolic condition (e.g., diabetes (e.g., type I, type II), pre-diabetes, diabetic nephropathy). In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a proliferative disease (e.g., cancer, benign neoplasm). In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating an inflammatory disease. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating an autoimmune disease. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a cardiovascular disease. In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a renal disease (e.g., kidney failure, chronic kidney disease). In certain embodiments, the amount is an amount effective for treating a neurodegenerative disease.

The present disclosure also provides cosmetic compositions comprising a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, and a cosmetically acceptable excipient.

Compositions described herein can be prepared by any method known in the art of pharmacology. In general, such preparatory methods include bringing the compound described herein (i.e., the “active ingredient”) into association with a carrier or excipient, and/or one or more other accessory ingredients, and then, if necessary and/or desirable, shaping, and/or packaging the product into a desired single- or multi-dose unit.

Compositions can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in bulk, as a single unit dose, and/or as a plurality of single unit doses. A “unit dose” is a discrete amount of the pharmaceutical composition comprising a predetermined amount of the active ingredient. The amount of the active ingredient is generally equal to the dosage of the active ingredient which would be administered to a subject and/or a convenient fraction of such a dosage, such as one-half or one-third of such a dosage.

Relative amounts of the active ingredient, the excipient(s), and/or any additional ingredients in a composition described herein will vary, depending upon the identity, size, and/or condition of the subject treated and further depending upon the route by which the composition is to be administered. The composition may comprise between 0.1% and 100% (w/w) active ingredient.

Pharmaceutically and cosmetically acceptable excipients used in the manufacture of provided compositions include inert diluents, dispersing and/or granulating agents, surface active agents and/or emulsifiers, disintegrating agents, binding agents, preservatives, buffering agents, lubricating agents, and/or oils. Excipients such as cocoa butter and suppository waxes, coloring agents, coating agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents may also be present in the composition.

Exemplary diluents include calcium carbonate, sodium carbonate, calcium phosphate, dicalcium phosphate, calcium sulfate, calcium hydrogen phosphate, sodium phosphate lactose, sucrose, cellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, kaolin, mannitol, sorbitol, inositol, sodium chloride, dry starch, cornstarch, powdered sugar, and mixtures thereof.

Exemplary granulating and/or dispersing agents include potato starch, corn starch, tapioca starch, sodium starch glycolate, clays, alginic acid, guar gum, citrus pulp, agar, bentonite, cellulose, and wood products, natural sponge, cation-exchange resins, calcium carbonate, silicates, sodium carbonate, cross-linked poly(vinyl-pyrrolidone) (crospovidone), sodium carboxymethyl starch (sodium starch glycolate), carboxymethyl cellulose, cross-linked sodium carboxymethyl cellulose (croscarmellose), methylcellulose, pregelatinized starch (starch 1500), microcrystalline starch, water insoluble starch, calcium carboxymethyl cellulose, magnesium aluminum silicate (Veegum), sodium lauryl sulfate, quaternary ammonium compounds, and mixtures thereof.

Exemplary surface active agents and/or emulsifiers include natural emulsifiers (e.g., acacia, agar, alginic acid, sodium alginate, tragacanth, chondrux, cholesterol, xanthan, pectin, gelatin, egg yolk, casein, wool fat, cholesterol, wax, and lecithin), colloidal clays (e.g., bentonite (aluminum silicate) and Veegum (magnesium aluminum silicate)), long chain amino acid derivatives, high molecular weight alcohols (e.g., stearyl alcohol, cetyl alcohol, oleyl alcohol, triacetin monostearate, ethylene glycol distearate, glyceryl monostearate, and propylene glycol monostearate, polyvinyl alcohol), carbomers (e.g., carboxy polymethylene, polyacrylic acid, acrylic acid polymer, and carboxyvinyl polymer), carrageenan, cellulosic derivatives (e.g., carboxymethylcellulose sodium, powdered cellulose, hydroxymethyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, methylcellulose), sorbitan fatty acid esters (e.g., polyoxyethylene sorbitan monolaurate (Tween® 20), polyoxyethylene sorbitan (Tween® 60), polyoxyethylene sorbitan monooleate (Tween® 80), sorbitan monopalmitate (Span® 40), sorbitan monostearate (Span® 60), sorbitan tristearate (Span® 65), glyceryl monooleate, sorbitan monooleate (Span® 80), polyoxyethylene esters (e.g., polyoxyethylene monostearate (Myrj® 45), polyoxyethylene hydrogenated castor oil, polyethoxylated castor oil, polyoxymethylene stearate, and Solutol®), sucrose fatty acid esters, polyethylene glycol fatty acid esters (e.g., Cremophor®), polyoxyethylene ethers, (e.g., polyoxyethylene lauryl ether (Brij® 30)), poly(vinyl-pyrrolidone), diethylene glycol monolaurate, triethanolamine oleate, sodium oleate, potassium oleate, ethyl oleate, oleic acid, ethyl laurate, sodium lauryl sulfate, Pluronic® F-68, poloxamer P-188, cetrimonium bromide, cetylpyridinium chloride, benzalkonium chloride, docusate sodium, and/or mixtures thereof.

Exemplary binding agents include starch (e.g., cornstarch and starch paste), gelatin, sugars (e.g., sucrose, glucose, dextrose, dextrin, molasses, lactose, lactitol, mannitol, etc.), natural and synthetic gums (e.g., acacia, sodium alginate, extract of Irish moss, panwar gum, ghatti gum, mucilage of isapol husks, carboxymethylcellulose, methylcellulose, ethylcellulose, hydroxyethylcellulose, hydroxypropyl cellulose, hydroxypropyl methylcellulose, microcrystalline cellulose, cellulose acetate, poly(vinyl-pyrrolidone), magnesium aluminum silicate (Veegum®), and larch arabogalactan), alginates, polyethylene oxide, polyethylene glycol, inorganic calcium salts, silicic acid, polymethacrylates, waxes, water, alcohol, and/or mixtures thereof.

Exemplary preservatives include antioxidants, chelating agents, antimicrobial preservatives, antifungal preservatives, antiprotozoan preservatives, alcohol preservatives, acidic preservatives, and other preservatives. In certain embodiments, the preservative is an antioxidant. In other embodiments, the preservative is a chelating agent.

Exemplary antioxidants include alpha tocopherol, ascorbic acid, acorbyl palmitate, butylated hydroxyanisole, butylated hydroxytoluene, monothioglycerol, potassium metabisulfite, propionic acid, propyl gallate, sodium ascorbate, sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, and sodium sulfite.

Exemplary chelating agents include ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA) and salts and hydrates thereof (e.g., sodium edetate, disodium edetate, trisodium edetate, calcium disodium edetate, dipotassium edetate, and the like), citric acid and salts and hydrates thereof (e.g., citric acid monohydrate), fumaric acid and salts and hydrates thereof, malic acid and salts and hydrates thereof, phosphoric acid and salts and hydrates thereof, and tartaric acid and salts and hydrates thereof. Exemplary antimicrobial preservatives include benzalkonium chloride, benzethonium chloride, benzyl alcohol, bronopol, cetrimide, cetylpyridinium chloride, chlorhexidine, chlorobutanol, chlorocresol, chloroxylenol, cresol, ethyl alcohol, glycerin, hexetidine, imidurea, phenol, phenoxyethanol, phenylethyl alcohol, phenylmercuric nitrate, propylene glycol, and thimerosal.

Exemplary antifungal preservatives include butyl paraben, methyl paraben, ethyl paraben, propyl paraben, benzoic acid, hydroxybenzoic acid, potassium benzoate, potassium sorbate, sodium benzoate, sodium propionate, and sorbic acid.

Exemplary alcohol preservatives include ethanol, polyethylene glycol, phenol, phenolic compounds, bisphenol, chlorobutanol, hydroxybenzoate, and phenylethyl alcohol.

Exemplary acidic preservatives include vitamin A, vitamin C, vitamin E, beta-carotene, citric acid, acetic acid, dehydroacetic acid, ascorbic acid, sorbic acid, and phytic acid.

Other preservatives include tocopherol, tocopherol acetate, deteroxime mesylate, cetrimide, butylated hydroxyanisol (BHA), butylated hydroxytoluened (BHT), ethylenediamine, sodium lauryl sulfate (SLS), sodium lauryl ether sulfate (SLES), sodium bisulfite, sodium metabisulfite, potassium sulfite, potassium metabisulfite, Glydant® Plus, Phenonip®, methylparaben, German® 115, Germaben® II, Neolone®, Kathon®, and Euxyl®.

