Patent Grant
7672106
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
Not Applicable
1. Field of the Invention
This invention relates generally to electronic circuits for the controlled switching of high current loads and more particularly relates to controlling a solid state, smart, high side, high current, driver, that has internal current and temperature sensing, in a manner that it is enabled to switch incandescent lamps ON within a practical time interval.
2. Description of the Related Art
Convenient, energy efficient operation of electrical equipment, appliances and other electrical devices, such as flashers for periodically illuminating signaling or warning lights, often requires a switch for turning the device on and off. This is particularly important when multiple different devices are powered by a vehicle battery in order to minimize drain on the battery by permitting selected operation of only those devices that are currently being used. Some electrical devices are high power devices that draw large currents. For those, it is often desirable to control the switch that switches the high current from a low power electrical command signal. For this purpose, relays or power contactors were traditionally used. However, such devices have mechanical electrical contacts which are subject to corrosion and the possibility of having the contacts welded together and suffer from numerous other failure modes.
When solid state technology appeared, it was first applied to develop solid state switches that could be used for switching low currents associated with low power applications but the available solid state switching devices could not tolerate the higher currents of higher power loads. However, MOS/FET devices have more recently been developed that can switch currents on the order of a hundred amperes or more. These switching devices have thousands of MOS/FETs formed in an integrated circuit and connected in parallel so they each carry a small portion of the current and operate together as a high current, composite MOS/FET.
Additionally, modern integrated circuit technology also permits a variety of other circuits to be formed in the same integrated circuit to provide for operating, controlling and protecting the MOS/FETs. Because these associated circuits include digital logic and microcontrollers and include sensing circuits that can detect a variety of fault conditions and, in response to sensed conditions programmed into the digital control circuits, turn off the MOS/FETs in order to protect the integrated circuit module, the modules are called “smart”.
Consequently, the combination of the current switching MOS/FETs and their associated circuits provides high power switch modules that manufacturers can use to construct high power switches for applications in their field. In addition to the relatively high currents that each integrated circuit module can switch, manufacturers of high power switches can connect multiples of these integrated circuit modules in parallel to increase the maximum current their products can switch by a multiplier equal to the number of parallel modules. The use of these switching devices is increasing because there is no price differential between the older conventional contactors and the newer, smart, MOS/FET switches. A designer chooses the switches with the lowest drain to source resistance, RDS ON or RDS, because they give the lowest heat dissipation in the MOS/FETs.
A particularly useful type of power switching module is a smart, high side, high current driver. High side means that the power switching terminals are connected between the high side of the power source, such as the positive terminal of a battery, and the load being switched. The second terminal of the load is connected to a common power circuit ground. Such drivers also provide a terminal connected to an additional MOS/FET source which is part of a current mirror circuit that provides a current signal to an external circuit that is proportional to the load current. There are a few manufacturers who supply such modules such as a PROFET® BTS555 offered by Infineon Technologies. This first generation high current power switch module was designed to control a starting motor on a vehicle.
The next step in the evolution of the high power MOS/FET high side drivers was current limiting. An additional MOS/FET source is used for an additional current minor to provide a sensed current signal to the internal control circuitry of the high side driver that is proportional to the load current. Such high side drivers have a digital logic control input that can be controlled by external logic circuitry, such as a microcontroller, which commands the driver to an ON state or an OFF state. The internal control circuits and the high current switching MOS/FETs can be on one integrated circuit or, more commonly, on multiple integrated circuits that are wired together. The high side driver is permanently grounded and power is permanently applied to it to power its control circuitry. Consequently, the internal control circuit of such high side drivers is able to continuously sense the output load current and modulate the load current by varying the gate voltage including switching OFF the load current by clamping the gate to zero in response to detected fault conditions.
In addition to current sensing and current limiting, the second generation high side drivers also have temperature sensors that have an output connected to their internal control circuit for sensing the temperature of the MOS/FETs and controlling the load current. Consequently, their control circuits are able to modulate or turn OFF the load current as a function of this temperature and thereby also protect the high side driver from excessive temperatures.
