Carbon capture and storage (CCS) is the capture and diversion of CO2 and subsequently storing CO2 safely instead of releasing it into the atmosphere. The application of CO2 capture and subsequent geological storage is a promising option to significantly reduce Greenhouse Gas emissions. Mineral carbonation involves the capture of carbon dioxide in a mineral form by its reaction with alkaline materials, composed of calcium and magnesium-rich oxides and silicates, leading to the formation of solid carbonate products.
Carbonation of alkaline minerals has been achieved by two approaches; direct gas solid and gas solid-liquid carbonation which are the simplest approaches, where Ca/Mg rich solids are carbonated in a single process step. The solid residues are reacted by direct interaction with CO2-containing gas. Indirect carbonation, usually through aqueous carbonation, consists of first extracting from the feedstock the reactive Mg/Ca oxide or hydroxide in one step and then, in a subsequent step, reacting the leached cations with CO2 to form the desired carbonate.
The following disclosure provides many different embodiments, or examples, for implementing different features of the provided subject matter. Specific examples of components, values, operations, materials, arrangements, or the like, are described below to simplify the present disclosure. These are, of course, merely examples and are not intended to be limiting. Other components, values, operations, materials, arrangements, etc., are contemplated. For example, the formation of a first feature over or on a second feature in the description that follows may include embodiments in which the first and second features are formed in direct contact and may also include embodiments in which additional features may be formed between the first and second features, such that the first and second features may not be in direct contact. In addition, the present disclosure may repeat reference numerals and/or letters in the various examples. This repetition is for the purpose of simplicity and clarity and does not in itself dictate a relationship between the various embodiments and/or configurations discussed.
Further, spatially relative terms, such as “beneath,” “below,” “lower,” “above,” “upper” and the like, may be used herein for ease of description to describe one element or feature's relationship to another element(s) or feature(s) as illustrated in the figures. The spatially relative terms are intended to encompass different orientations of the device in use or operation in addition to the orientation depicted in the figures. The apparatus may be otherwise oriented (rotated 90 degrees or at other orientations) and the spatially relative descriptors used herein may likewise be interpreted accordingly.
The present disclosure involves an integrated and fully controlled fluidized bed reactor for sequestration of carbon dioxide by mineral carbonation, and in one or more embodiments introduces innovative steps to the current traditional reactors to (a) fit the recent environmental applications, (b) optimize the required reaction time, (c) eliminate the need for additional thermal and mineralogical experiments required to determine carbon sequestration efficiency such as thermogravimetric analysis, and (d) ensure a sustainable use of CO2 during the application process.
The present disclosure also involves a mineral carbonation method and stabilization of industrial alkaline solid wastes by modifying traditionally used reactors. In one or more embodiments, one or more embodiments according to the present disclosure introduces the following added modifications and advantages:
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve a new design of gas distributor plate unit with different geometry distribution of holes that gives more than one scenario of gas flowing to the reactor; hence enhancing the reaction process.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve applying an automated system, SCADA, which provides an easier controlling and monitoring of affecting parameters such gas flow, temperature and pressure during the reaction and stabilization processes. The control panel, which has a SCADA system inside, ensures environment, health and safety aspects during operation via alarm system in case of emergency for any increase in temperature and pressure above set-points. It has also an air filter and cooling fan to keep electrical controlling components inside the control panel under the allowable operating temperature.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve providing a cyclone and dust collector to prevent fine solid particles from accompanying the gas before entering the gas analyzer.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve the connection of a gas analyzer device to the gas outlet stream where it reads the concentration of that stream. Hence, determination of optimum time needed to stop the reaction process and minimize energy use during both carbon sequestration and alkaline solid waste stabilization processes.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve sustainable use of operated CO2 gas through recycling/by-pass stream.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure introduce a phenomenological technique to identify optimum carbonation time and carbonation efficiency using data monitored by the gas analyzer as a function of time, experimental data, and theoretical equation without the need for additional thermo-mineralogical sets of experiments such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).