Exemplary buffering agents include citrate buffer solutions, acetate buffer solutions, phosphate buffer solutions, ammonium chloride, calcium carbonate, calcium chloride, calcium citrate, calcium glubionate, calcium gluceptate, calcium gluconate, D-gluconic acid, calcium glycerophosphate, calcium lactate, propanoic acid, calcium levulinate, pentanoic acid, dibasic calcium phosphate, phosphoric acid, tribasic calcium phosphate, calcium hydroxide phosphate, potassium acetate, potassium chloride, potassium gluconate, potassium mixtures, dibasic potassium phosphate, monobasic potassium phosphate, potassium phosphate mixtures, sodium acetate, sodium bicarbonate, sodium chloride, sodium citrate, sodium lactate, dibasic sodium phosphate, monobasic sodium phosphate, sodium phosphate mixtures, tromethamine, magnesium hydroxide, aluminum hydroxide, alginic acid, pyrogen-free water, isotonic saline, Ringer's solution, ethyl alcohol, and mixtures thereof.

Exemplary lubricating agents include magnesium stearate, calcium stearate, stearic acid, silica, talc, malt, glyceryl behanate, hydrogenated vegetable oils, polyethylene glycol, sodium benzoate, sodium acetate, sodium chloride, leucine, magnesium lauryl sulfate, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof.

Exemplary natural oils include almond, apricot kernel, avocado, babassu, bergamot, black current seed, borage, cade, camomile, canola, caraway, carnauba, castor, cinnamon, cocoa butter, coconut, cod liver, coffee, corn, cotton seed, emu, eucalyptus, evening primrose, fish, flaxseed, geraniol, gourd, grape seed, hazel nut, hyssop, isopropyl myristate, jojoba, kukui nut, lavandin, lavender, lemon, Litsea cubeba, macademia nut, mallow, mango seed, meadowfoam seed, mink, nutmeg, olive, orange, orange roughy, palm, palm kernel, peach kernel, peanut, poppy seed, pumpkin seed, rapeseed, rice bran, rosemary, safflower, sandalwood, sasquana, savoury, sea buckthorn, sesame, shea butter, silicone, soybean, sunflower, tea tree, thistle, tsubaki, vetiver, walnut, and wheat germ oils. Exemplary synthetic oils include, but are not limited to, butyl stearate, caprylic triglyceride, capric triglyceride, cyclomethicone, diethyl sebacate, dimethicone 360, isopropyl myristate, mineral oil, octyldodecanol, oleyl alcohol, silicone oil, and mixtures thereof.

Liquid dosage forms for oral and parenteral administration include pharmaceutically acceptable emulsions, microemulsions, solutions, suspensions, syrups and elixirs. In addition to the active ingredients, the liquid dosage forms may comprise inert diluents commonly used in the art such as, for example, water or other solvents, solubilizing agents and emulsifiers such as ethyl alcohol, isopropyl alcohol, ethyl carbonate, ethyl acetate, benzyl alcohol, benzyl benzoate, propylene glycol, 1,3-butylene glycol, dimethylformamide, oils (e.g., cottonseed, groundnut, corn, germ, olive, castor, and sesame oils), glycerol, tetrahydrofurfuryl alcohol, polyethylene glycols and fatty acid esters of sorbitan, and mixtures thereof. Besides inert diluents, the oral compositions can include adjuvants such as wetting agents, emulsifying and suspending agents, sweetening, flavoring, and perfuming agents. In certain embodiments for parenteral administration, the conjugates described herein are mixed with solubilizing agents such as Cremophor®, alcohols, oils, modified oils, glycols, polysorbates, cyclodextrins, polymers, and mixtures thereof.

Injectable preparations, for example, sterile injectable aqueous or oleaginous suspensions can be formulated according to the known art using suitable dispersing or wetting agents and suspending agents. The sterile injectable preparation can be a sterile injectable solution, suspension, or emulsion in a nontoxic parenterally acceptable diluent or solvent, for example, as a solution in 1,3-butanediol. Among the acceptable vehicles and solvents that can be employed are water, Ringer's solution, U.S.P., and isotonic sodium chloride solution. In addition, sterile, fixed oils are conventionally employed as a solvent or suspending medium. For this purpose any bland fixed oil can be employed including synthetic mono- or di-glycerides. In addition, fatty acids such as oleic acid are used in the preparation of injectables.

The injectable formulations can be sterilized, for example, by filtration through a bacterial-retaining filter, or by incorporating sterilizing agents in the form of sterile solid compositions which can be dissolved or dispersed in sterile water or other sterile injectable medium prior to use.

In order to prolong the effect of a drug, it is often desirable to slow the absorption of the drug from subcutaneous or intramuscular injection. This can be accomplished by the use of a liquid suspension of crystalline or amorphous material with poor water solubility. The rate of absorption of the drug then depends upon its rate of dissolution, which, in turn, may depend upon crystal size and crystalline form. Alternatively, delayed absorption of a parenterally administered drug form may be accomplished by dissolving or suspending the drug in an oil vehicle.

Compositions for rectal or vaginal administration are typically suppositories which can be prepared by mixing the conjugates described herein with suitable non-irritating excipients or carriers such as cocoa butter, polyethylene glycol, or a suppository wax which are solid at ambient temperature but liquid at body temperature and therefore melt in the rectum or vaginal cavity and release the active ingredient.

Solid dosage forms for oral administration include capsules, tablets, pills, powders, and granules. In such solid dosage forms, the active ingredient is mixed with at least one inert, pharmaceutically acceptable excipient or carrier such as sodium citrate or dicalcium phosphate and/or (a) fillers or extenders such as starches, lactose, sucrose, glucose, mannitol, and silicic acid, (b) binders such as, for example, carboxymethylcellulose, alginates, gelatin, polyvinylpyrrolidinone, sucrose, and acacia, (c) humectants such as glycerol, (d) disintegrating agents such as agar, calcium carbonate, potato or tapioca starch, alginic acid, certain silicates, and sodium carbonate, (e) solution retarding agents such as paraffin, (f) absorption accelerators such as quaternary ammonium compounds, (g) wetting agents such as, for example, cetyl alcohol and glycerol monostearate, (h) absorbents such as kaolin and bentonite clay, and (i) lubricants such as talc, calcium stearate, magnesium stearate, solid polyethylene glycols, sodium lauryl sulfate, and mixtures thereof. In the case of capsules, tablets, and pills, the dosage form may include a buffering agent.

Solid compositions of a similar type can be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like. The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills, and granules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as enteric coatings and other coatings well known in the art of pharmacology. They may optionally comprise opacifying agents and can be of a composition that they release the active ingredient(s) only, or preferentially, in a certain part of the intestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of encapsulating compositions which can be used include polymeric substances and waxes. Solid compositions of a similar type can be employed as fillers in soft and hard-filled gelatin capsules using such excipients as lactose or milk sugar as well as high molecular weight polyethylene glycols and the like.

The active ingredient can be in a micro-encapsulated form with one or more excipients as noted above. The solid dosage forms of tablets, dragees, capsules, pills, and granules can be prepared with coatings and shells such as enteric coatings, release controlling coatings, and other coatings well known in the pharmaceutical formulating art. In such solid dosage forms the active ingredient can be admixed with at least one inert diluent such as sucrose, lactose, or starch. Such dosage forms may comprise, as is normal practice, additional substances other than inert diluents, e.g., tableting lubricants and other tableting aids such a magnesium stearate and microcrystalline cellulose. In the case of capsules, tablets and pills, the dosage forms may comprise buffering agents. They may optionally comprise opacifying agents and can be of a composition that they release the active ingredient(s) only, or preferentially, in a certain part of the intestinal tract, optionally, in a delayed manner. Examples of encapsulating agents which can be used include polymeric substances and waxes.

Dosage forms for topical and/or transdermal administration of a compound described herein may include ointments, pastes, creams, lotions, gels, powders, solutions, sprays, inhalants, and/or patches. Generally, the active ingredient is admixed under sterile conditions with a pharmaceutically acceptable carrier or excipient and/or any needed preservatives and/or buffers as can be required. Additionally, the present disclosure contemplates the use of transdermal patches, which often have the added advantage of providing controlled delivery of an active ingredient to the body. Such dosage forms can be prepared, for example, by dissolving and/or dispensing the active ingredient in the proper medium. Alternatively or additionally, the rate can be controlled by either providing a rate controlling membrane and/or by dispersing the active ingredient in a polymer matrix and/or gel.

Suitable devices for use in delivering intradermal pharmaceutical compositions described herein include short needle devices. Intradermal compositions can be administered by devices which limit the effective penetration length of a needle into the skin. Alternatively or additionally, conventional syringes can be used in the classical mantoux method of intradermal administration. Jet injection devices which deliver liquid formulations to the dermis via a liquid jet injector and/or via a needle which pierces the stratum corneum and produces a jet which reaches the dermis are suitable. Ballistic powder/particle delivery devices which use compressed gas to accelerate the compound in powder form through the outer layers of the skin to the dermis are suitable.