An example of a prior art high side driver is a VND5004-E sold by STMicroelectronics. This driver has a minimum 4 milliohms RDS ON and its circuit is illustrated in
High side drivers of this type also have terminals for connecting the driver to external circuitry. The VND5004-E driver has outputs 16 and 18, one for each of its two switching circuits, for connection to separate loads or the same load. It also has control inputs 20 and 22 for respectively controlling each of the high current, composite MOS/FETs 10 and 12. The other terminal of a load is connected to the power circuit ground. The power source, such as a 12 or 24 volt vehicle battery, is connected to a battery terminal 24 and the other power source terminal 26 is connected to the power circuit ground. The VND5004-E driver has a pair of sensing or diagnostic terminals 28 and 30 which are outputs of internal current minor circuits. Each diagnostic terminal provides an output current that is proportional to the load current through its associated composite MOS/FET 10 and 12 respectively. Another current minor circuit for each MOS/FET is used for sensing the same output load currents but provides its output signal to the internal logic of the high side driver. Each current mirror circuit utilizes a few of the large number of individual MOS/FETs formed in the integrated circuit of the high side driver. A current minor circuit is well known in the art and, as applied to the drivers, the drains of all the individual MOS/FETs are connected together and most of the sources of the individual MOS/FETs are connected to the main output load terminal 16 or 18 for switching the high load current. A few of the sources, however, are instead used for the current minor circuits and connected to the sensing terminals 28 and 30 or to provide the internal feedback load current signal. As known in the art, a current mirror circuit provides a current that is proportional to the load current through the majority of MOS/FETs that conduct the load current through the driver.
The operation of the VND5004-E driver provides an example of the operation of the second generation drivers. The internal logic control circuits provide generally the following protective functions. In the event that the internal current sensor detects an overload current that exceeds a selected maximum current limit ILIMH, such as 100 amps for example, the internal control logic decreases the voltage applied to the MOS/FET gates to maintain the current at the maximum limit. Unfortunately, this increases the drain to source resistance RDS which results in more heat dissipation in the MOS/FETs. Because the current equals the applied source voltage divided by the sum of the load resistance and the drain-source resistance RDS, in order to limit the current to a fixed current limit, the less the resistance of the load, the greater must be the drain-source resistance RIDS. Therefore, when the driver is operating at a particular current limit, the less the resistance of the load, the greater the heat dissipation in the MOS/FETs.
Because the internal control circuit of the driver also senses MOS/FET temperature, in the event that the sensed temperature exceeds a maximum temperature TTSD, the internal control logic shorts the MOS/FET gate to ground and thereby opens the MOS/FETs to a non-conductive, high resistance state. Consequently, if a MOS/FET gets too hot, the high side driver is shut down by its own associated, internal control circuitry before the driver is damaged.
Additionally, the second generation drivers are programmed to turn the MOS/FETs back on after their temperature drops to an intermediate temperature TR as a result of heat transfer by conduction from the MOS/FETs through heat sinks and into the surrounding environment. However, under the described conditions, the MOS/FETs are turned back on at a reduced maximum current limit ILIML, such as 40 amps, for example. Thereafter, if the MOS/FET temperature again rises to the maximum temperature TTSD, the MOS/FETs are again shut down to a non-conductive, high resistance state to stop all current flow. Then, when the temperature again falls below the intermediate temperature TR the MOS/FETs are again turned on but again at the reduced maximum current limit ILIML. This operation then repeats unless and until the temperature sensors detect that the MOS/FETs have cooled to a lower temperature TRS. This reduced current limit is imposed by reducing the MOS/FET gate voltage which, as previously mentioned, results in an increased drain to source resistance RDS and more dissipation of electrical energy as heat in the MOS/FET. This increased drain to source resistance RDS is greater than the specified minimum drain to source resistance, such as the 0.004 ohms described above, and therefore dissipates more heat in the MOS/FETs than would an RDS equal to the minimum RDS.
There is an important reason that the high side driver is programmed to limit the current to a lower current limit ILIML following the detection of an excessive temperature above the shut down temperature TTSD. In order to optimize the usefulness of the driver, it is desirable to have the broadest range of normal operating conditions; i.e. the highest current limit and the highest permissible temperature of operation. However, silicon is brittle and if repeatedly cycled between wide temperature extremes, it will eventually be damaged (e.g. crystal fracture) and become inoperable. The larger the temperature differential over which the device cycles, the shorter the lifetime of the device. In order to maximize the current limitation, the internal control circuit of the driver initially turns the driver ON at its maximum current limit ILIMH. The internal control circuit turns it OFF if the temperature reaches the maximum temperature TTSD. However, the driver control circuit thereafter allows it to cool to an intermediate temperature TR but then limits its load current to a lower current limit ILIML in order to protect the driver. Consequently, the temperature algorithm used by the internal control circuit has multiple temperature levels so the MOS/FETs will cycle between two, not so extreme temperatures after its temperature has exceeded its maximum temperature TTSD. So, in summary, in order to get the broadest range of operating characteristics, the device first applies its highest current limit ILIMH, such as the 100 amp current limit of the VND5004A-E, which, under most and/or normal conditions will not be exceeded or cause an overtemperature. However, once the control circuit of the driver turns the driver OFF as a result of an excessive temperature, it then goes to a much lower current limit and turns the driver back ON when the MOS/FET temperature falls to an intermediate level in order to prevent cycling between excessive temperature extremes so as to reduce the mechanical stress on the silicon device.