Formulations suitable for topical administration include, but are not limited to, liquid and/or semi-liquid preparations such as liniments, lotions, oil-in-water and/or water-in-oil emulsions such as creams, ointments, and/or pastes, and/or solutions and/or suspensions. Topically administrable formulations may, for example, comprise from about 1% to about 10% (w/w) active ingredient, although the concentration of the active ingredient can be as high as the solubility limit of the active ingredient in the solvent. Formulations for topical administration may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A composition described herein can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in a formulation suitable for pulmonary administration via the buccal cavity. Such a formulation may comprise dry particles which comprise the active ingredient and which have a diameter in the range from about 0.5 to about 7 nanometers, or from about 1 to about 6 nanometers. Such compositions are conveniently in the form of dry powders for administration using a device comprising a dry powder reservoir to which a stream of propellant can be directed to disperse the powder and/or using a self-propelling solvent/powder dispensing container such as a device comprising the active ingredient dissolved and/or suspended in a low-boiling propellant in a sealed container. Such powders comprise particles wherein at least 98% of the particles by weight have a diameter greater than 0.5 nanometers and at least 95% of the particles by number have a diameter less than 7 nanometers. Alternatively, at least 95% of the particles by weight have a diameter greater than 1 nanometer and at least 90% of the particles by number have a diameter less than 6 nanometers. Dry powder compositions may include a solid fine powder diluent such as sugar and are conveniently provided in a unit dose form. Low boiling propellants generally include liquid propellants having a boiling point of below 65° F. at atmospheric pressure. Generally the propellant may constitute 50 to 99.9% (w/w) of the composition, and the active ingredient may constitute 0.1 to 20% (w/w) of the composition. The propellant may further comprise additional ingredients such as a liquid non-ionic and/or solid anionic surfactant and/or a solid diluent (which may have a particle size of the same order as particles comprising the active ingredient).

Compositions described herein formulated for pulmonary delivery may provide the active ingredient in the form of droplets of a solution and/or suspension. Such formulations can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold as aqueous and/or dilute alcoholic solutions and/or suspensions, optionally sterile, comprising the active ingredient, and may conveniently be administered using any nebulization and/or atomization device. Such formulations may further comprise one or more additional ingredients including, but not limited to, a flavoring agent such as saccharin sodium, a volatile oil, a buffering agent, a surface active agent, and/or a preservative such as methylhydroxybenzoate. The droplets provided by this route of administration may have an average diameter in the range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers.

Formulations described herein as being useful for pulmonary delivery are useful for intranasal delivery of a pharmaceutical composition described herein. Another formulation suitable for intranasal administration is a coarse powder comprising the active ingredient and having an average particle from about 0.2 to 500 micrometers. Such a formulation is administered by rapid inhalation through the nasal passage from a container of the powder held close to the nares.

Formulations for nasal administration may, for example, comprise from about as little as 0.1% (w/w) to as much as 100% (w/w) of the active ingredient, and may comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein. A pharmaceutical composition described herein can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in a formulation for buccal administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of tablets and/or lozenges made using conventional methods, and may contain, for example, 0.1 to 20% (w/w) active ingredient, the balance comprising an orally dissolvable and/or degradable composition and, optionally, one or more of the additional ingredients described herein. Alternately, formulations for buccal administration may comprise a powder and/or an aerosolized and/or atomized solution and/or suspension comprising the active ingredient. Such powdered, aerosolized, and/or aerosolized formulations, when dispersed, may have an average particle and/or droplet size in the range from about 0.1 to about 200 nanometers, and may further comprise one or more of the additional ingredients described herein.

A composition described herein can be prepared, packaged, and/or sold in a formulation for ophthalmic administration. Such formulations may, for example, be in the form of eye drops including, for example, a 0.1-1.0% (w/w) solution and/or suspension of the active ingredient in an aqueous or oily liquid carrier or excipient. Such drops may further comprise buffering agents, salts, and/or one or more other of the additional ingredients described herein. Other opthalmically-administrable formulations which are useful include those which comprise the active ingredient in microcrystalline form and/or in a liposomal preparation. Ear drops and/or eye drops are also contemplated as being within the scope of this disclosure.

Although the descriptions of compositions provided herein are principally directed to compositions which are suitable for administration to humans, it will be understood by the skilled artisan that such compositions are generally suitable for administration to animals of all sorts. Modification of compositions suitable for administration to humans in order to render the compositions suitable for administration to various animals is well understood, and the ordinarily skilled veterinary pharmacologist can design and/or perform such modification with ordinary experimentation.

Compounds provided herein are typically formulated in dosage unit form for ease of administration and uniformity of dosage. It will be understood, however, that the total daily usage of the compositions described herein will be decided by a physician within the scope of sound medical judgment. The specific therapeutically effective dose level for any particular subject or organism will depend upon a variety of factors including the disease being treated and the severity of the disorder; the activity of the specific active ingredient employed; the specific composition employed; the age, body weight, general health, sex, and diet of the subject; the time of administration, route of administration, and rate of excretion of the specific active ingredient employed; the duration of the treatment; drugs used in combination or coincidental with the specific active ingredient employed; and like factors well known in the medical arts.

The compounds and compositions provided herein can be administered by any route, including enteral (e.g., oral), parenteral, intravenous, intramuscular, intra-arterial, intramedullary, intrathecal, subcutaneous, intraventricular, transdermal, interdermal, rectal, intravaginal, intraperitoneal, topical (as by powders, ointments, creams, and/or drops), mucosal, nasal, bucal, sublingual; by intratracheal instillation, bronchial instillation, and/or inhalation; and/or as an oral spray, nasal spray, and/or aerosol. Specifically contemplated routes are oral administration, intravenous administration (e.g., systemic intravenous injection), regional administration via blood and/or lymph supply, and/or direct administration to an affected site. In general, the most appropriate route of administration will depend upon a variety of factors including the nature of the agent (e.g., its stability in the environment of the gastrointestinal tract), and/or the condition of the subject (e.g., whether the subject is able to tolerate oral administration). In certain embodiments, the compound or pharmaceutical composition described herein is suitable for topical administration to the eye of a subject.

The exact amount of a compound required to achieve an effective amount will vary from subject to subject, depending, for example, on species, age, and general condition of a subject, severity of the side effects or disorder, identity of the particular compound, mode of administration, and the like. An effective amount may be included in a single dose (e.g., single oral dose) or multiple doses (e.g., multiple oral doses). In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, any two doses of the multiple doses include different or substantially the same amounts of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is three doses a day, two doses a day, one dose a day, one dose every other day, one dose every third day, one dose every week, one dose every two weeks, one dose every three weeks, or one dose every four weeks. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is one dose per day. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is two doses per day. In certain embodiments, the frequency of administering the multiple doses to the subject or applying the multiple doses to the tissue or cell is three doses per day. In certain embodiments, when multiple doses are administered to a subject or applied to a tissue or cell, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is one day, two days, four days, one week, two weeks, three weeks, one month, two months, three months, four months, six months, nine months, one year, two years, three years, four years, five years, seven years, ten years, fifteen years, twenty years, or the lifetime of the subject, tissue, or cell. In certain embodiments, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is three months, six months, or one year. In certain embodiments, the duration between the first dose and last dose of the multiple doses is the lifetime of the subject, tissue, or cell. In certain embodiments, a dose (e.g., a single dose, or any dose of multiple doses) described herein includes independently between 0.1 μg and 1 μg, between 0.001 mg and 0.01 mg, between 0.01 mg and 0.1 mg, between 0.1 mg and 1 mg, between 1 mg and 3 mg, between 3 mg and 10 mg, between 10 mg and 30 mg, between 30 ma and 100 ma, between 100 ma and 300 mg, between 300 mg and 1,000 mg, or between 1 g and 10 g, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 1 mg and 3 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 3 mg and 10 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 10 mg and 30 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein. In certain embodiments, a dose described herein includes independently between 30 mg and 100 mg, inclusive, of a compound described herein.

Dose ranges as described herein provide guidance for the administration of provided pharmaceutical compositions to an adult. The amount to be administered to, for example, a child or an adolescent can be determined by a medical practitioner or person skilled in the art and can be lower or the same as that administered to an adult.

A compound or composition, as described herein, can be administered in combination with one or more additional pharmaceutical agents (e.g., therapeutically and/or prophylactically active agents). The compounds or compositions can be administered in combination with additional pharmaceutical agents that improve their activity (e.g., activity (e.g., potency and/or efficacy) in treating a disease in a subject in need thereof, in preventing a disease in a subject in need thereof, in reducing the risk to develop a disease in a subject in need thereof), improve bioavailability, improve safety, reduce drug resistance, reduce and/or modify metabolism, inhibit excretion, and/or modify distribution in a subject or cell. It will also be appreciated that the therapy employed may achieve a desired effect for the same disorder, and/or it may achieve different effects. In certain embodiments, a pharmaceutical composition described herein including a compound described herein and an additional pharmaceutical agent shows a synergistic effect that is absent in a pharmaceutical composition including one of the compound and the additional pharmaceutical agent, but not both.

The compound or composition can be administered concurrently with, prior to, or subsequent to one or more additional pharmaceutical agents, which may be useful as, e.g., combination therapies. Pharmaceutical agents include therapeutically active agents. Pharmaceutical agents also include prophylactically active agents. Pharmaceutical agents include small organic molecules such as drug compounds (e.g., compounds approved for human or veterinary use by the U.S. Food and Drug Administration as provided in the Code of Federal Regulations (CFR)), peptides, proteins, carbohydrates, monosaccharides, oligosaccharides, polysaccharides, nucleoproteins, mucomoteins, lipoproteins, synthetic polypeptides or proteins, small molecules linked to proteins, glycoproteins, steroids, nucleic acids, DNAs, RNAs, nucleotides, nucleosides, oligonucleotides, antisense oligonucleotides, lipids, hormones, vitamins, and cells. In certain embodiments, the additional pharmaceutical agent is a pharmaceutical agent useful for treating and/or preventing a disease (e.g., metabolic condition, proliferative disease, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, renal disease). Each additional pharmaceutical agent may be administered at a dose and/or on a time schedule determined for that pharmaceutical agent. The additional pharmaceutical agents may also be administered together with each other and/or with the compound or composition described herein in a single dose or administered separately in different doses. The particular combination to employ in a regimen will take into account compatibility of the compound described herein with the additional pharmaceutical agent(s) and/or the desired therapeutic and/or prophylactic effect to be achieved. In general, it is expected that the additional pharmaceutical agent(s) in combination be utilized at levels that do not exceed the levels at which they are utilized individually. In some embodiments, the levels utilized in combination will be lower than those utilized individually.

The additional pharmaceutical agents include, but are not limited to, anti-proliferative agents, anti-cancer agents, anti-angiogenesis agents, anti-inflammatory agents, immunosuppressants, anti-bacterial agents, anti-viral agents, cardiovascular agents, cholesterol-lowering agents, anti-diabetic agents, anti-allergic agents, contraceptive agents, and pain-relieving agents.

Also encompassed by the disclosure are kits (e.g., pharmaceutical packs). The kits provided may comprise a composition or compound described herein and a container (e.g., a vial, ampule, bottle, syringe, and/or dispenser package, or other suitable container). In some embodiments, provided kits may optionally further include a second container comprising an excipient for dilution or suspension of a composition or compound described herein. In some embodiments, the composition or compound described herein provided in the first container and the second container are combined to form one unit dosage form.

Thus, in one aspect, provided are kits including a first container comprising a compound or composition described herein. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for treating a disease (e.g., metabolic condition, proliferative disease, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, renal disease) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for preventing a disease in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for reducing the risk of developing a disease in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful for inhibiting ROS and/or RNS, and/or reducing oxidative stress in subject or cell. In certain embodiments, the kits are useful in cosmetic applications.

In certain embodiments, a kit described herein further includes instructions for using the kit. A kit described herein may also include information as required by a regulatory agency such as the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA). In certain embodiments, the information included in the kits is prescribing information. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for treating a disease (e.g., metabolic condition, proliferative disease, cardiovascular disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, renal disease) in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for preventing a disease in a subject in need thereof. In certain embodiments, the kits and instructions provide for reducing the risk of developing a disease in a subject in need thereof.

Methods of Treatment and Uses

The present invention also provides methods of using compounds of Formulae (I) and (II), and salts, solvates, hydrates, polymorphs, co-crystals, tautomers, stereoisomers, isotopically labeled derivatives, and prodrugs thereof, and pharmaceutical and cosmetic compositions thereof.

Provided herein is a method for the treating and/or preventing of disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject an effective amount of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a therapeutically effective amount. In certain embodiments, the effective amount is a prophylactically effective amount.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for the treatment and/or prevention of a disease in a subject.

In certain embodiments, the disease is a genetic disease, proliferative disease (e.g., cancer), disease associated with angiogenesis, neoplasm, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, liver disease, renal disease, spleen disease, pulmonary disease, hematological disease, neurological disease (e.g., neurodegenerative disease), painful condition, psychiatric disorder, or metabolic disorder (e.g., a diabetic condition). In certain embodiments, the disease is a metabolic disorder, renal disease, proliferative disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, or cardiovascular disease. In certain embodiments, the disease is a metabolic disorder. In certain embodiments, the disease is diabetes (e.g., type I diabetes, type II diabetes). In certain embodiments, the disease is diabetic nephropathy. In certain embodiments, the disease is a renal disease. In certain embodiments, the disease is kidney failure. In certain embodiments, the disease is chronic kidney disease. In certain embodiments, the disease is a neurodegenerative disease. In certain embodiments, the disease is a cardiovascular disease.

In certain embodiments, the disease is a disease associated with (e.g., caused or exacerbated by) oxidative stress in a subject.

Provided herein is a method of inhibiting concentration of or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, subject, or biological sample, the method comprising administering to the subject, or contacting the cell or biological sample with, a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In certain embodiments, the reactive species are inhibited in a subject. In certain embodiments, the reactive species are inhibited in a biological sample. In certain embodiments, the reactive species are inhibited in a cell. In certain embodiments, the concentration or production of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is inhibited. In certain embodiments, the concentration or production of reactive nitrogen species (RNS) is inhibited. In certain embodiments, the concentration of the reactive species (e.g., ROS and/or RNS) is inhibited. In certain embodiments, the ROS and/or RNS are neutralized. In certain embodiments, the production of ROS and/or RNS is inhibited. In certain embodiments, the production of ROS is inhibited. Inhibition of reactive species such as ROS and/or RNS can lead to a reduction of oxidative stress in a cell, subject, or biological sample.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, for inhibiting the concentration or production of ROS and/or RNS in a subject or biological sample. In certain embodiments, the production of ROS and/or RNS is inhibited. In certain embodiments, the production of ROS is inhibited.

Provided herein is a method for inhibiting the activity of NADPH oxidase in a cell, subject, or biological sample, the method comprising administering to the subject, or contacting the biological sample or cell with, a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In certain embodiments, the NADPH oxidase is inhibited in a subject. In certain embodiments, the NADPH oxidase is inhibited in a biological sample. In certain embodiments, the NADPH oxidase is inhibited in a cell.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, for inhibiting the activity of NADPH oxidase in a subject or biological sample.

Provided herein is a method of reducing oxidative stress in a cell, subject, or biological sample, the method comprising administering to the subject, or contacting the cell or biological sample, with a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof. In certain embodiments, the oxidative stress is reduced in a subject. In certain embodiments, the oxidative stress is reduced in a cell. In certain embodiments, the oxidative stress is reduced in a biological sample.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof, for reducing oxidative stress in a cell, subject, or biological sample.

Provided herein is a method of reducing or slowing the effects of aging in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical or cosmetic composition thereof.

Also provided herein is the use of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical or cosmetic composition thereof, for the manufacture of a medicament for reducing the effects of aging in a subject.

Also provided herein are uses of a compound of Formula (I) or (II), or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a cosmetic composition thereof, in cosmetic applications.

In certain embodiments, the subject being treated is a mammal. In certain embodiments, the subject is a human. In certain embodiments, the subject is a domesticated animal, such as a dog, cat, cow, pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a companion animal, such as a dog or cat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a livestock animal, such as a cow, pig, horse, sheep, or goat. In certain embodiments, the subject is a zoo animal. In another embodiment, the subject is a research animal, such as a rodent, dog, or non-human primate. In certain embodiments, the subject is a non-human transgenic animal, such as a transgenic mouse or transgenic pig.

In certain embodiments, the provided methods and uses comprise contacting a cell with an effective amount of a compound, or salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition, as described herein. The cell may be contacted in vitro or in vivo. In certain embodiments, the contacting is in vivo. In certain embodiments, the contacting is in vitro.

In certain embodiments, the provided methods and uses comprise contacting a biological sample with an effective amount of a compound, or salt, solvate, hydrate, polymorph, co-crystal, tautomer, stereoisomer, isotopically labeled derivative, or prodrug thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition, as described herein. The biological sample may be contacted in vitro or ex vivo.

A compound or composition provided herein may be administered concurrently with, prior to, or subsequent to, one or more additional therapeutically active agents. In general, each agent will be administered at a dose and/or on a time schedule determined for that agent. It will further be appreciated that the additional therapeutically active agent utilized in this combination can be administered together in a single composition or administered separately in different compositions. The particular combination to employ in a regimen will take into account compatibility of the inventive compound with the additional therapeutically active agent and/or the desired therapeutic effect to be achieved. In general, it is expected that additional therapeutically active agents utilized in combination be utilized at levels that do not exceed the levels at which they are utilized individually. In some embodiments, the levels utilized in combination will be lower than those utilized individually.

EXAMPLES

These and other aspects of the present invention will be further appreciated upon consideration of the following Examples, which are intended to illustrate certain particular embodiments of the invention but are not intended to limit its scope, as defined by the claims.