If the driver is controlling the current through any fixed impedance load, the above-described operation works fine. If a dead short is applied to the load terminals, the internal control circuit switches the load OFF and also protects driver because there are no excessive currents.
However, there is a problem when a high side driver having this control algorithm is applied to controlling the current through incandescent lamps, such as, for example, the incandescent lamps on a motor vehicle. Some motor vehicles have large numbers of incandescent lamps, particularly emergency vehicles, such as ambulances, emergency medical service vehicles or fire trucks. Not only do they often have a large number of lamps, but they also have high power, high light intensity lamps. Such emergency motor vehicles typically are equipped with many exterior lamps for signaling the presence of the vehicle, interior lamps for lighting their interior work areas and lamps for illuminating areas outside and around the vehicle. One example of a switching module that advantageously uses a smart, high side driver is a flasher for the exterior signal lights of an emergency motor vehicle. Its function is to turn the lights ON and OFF in a periodic manner to increase the visibility of the vehicle and heighten the awareness of its presence and movement by nearby motorists. The problem is that the second generation, smart, high side drivers of the type described are unable to turn on many of the incandescent lamp loads presented by such vehicles within a useful time interval. For example, for some banks of lamps, the incandescent lamps may take on the order of a minute to be turned on by the driver. For some lamps with an even higher power demand, the lamps can never be turned on by the high side driver using the above-described control algorithm.
It is therefore an object and feature of the invention to provide a circuit and a method of operating smart, high side drivers of the type described so that the drivers are able to turn on loads that include incandescent lamps (or other electrical loads that have a similar characteristic) that interact with the high side driver to prevent the driver from turning on the load within an acceptable and practical time interval.
In briefest summary, the invention is a circuit and method for controlling the high side driver by (1) sensing the driver's output state, (2) applying an OFF command to the driver's control input following shut down of the high side driver by its own internal control circuit as a result of the sensed MOS/FET temperature reaching its shutdown temperature TTSD, (3) holding the driver OFF to force an extended cool down for a selected cooling time interval, and (4) then applying an ON command to the driver's control input. The selected cooling time interval is empirically determined for each high side driver model and is at least sufficient to allow the MOS/FET temperature to cool to its thermal reset status temperature TRS which is the temperature below which the driver operates with its highest current limit kiwi when it is turned back ON by an ON command at its control input. This avoids the programmed pattern of switching ON/OFF at the lower current limit ILIML.
The method of the invention is a method for controlling a solid state, smart, high side driver for controlling the application of electrical power from a DC electrical source to a load when the load has a transient characteristic that the load increases in electrical impedance following the application of power to the load. The high side driver has overcurrent and driver temperature sensing and protection circuits, a control input terminal for applying an ON state or an OFF state command to the high side driver and a power output terminal for connection to the electrical load. The method of the invention comprises:
(a) sensing the output terminal of the high side driver for detecting that the high side driver has turned to an OFF state; and
(b) in response to the coexistence of an ON command applied to the control input of the high side driver and the output terminal of the high side driver switching to an OFF state, applying an OFF command to the control input of the high side driver, maintaining the OFF command at the control input of the high side driver for a selected cooling time interval, and applying an ON command to the control input of the high side driver after the selected cooling time interval.