Spiroketal Antioxidants

Biological evaluation of the entire family of pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal natural products 1-6 was recently reported. Antioxidant activity was assessed using a fluorescence-based assay to measure intracellular ROS levels in a rat mesangial cell model of hyperglycemia-induced oxidative stress. For measurement of antioxidant activity, see, e.g., Wang et al. Radical Biol. Med. 1999, 27, 612-616; Magalhães et al. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2008, 613, 1-19. These studies identified acortatarin A (1) as the most promising inhibitor in this model, with an IC₅₀ of 4.9 μM and achieving complete inhibition of ROS induction at higher concentrations. Described herein are analogues based on systematic modification of acortatarin A (See FIG. 2) for structure-activity relationship studies, mechanistic studies, and therapeutic applications.

It has been postulated that acortatarin A may exert its antioxidant effect is through direct quenching of ROS via the pyrrole moiety. To investigate this possibility, benzannulated spiroketal analogue 8 was deigned that retains the aromaticity of the pyrrole but is unlikely to undergo direct oxidation. Alternatively, the aldehyde moiety of acortatarin A may react covalently with putative protein targets. Thus, the corresponding proteo, methyl, hydroxymethyl and methyl ester analogues 9ad were envisioned, as well as the corresponding desformylbenzene analogue 7 in the benzannulated series. To investigate the necessity of specific structural motifs, the pyrrole motif was deleted in the morpholine spiroketals 10ac as well as the deaza spiroketal analogue 11. Conversely, the ribose motif in pyrrolomorpholine analogue 12 was also deleted. Finally, as acortatarin A may be hydrolyzed intracellularly, acyclic analogue 13 was designed to assess the necessity of the spiroketal motif for activity.

Synthesis of Compounds

Due to the prohibitively low isolation yields of pyrrolomorpholine natural products from the natural sources, efficient synthetic access is required for detailed biological investigation and mechanism-of-action studies. Accordingly, this family has attracted considerable attention from the synthetic community. For additional syntheses of pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal natural products, see, e.g., Sudhakar et al. Org. Lett. 2011, 13, 5452-5455; Geng et al. Synlett 2012, 23, 855-858; Borrero et al. J. Org. Chem. 2012, 77, 8410-8416; Teranishi et al. Biosci. Biotechnol. Biochem. 2013, 77, 676-678; Cao et al. Nat. Prod. Bioprospect. 2015, 5, 37-45; Cao et al. Synlett 2015, 26, 921-926; Wood et al. Org. Biomol. Chem. 2016, 14, 7659-7664. Concise, highly stereoselective syntheses of the complete family of pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal natural products and analogues, as well as early investigations of the bioactivity of the natural products and non-natural 2-hydroxypyranose analogues have been reported previously (see, e.g., Wurst et al. Org. Lett. 2012, 14, 4442-4445).

The stereoselective synthesis of acortatarin A via spirocyclization of a glycal precursor has been reported previously. Thus, it was envisioned that the desired acortatarin A analogues could be accessed through stereocontrolled cyclizations of the corresponding furanoglycal precursors. The synthesis of desformylbenzene analogue 7 was achieved from silyl-protected ribal 14, synthesized from d-thymidine as previously reported, which was Cl-stannylated to give 15 (See FIG. 3). Stille coupling of with benzylbromide 16, followed by deacetylation gave the key cyclization precursor 18. Mercury-mediated spirocyclization of 18 furnished β-spiroketal 19 in 80:20 dr, which could be separated from the minor β-diastereomer after desilylation to afford des-formylbenzene analogue 7.

En route to compound 8, an umpolung approach was utilized in which the benzyl side chain of 24 is installed via radical coupling (See FIG. 4). Alkylation of dicyanotoluene 23 was achieved via formation of a benzyl radical which could then couple with a reactive glycal partner. After exploration of various reactions conditions, glycal iodide 22 coupled effectively with dicyanotoluene 23 under radical conditions to give C1-benzylglycal 24. DIBAL reduction of the nitrile groups followed by aqueous workup provided the dialdehyde, which was selectively reduced to the monoalcohol 25. Finally, mercury-mediated spirocyclization and desilylation afforded formylbenzene analogue 8.

To access aldehyde-modified analogues 9ad, the oxidation state of the aldehyde was adjusted directly in silyl-protected acortatarin A 27 (See FIG. 5). Reduction of the aldehyde with LiAlH₄ or NaBH₄ provided, after desilylation, both methyl analogue 9b and hydroxymethyl analogue 9c, respectively. However, the desformyl analogue 9a and methyl ester analogue 9d were unable to be accessed from 27 due to epimerization or decomposition of the spiroketal scaffold under the reaction conditions. Thus, these analogues were instead synthesized by introducing the desired aldehyde modification prior to coupling and spirocyclization. N-Alkylation of the corresponding pyrrole fragments 29a and 29b with Cl-iodomethyl glycal 28 yielded the desired cyclization precursors 30a and 30b, which were then elaborated to acortatarin analogues 9a and 9d, respectively (See FIG. 5).

Despyrrolo analogues 10 and 11 were next synthesized, which lack the potentially oxidizable pyrrole ring of acortatarin A. Morpholine spiroketals 10ac were accessed from C1-formylglycal 31, prepared from protected ribal 14, via reductive amination with ethanolamine to afford cyclization precursor 33 (See FIG. 6). Unfortunately, attempted Hg-mediated spirocyclization did not provide the desired spiroketal 34, and instead led to complex mixtures and decomposition, possibly due to reactivity of the secondary amine. However, acid-catalyzed spirocyclization provided the desired a-spiroketal 34 in 75:25 dr, and the diastereomers were separable after desilylation to provide morpholine spiroketal 10a. Protected spiroketal 34 also served as a diversification point to access analogues 10b and 10c. The aliphatic spiroketal analogue 11 was synthesized via B-alkyl Suzuki coupling of C1-iodoglycal 22 and olefin 35 to give cyclization precursor 36 (See FIG. 6). Hg-mediated spirocyclization and desilylation then provided the desired aliphatic spiroketal analogue 11.

Synthetic Procedures

triisopropyl(((2R,3S)-5-(tributylstannyl)-2-(((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-methyl)-2,3-dihydrofuran-3-yl)oxy)silane (C1-tributylstannyl Glycal, 15)

In a 50 mL roundbottom flask, TIPS-protected ribal 14 (401 mg, 0.936 mmol), which was prepared as previously described (see, e.g., Wurst, J. M.; Verano, A. L.; Tan, D. S., Stereoselective synthesis of acortatarins A and B. Org. Lett. 2012, 14, 4442-4445), was dissolved in THF (15 mL) and cooled to −78° C. To the pre-cooled solution, tert-butyllithium (2.1 mL, 1.7 M in pentane, 3.0 equiv) was added slowly via syringe. The yellow solution was stirred at −78° C. for 15 min, then warmed to −42° C., stirred for 1 h, then re-cooled to −78° C. Tributyltin chloride (1.07 mL, 3.98 mmol, 3.0 equiv) was added dropwise via syringe. The reaction was stirred for 30 min at −78° C., then warmed to rt and quenched with satd aq NaHCO₃. The reaction mixture was extracted with ether 3×, and the combined organic extracts were washed with water and brine, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Purification by silica flash chromatography with pure hexanes first to remove excess tin, then 7:1 hexanes/CH₂Cl₂+0.5% Et₃N afforded the desired glycal stannane 15 (756 mg, 90% yield) as a clear oil.

TLC: R_f 0.44 (19:1 hexanes/EtOAc). IR (ATR): 2971, 2642, 1624, 1487, 1376, 1227, 1170, 1021, 915, 867, 811, 707. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 5.14-5.11 (m, 1H), 4.97 (t, 1H, J=2.5), 4.31 (ddd, 1H, J=7.3, 5.4, 2.4), 3.76 (dd, 1H, J=10.2, 5.3), 3.50 (dd, 1H, J=10.3, 6.8), 1.59-1.45 (m, 6H), 1.31 (h, 6H, J=7.3), 1.11-1.00 (m, 42H), 1.00-0.95 (m, 6H), 0.88 (t, 9H, J=7.3). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 167.4, 115.4, 90.0, 76.4, 63.2, 28.9, 27.2, 18.1, 18.0, 13.7, 12.4, 9.6. HRMS m/z calcd for C₃₅H₇₄O₃Si₂SnNa ([M+Na]⁺) 741.4096; found 741.4118.

(2-(((4S,5R)-4-((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-5-(((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)methyl)-4,5-dihydro-furan-2-yl)methyl)phenyl)methanol (TIPS-Protected Benzylglycal Alcohol, 18)

To a stirred solution of glycal stannane 15 (383 mg, 0.53 mmol) in anhyd toluene (0.1 M) was added benzyl bromide 16 (156 mg, 0.64 mmol, 1.2 equiv), copper(I) iodide (41 mg, 0.21 mmol, 0.4 equiv) and Pd(PPh₃)₄ (123 mg, 0.11 mmol, 0.2 equiv). The yellow solution was shielded from light with aluminum foil and heated to 80° C. for 8 h, and then cooled to rt and concentrated to dryness. Purification by silica flash chromatography with 95:5 hexanes/EtOAc+0.5% Et₃N yielded the partially purified 0-acetyl C1-benzylglycal 17 as a colorless oil. TLC: R_f 0.32 (9:1 benzene/acetone).

O-Acetyl C1-benzylglycal 17 (315 mg, 0.53 mmol) was then dissolved in 1:1 THF/MeOH (0.1 M) and K₂CO₃ (148 mg, 1.1 mmol, 2.0 equiv) was added. After stirring for 4 h, the mixture was diluted with Et₂O, washed with satd aq NaHCO₃, dried with Na₂SO₄, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Purification by silica flash chromatography (10:1 hexanes/EtOAc+1% Et₃N) afforded the free alcohol 18 (279 mg, 56% over 2 steps) as a colorless oil.

TLC: R_f 0.24 (9:1 benzene/acetone). IR (ATR): 3442 (O—H st), 3066, 2931, 2865, 1687, 1461, 1422, 1379, 1091, 994, 878, 734, 711. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 7.20-7.13 (m, 2H), 7.13-7.10 (m, 1H), 7.01 (dd, 1H, J=6.6, 2.2), 4.95 (d, 1H, J=14.8), 4.70 (d, 1H, J=14.8), 4.38 (d, 1H, J=2.0), 4.16 (d, 1H, J=2.0), 3.88 (d, 1H, J=11.8), 3.81 (dd, 1H, J=10.9), 3.61 (d, 1H, J=11.8), 3.23 (d, 1H, J=16.9), 2.88 (d, 1H, J=16.9), 1.16-1.01 (m, 42H). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 154.3, 133.7, 132.0, 128.6, 126.5, 123.8, 87.6, 72.1, 63.4, 62.8, 47.1, 37.5, 18.1, 11.8. ESI-MS m/z (rel int): (pos) 571.4 ([M+Na]⁺, 100); (neg) 583.4 ([M+Cl]⁻, 80).

triisopropyl(((2S,4S,5R)-4-((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-4,5-dihydro-3H-spiro-[furan-2,3′-isochroman]-5-yl)methoxy)silane (TIPS-Protected Desformyl-Benzene Spiroketal, 19)

In a 10 mL roundbottom flask, benzylglycal alcohol 18 (21 mg, 0.039 mmol) was dissolved in THF (0.01 M) and cooled to −78° C. Sodium hexamethyldisilazane (0.2 M in THF, 1.0 equiv) was added slowly via syringe and stirred for 15 min. Mercuric acetate (14 mg, 0.043 mmol, 1.1 equiv) was added and warmed to 0° C. for 1 h, then rt for an additional 5 h. After a total of 6 h, NaBH₄ (2.9 mg, 0.077 mmol, 2.0 equiv) was added and stirred for 5 min. The reaction was quenched with satd aq NaHCO₃, washed with water, brine, dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. The crude product was filtered over a short plug of silica gel using EtOAc+0.5% Et₃N to remove residual mercury, affording the desired benzannulated spiroketal 19 as a mixture of 80:20 α/β-spiroketals (19.3 mg, 91%) as a clear oil.

TLC: R_f 0.20 (4:1 hexanes/EtOAc). IR (ATR): 3061, 2935, 2854, 1464, 1419, 1371, 1243, 1012, 882, 767, 751. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 7.16-7.14 (m, 2H), 7.04-7.02 (m, 1H), 6.99-6.97 (m, 1H), 4.99 (d, 1H, J=15.0), 4.71 (d, 1H, J=14.9), 4.59 (ddd, 1H, J=7.8, 4.8, 3.8), 4.08-4.06 (m, 1H), 3.84 (dd, 1H, J=11.2, 2.8), 3.80 (dd, 1H, J=11.2, 3.5), 3.07 (d, 1H, J=16.1), 2.81 (d, 1H, J=16.1), 2.24 (dd, 1H, J=13.4, 7.7), 2.18 (dd, 1H, J=13.4, 3.8) 1.12-0.97 (m, 42H). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 133.9, 132.1, 128.7, 126.2, 125.8, 123.8, 104.9, 87.3, 71.8, 62.9, 62.7, 47.3, 37.4, 18.0, 11.9. HRMS m/z calcd for C₃₁H₅₆O₄Si₂Na ([M+Na]⁺) 571.3615; found 571.3631.

(2S,4S,5R)-5-(hydroxymethyl)-4,5-dihydro-3H-spiro[furan-2,3′-isochroman]-4-ol (Desformylbenzene α-Spiroketal, 9)

In a 4-mL vial, TIPS-protected benzannulated spiroketal 19 (12.3 mg, 0.022 mmol) was dissolved in THF (0.02 M, 1.1 mL) and cooled to 0° C. Tetrabutylammonium fluoride (1.0 M in THF, 49 μL, 2.2 equiv) was added and the reaction was stirred for 2 h. Concentration by rotary evaporation afforded the crude product. Purification by silica flash chromatography (99:1 CHCl₃/MeOH+1% Et₃N) yielded benzannulated a-spiroketal 7 as a single diastereomer (4.5 mg, 75%) as white needles.

TLC: R_f 0.17 (99:1 CH₃C1/MeOH). IR (ATR): 3437 (O—H st), 3058, 2931, 2851, 1463, 1417, 1368, 1241, 1009, 891, 763, 755. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 7.19 (dd, 2H, J=5.7, 3.2), 7.13-7.10 (m, 1H), 7.03-7.00 (m, 1H), 4.98 (d, 1H, J=14.9), 4.76 (d, 1H, J=11.1), 4.65 (td, 1H, J=6.6, 4.3), 4.14 (dd, 1H, J=8.0, 4.0), 3.79 (dd, 1H, J=11.9, 3.8), 3.75-3.71 (m, 1H), 3.21 (d, 1H, J=16.3), 3.02 (d, 1H, J=16.2), 2.22 (dd, 1H, J=13.8, 1.2), 2.17 (dd, 1H, J=13.8, 6.3). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 132.6, 131.2, 128.7, 126.8, 126.3, 123.9, 105.8, 87.9, 72.6, 63.9, 63.2, 46.3, 37.5. HRMS m/z calcd for C₁₃H₁₆O₄Na ([M+Na]⁺) 259.0946; found 259.0951.

2-(((4S,5R)-4-((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-5-(((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)methyl)-4,5-di-hydrofuran-2-yl)methyl)isophthalonitrile (TIPS-Protected C1-dicyanobenzyl-glycal, 24)

In a 15 mL roundbottom flask, TIPS-protected C1-tributylstannyl glycal 15 (50 mg, 0.070 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (0.01 M, 7 mL) and cooled to 0° C. A solution of iodine (27 mg, 0.104 mmol, 1.5 equiv) in CH₂Cl₂ (1 mL) was added dropwise via syringe to the glycal stannane solution until a pale purple color persisted. The reaction was immediately quenched by the addition of 1 mL 10% aq Na₂S₂O₃ and extracted with CH₂Cl₂ (2×5 mL). The combined extracts were dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation to provide the crude C1-iodoglycal 22 as a colorless oil, which was used immediately in the next reaction without further purification.

The crude C1-iodoglycal 22, prepared above, and dicyanotoluene 23 (40 mg, 0.28 mmol, 4.0 equiv) were dissolved in benzene. Azobisisobutyronitrile (11.5 mg, 0.070 mmol, 1.0 equiv) was added, and the reaction mixture was stirred at 80° C. for 3 h. Upon cooling to rt, the reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc, washed with water, brine, dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Purification by silica flash chromatography with 19:1 hexanes/EtOAc+0.5% Et₃N provided the desired dicyanobenzyl glycal 24 (23.3 mg, 59% from glycal stannane 17) as a white solid.

TLC: R_f 0.31 (9:1 hexanes/EtOAc). IR (ATR): 2916, 2872, 2451, 2231 (C≡N st), 1671, 1469, 1361, 1143, 972, 919, 886, 846, 725. ¹H-NMR (500 MHz): δ 7.91 (d, 1H, J=1.6), 7.90 (d, 1H, J=1.6), 7.57 (t, 1H, J=1.7), 5.07 (d, 1H, J=7.9), 5.01 (d, 1H, J=2.5), 4.40 (td, 1H, J=5.1, 2.9), 4.19 (s, 2H), 3.81 (dd, 1H, J=10.7, 5.0), 3.72 (dd, 1H, J=10.7, 5.1), 1.13-1.00 (m, 42H). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 143.2, 138.1, 128.4, 116.8, 114.3, 89.3, 73.5, 64.1, 62.4, 46.8, 38.5, 18.1, 12.8. ESI-MS m/z (rel int): (pos) 591.4 ([M+Na]⁺, 100); (neg) 603.1 ([M+Cl]⁻, 35).