The apparatus of the invention is an electronic switch for controlling the application of electrical power from a DC electrical source to a load, the load having a transient characteristic that the load increases in electrical resistance following the application of power to the load. The electronic switch comprises:
(a) a solid state, smart, high side driver having overcurrent and driver temperature sensing and protection circuits, a control input terminal for applying an ON state command or an OFF state command and a power output terminal for connection to the electrical load, the high side driver including an internal control circuit having stored instructions causing the driver (i) in response to an ON command continuously applied to its control input, to switch to an ON state at a higher current limit ILIMH if the driver's sensed temperature does not exceed a lower, reset status temperature TRS, (ii) in the absence of an OFF command, to protectively switch to an OFF state if its sensed temperature exceeds a thermal shutdown temperature TTSD, and (iii) in the absence of an OFF command, to switch to an ON state at a lower current limit ILIML if its temperature falls from the thermal shutdown temperature TTSD to an intermediate reset temperature TR; and
(b) a solid state, digital logic, control circuit externally of the high side driver and having at least one external control input for application of an OFF command or an ON command, an output connected to the control input of the high side driver and an input connected to the power output terminal of the high side driver for sensing the ON and OFF state of the output of the high side driver, the external digital controller having stored instructions causing the external controller, in the absence of an OFF command at the external control input, (i) to apply an OFF command to the input terminal of the high side driver in response to sensing that the high side driver has turned to an OFF state, (ii) to maintain the OFF command at the input terminal of the high side driver for a selected cooling time interval, and (iii) to apply an ON command to the input terminal of the high side driver after the selected time interval.
In describing the preferred embodiment of the invention which is illustrated in the drawings, specific terminology will be resorted to for the sake of clarity. However, it is not intended that the invention be limited to the specific term so selected and it is to be understood that each specific term includes all technical equivalents which operate in a similar manner to accomplish a similar purpose. For example, the word connected or term similar thereto are often used. They are not limited to direct connection, but include connection through other circuit elements where such connection is recognized as being equivalent by those skilled in the art. In addition, many circuits are illustrated which are of a type which perform well known operations on electronic signals. Those skilled in the art will recognize that there are many, and in the future may be additional, alternative circuits which are recognized as equivalent because they provide the same operations on the signals.
I have found that the high side driver is unable to turn on incandescent lamps within a practical time interval, if the lamps have a significant power demand, because of an interaction between a particular electrical characteristic of incandescent lamps, or other loads having the same characteristic, and the above-described control algorithm or programmed process for protecting the high side driver. This characteristic of incandescent lamps is illustrated in
From that characteristic it is easy to see that a lamp or a connected set of lamps can have a steady state operating current that is lower than the maximum current limit ILIMH of a high side driver MOS/FET, but have an initial inrush current, in the absence of current limiting, that not only exceeds that current limit ILIMH, but also quickly causes the driver to overheat and be shut down by its internal control circuit. For example, a set of lamps that have a normal operating current of 50 amps and are driven by a high side driver with a 100 amp higher current limit ILIMH, might have an initial inrush current of 500 or 1000 amps. Although the response of a high side driver of the type described above will be described in more detail below, this extraordinarily high current may typically cause the MOS/FETs to reach their maximum shut down temperature TTSD within, for example, 1 to 5 milliseconds and be shut down by the internal control circuit. At that point the lamps have not been heated significantly, their resistance will not have increased significantly, and therefore, when power is next applied to the lamps, the inrush current would not be much less than the first inrush current, except for current limiting imposed by the driver. When the MOS/FETs are again turned ON but with the lower current limit ILIML and higher drain-source resistance RDS, as described above, the lower current limit results in less heating power being applied to heat the lamps, the MOS/FETs will soon again reach the maximum shut down temperature TTSD and the MOS/FETs will again be shut down. The result is that, when the incandescent lamps are switched by a high side driver of the typed described, the lamps are powered by an initial current pulse at the higher current limit ILIMH followed by a series of current pulses at the lower current limit ILIML.
That series of current pulses applied to the incandescent lamps produces one of multiple results. If the initial inrush current is less than the maximum current limit ILIMH, the lamps will come on normally and the invention is unnecessary. If the initial inrush current exceeds the maximum current limit ILIMH AND enough power is dissipated in the lamp filaments from each current pulse to replace the heat lost by the filaments between the pulses and to additionally heat the filaments further, then the filaments will eventually be heated to a sufficiently high temperature and high resistance that the current becomes low enough that the driver can, eventually, continuously power the lamps. Unfortunately, the length of time required is often too long for practical use. For example a vehicle light flasher that requires a minute to turn the lamps fully on is of no practical value. Furthermore, if the initial inrush current exceeds the maximum current limit ILIMH AND enough power is NOT dissipated in the lamp filaments from each current pulse at the lower current limit ILIML to replace the heat lost by the filaments between the pulses and also heat the filaments further, then the filaments will never be heated to a sufficiently high temperature and resistance that the driver can continuously power the lamps. The lamps are never illuminated.
Incandescent lamps are not the only type of electrical load that exhibits this problematic characteristic that is illustrated in
The high side driver 40 of the switching module also has an external control circuit 48 for controlling the driver 40 in a way that takes advantage of the high current and protective capabilities of the high side driver, but also controls the driver in a way that allows the driver to heat up the lamps to a steady state temperature and full illumination intensity in considerably less time than the driver 40 alone is able to do. An output of the external control circuit 48 is connected to the control input C of the driver 40. The external control circuit 48 has conventional manual inputs 52 for human control of the lamps and may also have other inputs 54 from other circuits. As known to those skilled in the art, these inputs can have a variety of intermediate circuits and devices upstream of the external control circuit 48.
As also illustrated in
As is apparent to those skilled in the art, the energy applied to the lamps for heating the filaments is proportional to the area under the load current pulses. Looking at the current pulses in
In the conventional control of the high side driver, the control input of the high side driver is simply commanded ON or OFF to turn the driver ON or OFF as the load is intended to be ON or OFF. This results in the inability of the high side driver to turn on high power incandescent loads for the reasons explained above. However, because the power source is continuously powering the control circuitry of the driver 40, its control input can be switched and its internal circuitry will respond regardless of whether the driver 40 is in an ON state or an OFF state.
The invention uses this opportunity by modulating the control input of the high side driver while the incandescent lamps are being warmed up. The invention forces a cool down time interval whenever the driver is shut down as a result of its temperature rising to TTSD. This cooling time interval is made long enough to avoid the switching and oscillating of the driver between its ON and OFF states at the low current ILIML as illustrated between times t5 and t8 in
The apparatus of the invention uses a high side driver of the type described and that is programmed so that, in response to an ON command continuously applied to the driver's control input, the driver switches to an ON state at a higher current limit ILIMH if the driver's sensed temperature does not exceed a lower, reset status temperature TRS, the driver switches to an OFF state if its sensed temperature exceeds a thermal shutdown temperature TTSD, and the driver switches to an ON state at a lower current limit ILIML if its temperature falls from the thermal shutdown temperature TTSD to an intermediate temperature TR.
Describing the method in more detail, the invention is a method for controlling a solid state, smart, high side driver for controlling the application of electrical power from a DC electrical source to a load when the load has a transient characteristic that the load increases in electrical impedance following the application of power to the load. The high side driver used with the method has overcurrent and temperature sensing and protection circuits, a control input terminal for applying an ON state or an OFF state command to the high side driver and a power output terminal for connection to the electrical load.
The output terminal of the high side driver is sensed continuously for detecting when the high side driver has turned to an OFF state. The external control circuit of the switching module controls the high side driver and therefore has stored information on the state of the ON or OFF state of the digital command applied to the control input of the high side driver.
In response to the coexistence of an ON command applied to the control input of the high side driver and the output terminal of the high side driver switching to an OFF state, an OFF command is applied to the control input of the high side driver. This OFF command is maintained at the control input of the high side driver for a selected cooling time interval. An ON command is applied to the control input of the high side driver after the selected cooling time interval.
The method more specifically comprises maintaining the OFF command at the control input of the high side driver for a selected cooling time interval that is at least as long as a heat dissipation time required for the sensed temperature of the driver, while in an OFF state, to cool from its thermal shutdown temperature TTSD, to its reset status temperature TRS.
The length of the cooling time interval is essentially not a function of the load impedance or the load current that flows when the driver is in an ON state. The cooling time interval must be long enough for enough of the heat energy stored in the mass of the MOS/FET at shutdown temperature TTSD, to be transferred to the ambient environment that the MOS/FET temperature falls to the thermal reset of status temperature TRS. The time for sufficient heat transfer may be called the heat dissipation time. The temperature of the MOS/FETs is a function of (1) the electrical power dissipated as heat in the MOS/FET resistance RDS as a result of load current, and (2) the rate at which that heat is transferred to the ambient environment. However, when the MOS/FETs are turned OFF, no electrical energy is dissipated in them.
The temperature of the MOS/FETs is essentially the same TTSD each time the external control circuit turns the driver OFF from overheating. For each particular model of switching module that uses a high side driver, the mass in which the heat energy is stored at this temperature is also the same. Therefore, for each particular model of switching module, the heat energy that must be dissipated to the ambient environment is the same finite quantity of heat energy.
Therefore, the heat dissipation time is a function of the thermal resistance of the heat flow path to the ambient environment and the temperature differential between the MOS/FET and the ambient environment. The ambient temperature of the environment in which the driver is housed can vary widely between tropical and arctic regions and as a function of other heat generating equipment being located in close proximity and ventilation. The thermal resistance of the flow path is not affected by electrical operation but is a function of the package and heat sink structures. These structures will be different for each driver and for each switching module in which it is used but they do not change once being manufactured. Therefore, each driver and each model of switching module will have its own heat dissipation time which is independent of operating current. Consequently, the heat dissipation time required for the sensed temperature of the MOS/FETs, while in an OFF state, to cool from the thermal shutdown temperature TTSD, to the reset status temperature TRS is, for each particular model, essentially a function of the ambient temperature of the switching module.