2-(((4S,5R)-4-((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-5-(((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)methyl)-4,5-dihydrofuran-2-yl)methyl)isophthalaldehyde (TIPS-protected benzylglycal dialdehyde, SI)

In a 25 mL roundbottom flask, TIPS-protected dicyanobenzyl glycal 24 (64 mg, 0.11 mmol) was dissolved in CH₂Cl₂ (0.01 M) and cooled to 0° C. A solution of diisobutylaluminum hydride (DIBAL-H) in hexane (0.1 M, 0.24 mmol, 2.1 equiv) was added dropwise over 20 min. The reaction mixture was allowed to warm slowly to rt over 4 h. The reaction mixture was re-cooled to 0° C. and poured into a 50 mL beaker filled with ice and precooled aqueous 1 N HCl (25 mL). The mixture was vigorously stirred for 1.5 h, and then extracted with dichloromethane (3×10 mL). The combined organic extracts were washed with 1 N NaHCO₃, water, brine, dried over MgSO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Purification by silica flash chromatography with 19:1 hexanes/EtOAc+0.5% Et₃N to afford benzylglycal dialdehyde S1 (45 mg, 70%) as a white solid.

TLC: R_f 0.22 (9:1 hexanes/EtOAc). IR (ATR): 2923, 2881, 2462, 1771 (C ═O st), 1462, 1365, 1140, 986, 912, 881, 858, 711. ¹H-NMR (500 MHz): δ 10.03 (s, 2H), 7.79 (dt, 1H, J=7.5, 1.5), 7.64 (dt, 1H, J=7.7, 1.5), 7.52 (t, 1H, J=7.6), 5.07 (t, 1H, J=2.6), 5.02 (t, 1H, J=2.7), 4.78 (dd, 2H, J=7.6, 5.6), 4.35 (td, 1H, J=5.5, 2.7), 3.79 (dd, 1H, J=10.6, 5.4), 3.66 (dd, 1H, J=10.6, 5.6), 1.14-1.00 (m, 42H). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 179.2, 158.8, 145.9, 137.3, 122.1, 119.0, 88.1, 71.2, 63.4, 61.4, 45.2, 18.0, 11.8. ESI-MS m/z (rel int): (pos) 574.6 ([M+Na]⁺, 100); (neg) 586.4 ([M+Cl]⁻, 80).

3-(hydroxymethyl)-2-(((4S,5R)-4-((triisopropylsilyl)oxy)-5-(((triisopropyl-silyl)oxy)methyl)-4,5-dihydrofuran-2-yl)methyl)benzaldehyde (TIPS-Protect-Ed Benzylglycal Monoalcohol, 25)

In a 15 mL roundbottom flask, TIPS-protected benzylglycal dialdehyde 51 (31.3 mg, 0.054 mmol) was dissolved in THF and cooled to 0° C. Sodium borohydride (1 mg, 0.016 mmol, 0.5 equiv) was added and stirred for 1.5 h at 0° C. Careful monitoring of the reaction by TLC allowed for minimal over-reduction and minimal remaining starting material. The reaction was quenched with NaHCO₃. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc, washed with water, brine, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. Purification by silica flash chromatography with 9:1 hexanes/EtOAc+0.5% Et₃N afforded benzylglycal monoalcohol 25 (23.9 mg, 76%) as a white solid.

TLC: R_f 0.28 (4:1 hexanes/EtOAc). IR (ATR): 3438 (O—H st), 3042, 2928, 2861, 1676, 1454, 1421, 1309, 1151, 982, 859, 761, 731, 689. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 9.93 (s, 1H), 8.04 (dd, 2H, J=7.7, 1.7), 7.47 (t, 1H, J=7.7), 6.16 (d, 2H), 4.99 (d, 1H, J=2.9), 4.96 (d, 1H, J=2.5), 4.51 (s, 2H), 4.30 (td, 1H, J=4.8, 2.9), 3.72 (dd, 1H, J=10.7, 4.8), 3.65 (1H, dd, J=10.9, 4.9), 0.96 (m, 42H). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 179.9, 160.5, 145.9, 137.3, 132.1, 129.0, 128.3, 127.5, 102.7, 90.5, 76.1, 63.3, 59.1, 38.5, 18.0, 11.9. ESI-MS m/z (rel int): (pos) 599.4 ([M+Na]⁺, 100); (neg) 611.8 ([M+Cl]⁻, 75).

(2S,4S,5R)-4-hydroxy-5-(hydroxymethyl)-4,5-dihydro-3H-spiro[furan-2,3′-isochromane]-5′-carbaldehyde (formylbenzene α-spiroketal, 8)

In a 10 mL roundbottom flask, TIPS-protected benzylglycal monoalcohol 25 (11.6 mg, 0.20 mmol) was dissolved in THF and cooled to 78° C. Sodium hexamethyldisilazane (0.1 M, 0.022 mmol, 1.1 equiv) was added dropwise and stirred for 15 min. Mercuric acetate (7.7 mg, 0.024 mmol, 1.2 equiv) was added and stirred at 0° C. for 1 h, then warmed to rt for 5 h. Sodium borohydride (1.6 mg, 0.040 mmol, 2.0 equiv) was added and stirred for 5 min, then the reaction was quenched with satd aq NaHCO₃. The reaction mixture was extracted with EtOAc, washed with water, brine, dried over Na₂SO₄, filtered, and concentrated by rotary evaporation. The crude product was filtered over a plug of silica gel to remove residual mercury to provide an 80:20 α/β mixture of crude TIPS-protected formylbenzene spiroketal 26 (11 mg, 90%) as a colorless oil, which was taken forward directly to deprotection. TLC: R_f 0.23 (19:1 hexanes/EtOAc).

In a 4-mL vial, crude TIPS-protected formylbenzene glycal 26 (11 mg, 0.019 mmol) was dissolved in THF and cooled to 0° C. Tetrabutylammonium fluoride (1.0 M in THF, 0.042 mmol, 2.2 equiv) was added and stirred for 2 h. Upon warming to rt, concentration by rotary evaporation provided formylbenzene a-spiroketal 8 (3.6 mg, 72%) as a white solid.

TLC: R_f 0.24 (98:2 CH₃C1/MeOH). IR (ATR): 3341 (O—H st), 2951, 2761, 2213, 1774, 1653, 1361, 1259, 1142, 1092, 1012, 848, 816, 786, 721, 689. ¹H-NMR (600 MHz): δ 9.87 (s, 1H), 8.01 (dd, 2H, J=7.7, 1.7), 7.49 (t, 1H, J=7.7), 6.97 (d, 1H, J=14.6), 6.54 (d, 1H, J=14.5), 5.00 (d, 1H, J=2.9), 4.96 (d, 1H, J=2.9), 4.81 (d, 1H, J=14.9), 4.31 (td, 1H, J=4.8, 2.9), 3.74 (dd, 1H, J=10.7, 4.8), 3.67 (1H, dd, J=10.9, 4.9), 2.25 (dd, 1H, J=13.8, 1.2), 2.21 (dd, 1H, J=13.8, 6.3). ¹³C-NMR (151 MHz): δ 178.2, 158.3, 145.9, 137.3, 132.1, 129.0, 128.3, 127.5, 101.4, 91.3, 77.1, 63.7, 60.2, 39.0. HRMS m/z calcd for C₁₄H₁₆O₅Na ([M+Na]⁺) 287.0895; found 287.0901.

Biological Activity

Inhibitory activity of the compounds against hyperglycemia-induced ROS production in rat mesangial cells was evaluated, with N-acetyl cysteine used as a positive control (Table 1, entry 1). Consistent with previous report, acortatarin A exhibited an IC₅₀ of 4.9 μM and achieved complete inhibition of ROS induction at higher concentrations (Table 1, entry 2). Strikingly, replacement of the pyrrole ring with a benzene ring was advantageous in both desformylbenzene analogue 7 and formylbenzene analogue 8 (Table 1, entries 3,4). This suggests that acortatarin A likely does not function through direct quenching of ROS by pyrrole oxidation. Along these lines, it was also demonstrated that acortatarin A is unreactive to equimolar concentrations of H₂O₂, OH radical, as well as the reactive nitrogen species peroxynitrite. Similarly, Aponick and coworkers have previously reported first and second oxidation potentials of +1.74 and 1.90 V for acortatarin A in cyclic voltametry studies, in contrast to the low oxidation potentials of less than +0.70 V for most direct ROS quenchers.

Desformylbenzene analogue 7 was the most effective antioxidant, reducing ROS production to normal levels at a concentration of 5 μM; in contrast, 20 μM of acortatarin A was required for complete inhibition. This suggests that the aldehyde may not be required for activity of the benzannulated scaffold, and thus, that the mechanism of action may not involve formation of covalent adducts. In contrast, the desformylpyrrole analogue 9a showed no antioxidant activity (Table 1, entry 5), indicating that the aldehyde is required for activity of the pyrrolomorpholine scaffold. We hypothesize that the electron-withdrawing aldehyde in acortatarin A is essential to protect the pyrrole from oxidation, and indeed, treatment of desformylpyrrole analogue 9a with H₂O₂ leads to decomposition. Accordingly, the more electron-rich methylpyrrole analogue 9b and hydroxymethylpyrrole analogue 9c were also inactive (Table 1, entry 6,7), while the carboxymethylpyrrole analogue 9d retained activity (Table 1, entry 8).