This allows the minimum length of the cooling time interval to be determined empirically from experimentation. The experiments are preferably performed at the highest ambient temperature which is expected to be encountered in applications of the model of switching module being tested. Under this experimental condition, a switching module of a particular design is experimentally operated at a plurality of different cooling time intervals. Preferably, a first cooling time on the order of 1 millisecond is stored in the external control circuit and the circuit is operated to determine whether, after the cooling time interval, the driver applies a current pulse at the higher current limit ILIMH or at the lower current limit ILIML. If the driver turns ON at the lower current limit ILIML, then a longer cooling time interval is stored and the procedure is repeated. The procedure is repeated by storing progressively longer selected cooling time intervals until the shortest cooling time interval is found after which the driver is turned on at its higher current limit ILIMH. That last cooling time interval is the heat dissipation time and becomes the minimum cooling time interval for the particular switching module.
However, because there is a variation in the characteristics of every solid state device from it nominal characteristics, and because it is good engineering practice to provide a safety factor, it is desirable to provide a cooling time interval that is longer than the heat dissipation time. I have found that the cooling time interval that should be stored in the external control circuit of the switching module is at least three times the experimentally measured heat dissipation time.
I have found that, for practical applications that I have designed, the OFF command at the control input of the high side driver is desirably maintained for a selected cooling time interval that is longer than its ON time and is within the range of 1 millisecond to 20 milliseconds. For some designs and applications the cooling time interval may be more, but, more commonly, the OFF command at the control input of the high side driver should be maintained for a selected cooling time interval that is within the range of 3 milliseconds to 8 milliseconds.
The fact that more power is coupled into the load can also be appreciated by considering the well known principle that the maximum power is transferred from a source to a load when the source and the load have the same impedance. The incandescent lamps have a very low resistance and therefore a very high inrush current during their critical start up. As previously stated, in order for the MOS/FETs to limit the current to a fixed current limit, the less the resistance of the load, the greater must be the drain-source resistance RDS. Therefore, during the start up of an incandescent lamp load that, in the absence of current limiting, would have an inrush current several multiples of the current limit of the MOS/FETs, any reduction of the drain-source resistance RDS would bring the impedance of the source and the impedance of the load nearer to equality. By controlling the high side driver so that all the current pulses are at the high current limit ILIMH, the invention operates the MOS/FETs at the least possible drain-source resistance RDS.
Returning to
The invention has been described in connection with the VND5004 family of high side drivers but another example of its application is to the VND920 family of high side drivers and relays. By “family” is meant variations which carry the same identification to designate the basic type of device but typically have additional alphanumeric characters to distinguish the family members from each other. The invention is also applicable to other devices which may have different alphanumeric identifications but have the same or only insubstantially different electrical properties.
Program for a MC908QY2 Microprocessor in External Control Circuit
This detailed description in connection with the drawings is intended principally as a description of the presently preferred embodiments of the invention, and is not intended to represent the only form in which the present invention may be constructed or utilized. The description sets forth the designs, functions, means, and methods of implementing the invention in connection with the illustrated embodiments. It is to be understood, however, that the same or equivalent functions and features may be accomplished by different embodiments that are also intended to be encompassed within the spirit and scope of the invention and that various modifications may be adopted without departing from the invention or scope of the following claims.
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 5336978 | Alessio | Aug 1994 | A |
| 6520279 | Fukumoto et al. | Feb 2003 | B2 |
| 6580219 | Jones et al. | Jun 2003 | B1 |
| 7304828 | Shvartsman | Dec 2007 | B1 |
| 20010024134 | Dubhashi et al. | Sep 2001 | A1 |
| 20010048367 | Wimmer et al. | Dec 2001 | A1 |
| 20020171985 | Duffy et al. | Nov 2002 | A1 |
| 20040120382 | Bennett et al. | Jun 2004 | A1 |
| 20040227476 | Guerra et al. | Nov 2004 | A1 |
| 20080262683 | Ward et al. | Oct 2008 | A1 |
| 20090002060 | Giandalia et al. | Jan 2009 | A1 |
| 20090080130 | Hein | Mar 2009 | A1 |