Furthermore, simplified analogues 10-12 showed no activity (Table 1, entries 9-13), indicating that the tricyclic ring system is required for activity. The acortatarin A hydrolysis product 13 also exhibited no effect on ROS production (Table 1, entry 14), suggesting that the spiroketal motif is required for activity. However, it should be noted that the hydrolysis product 13 is very polar (C log P=−2.05 vs −0.99 for acortatarin A) and may not be able to enter cells, and thus it is still possible that 13 is the active pharmacophore if hydrolysis of acortatarin A occurs intracellularly.

TABLE 1
Inhibition of high glucose-induced ROS
production in rat mesangial cells.a
		IC50 (μM)	Maximum % ROS
Entry	Compound	[s.d. log IC50]b	Inhibitionc
1	N-acetyl-cysteined	n.a.	100%***
2	acortatarin A (1)	4.9 [0.06]	100%***
3	desformylbenzene 7	1.4 [0.17]	100%***
4	formylbenzene 8	7.1 [0.06]	100%***
5	desformylpyrrole 9a	>200	n.a.
6	methylpyrrole 9b	>200	n.a.
7	hydroxymethylpyrrole 9c	>200	n.a.
8	carbomethoxypyrrole 9d	12 [0.06]	95%***
9	morpholine 10a	>200	n.a.
10	N-methyl morpholine 10b	>200	n.a.
11	N-acetyl morpholine 10c	>200	n.a.
12	despyrrole 11	>200	n.a.
13	pyrrolomorpholine 12	>200	n.a.
14	hydrolysis product 13	>200	n.a.
15	2-deoxy-D-ribose	>200	n.a.
For Table 1:
aCells were treated with compound (0-200 μM) under normal (5.6 mM) or high (30 mM) glucose conditions and overall ROS levels were measured using the fluorescent probe DCFH-DA (50 μM).
bData are expressed as mean IC50 of three independent experiments, each performed in triplicate, with the standard deviation of the log IC50 shown in brackets.
cStatistical significance relative to untreated cells under high-glucose conditions was assessed using a two-tailed unpaired Student t-test with 95% confidence intervals;
***p ≤ 0.001.
dN-acetyl-cysteine (1 mM) was used as a positive control.

Antioxidant Activity Assays

The inhibitory effects of the pyrrolomorpholine spiroketals on high glucose-induced oxidative stress were evaluated in rat mesangial cells (RMC). The rat mesangial cells, obtained from the American Type Culture Collection (CRL-2573), were cultured at 37° C. in Dulbecco's modified Eagle's medium (DMEM) containing 5.6 mM glucose (normal glucose), 10% fetal calf serum (FCS), nonessential amino acids, penicillin/streptomycin under a humidified atmosphere of 95% air and 5% CO₂. Rat mesangial cells were seeded in 96-well plates approximately 24 hours before the start of all experiments. For more details on the antioxidant activity assays, see, e.g., Wang et al. Free Radical Biol. Med. 1999, 27, 612-616; Magalhães et al. Anal. Chim. Acta. 2008, 613, 1-19; Peng et al. Org. Lett. 2010, 12, 4932-4935; Hung et al. Am. J. Nephrol. 2009, 29, 192-202.

For each experiment, rat mesangial cells were incubated with pyrrolomorpholine spiroketal compound (0.01, 0.03, 0.1, 0.3, 1, 3, 10, 30, 100, 200 μM) or 1 mM N-acetyl cysteine (NAC, positive control) in the presence of either 5.6 mM (normal glucose, NG) or 30 mM (high glucose, HG) D-glucose for 3 h. RMC were then incubated with 50 μM dichloro-dihydro-fluorescein diacetate (DCFH-DA) for 45 min, and intracellular production of ROS was detected by 2′,7′-dichlorofluorescein (DCF) fluorescence (485 nm excitation, 530 emission) as measured by a microplate reader (SpectraMax M5/M5, Molecular Devices). Values are expressed as percentage of ROS inhibition, where fluorescence from untreated cells under normal glucose conditions was set at 0% and untreated cells under high glucose conditions was set at 100%.

The MTT viability assay was performed in every experiment to assess the cellular toxicity of each compound. The results showed that all compounds were non-toxic up to 200 μM over 72 h (data not shown). In addition, cell viability was evaluated by trypan blue exclusion test, which indicated that all compounds were non-toxic up to 200 μM over 72 h.

EQUIVALENTS AND SCOPE

Text here. In the claims articles such as “a,” “an,” and “the” may mean one or more than one unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. Claims or descriptions that include “or” between one or more members of a group are considered satisfied if one, more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process unless indicated to the contrary or otherwise evident from the context. The invention includes embodiments in which exactly one member of the group is present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process. The invention includes embodiments in which more than one, or all of the group members are present in, employed in, or otherwise relevant to a given product or process.

Furthermore, the invention encompasses all variations, combinations, and permutations in which one or more limitations, elements, clauses, and descriptive terms from one or more of the listed claims is introduced into another claim. For example, any claim that is dependent on another claim can be modified to include one or more limitations found in any other claim that is dependent on the same base claim. Where elements are presented as lists, e.g., in Markush group format, each subgroup of the elements is also disclosed, and any element(s) can be removed from the group. It should it be understood that, in general, where the invention, or aspects of the invention, is/are referred to as comprising particular elements and/or features, certain embodiments of the invention or aspects of the invention consist, or consist essentially of, such elements and/or features. For purposes of simplicity, those embodiments have not been specifically set forth in haec verba herein. It is also noted that the terms “comprising” and “containing” are intended to be open and permits the inclusion of additional elements or steps. Where ranges are given, endpoints are included. Furthermore, unless otherwise indicated or otherwise evident from the context and understanding of one of ordinary skill in the art, values that are expressed as ranges can assume any specific value or sub-range within the stated ranges in different embodiments of the invention, to the tenth of the unit of the lower limit of the range, unless the context clearly dictates otherwise.

This application refers to various issued patents, published patent applications, journal articles, and other publications, all of which are incorporated herein by reference. If there is a conflict between any of the incorporated references and the instant specification, the specification shall control. In addition, any particular embodiment of the present invention that falls within the prior art may be explicitly excluded from any one or more of the claims. Because such embodiments are deemed to be known to one of ordinary skill in the art, they may be excluded even if the exclusion is not set forth explicitly herein. Any particular embodiment of the invention can be excluded from any claim, for any reason, whether or not related to the existence of prior art.

Those skilled in the art will recognize or be able to ascertain using no more than routine experimentation many equivalents to the specific embodiments described herein. The scope of the present embodiments described herein is not intended to be limited to the above Description, but rather is as set forth in the appended claims. Those of ordinary skill in the art will appreciate that various changes and modifications to this description may be made without departing from the spirit or scope of the present invention, as defined in the following claims.

Claims

1. A compound of Formula (I):

2-3. (canceled)

4. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

5-6. (canceled)

7. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

8-9. (canceled)

10. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

11-12. (canceled)

13. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

14-15. (canceled)

16. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

17-18. (canceled)

19. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

20-21. (canceled)

22. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is of the formula:

23. The compound of claim 1, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

24-27. (canceled)

28. A compound of Formula (II):

29-38. (canceled)

39. The compound of claim 28, wherein the compound is selected from the group consisting of:

40. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein s is 1.

41. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein p is 1.

42. (canceled)

43. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R1 is —OR1a.

44. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R2 is —OR2a.

45-49. (canceled)

50. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein n is 0.

51. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein R3 is —ORO or hydrogen.

52-56. (canceled)

57. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein m is 0 or 1.

58. The compound of claim 1, or the pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, wherein at least one instance of R5 is optionally substituted acyl.

59-62. (canceled)

63. A pharmaceutical composition comprising a compound of claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, and a pharmaceutically acceptable excipient.

64. A method for treating a disease in a subject, the method comprising administering to the subject a compound of claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof; wherein the disease is a metabolic disorder, renal disease, proliferative disease, inflammatory disease, autoimmune disease, neurodegenerative disease, or cardiovascular disease.

65-72. (canceled)

73. A method for inhibiting the production or concentration of reactive oxygen species (ROS) and/or reactive nitrogen species (RNS) in a cell, biological sample, or subject; for inhibiting the activity of NADPH oxidase in a cell, biological sample, or subject; or for reducing oxidative stress in a cell, biological sample, or subject, the method comprising administering to the subject, or contacting the biological sample or cell, with a compound of claim 1, or a pharmaceutically acceptable salt thereof, or a pharmaceutical composition thereof.

74-93. (canceled)

94. A cosmetic composition comprising a compound of claim 1, or a salt thereof, and a cosmetically acceptable excipient.