In one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, the method of carbon dioxide fixation in alkaline solid waste materials is accelerated. In this method, alkaline substances (CaO, MgO, K2O, Na2O, or the like) existing in the solid wastes are reacted with carbon dioxide in the integrated system to produce carbonates (CaCO3, MgCO3, Na2CO3, K2CO3, or the like) to fix the carbon dioxide emitted from natural and man-made sources.
One or more embodiments of the present disclosure provide an apparatus for carbon capture and sequestration, stabilization of alkaline solid wastes, and a phenomenological approach to identify optimum carbonation time and carbonation efficiency. The use of the new integrated, automated and controlled system shown in one or more embodiments of the present disclosure is the most promising way to reduce both the capital and operating costs for the mineral carbonation process. Based on researches done so far, traditional mineral carbonation methods show relatively high cost, which limits their application, because they include the cost of mining, pre-treatment, operational technologies of CO2 sequestration, and others that consume more effort, time and energy. The integrated, automated and controlled system according to one or more embodiments of the present disclosure offers an ideal route to the significant inexpensive technology that could be applied for CO2 sequestration and waste stabilization, where: (a) no need for grinding the waste stream because it is already in its fine particle sizes which are convenient for the CO2 sequestration, (b) no thermal energy consumption through the application of direct gas-solid carbonation in this innovative system since reaction is taking place at room temperature, (c) no external mechanical pressure source is required since the fluidization using the pressurized CO2 provides a well-mixed waste with maximum available exposed particles surface areas for reaction with CO2. In addition, as shown in one or more embodiments of the present disclosure, the reactor itself is fabricated with minimum cost when it is compared with its efficiency and added advantages due to the inclusion of multi-components such as: (a) newly designed gas distributor plate unit, (b) fully automated controlling and monitoring system, SCADA, which provides easier controlling and monitoring of affecting parameters, (c) cyclone and dust collector to prevent air pollution, and (d) connection of gas analyzer device to the gas outlet stream for accurate carbonation monitoring and optimum identification of carbonation time.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to better control gas flow and distribution within the reactor due to optimal design of gas flow holes distribution geometry of the gas distributor unit; hence, maximum interaction between gas and alkaline solid waste particles.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to control gas pressure inside the reactor while running experiments.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to control the entering gas flow rate to the reactor with a wide range up to 50 l/min with an accuracy of 0.1.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to control and apply uniformly distributed heat to the reactor quickly by an electrical heating source in a double jacket around the full height of the reactor.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to automatically monitor temperature along the reactor from 3 different positions along the reactor height.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to provide high level of gas purity before entering the reactor, (through 7 μm filter, and after leaving the reactor as there is direct interaction between gas and solid, through cyclone dust collector and storage container, and another 7 μm filter at the outlet stream.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to identify the optimum reaction time, which is required for direct gas-solid interaction (carbonation), by monitoring the outlet gas stream (unreacted CO2) using the gas analyzer.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to calculate carbonation efficiency using data from the identification of the optimum reaction time above and theoretical equation without the need to conduct thermo-mineralogical experiments such as thermogravimetric analysis (TGA).
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to identify the exact time to terminate the experiment based on information provided in the identification of the optimum reaction time above; hence, minimizing the operating cost and energy use.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to eliminate the needs for additional thermo-mineralogical testing to quantify the maximum carbonation and carbonation efficiency.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to automatically monitor temperature, pressure, flow rate and gas (CO2) concentration by automatic data acquisition system and computer software; hence enhancing data analysis capabilities.
One or more embodiments according to the present disclosure involve systems, devices and methods with the ability to environmentally sustain the use of CO2 gas stream through adsorption and by-pass units.
In some embodiments, the gas feed source 101 includes 6 components and is used to provide well-organized properties of a reaction gas feed to the reaction chamber 102. In some embodiments, the gas feed source is responsible to ensure that the gas feed is at desired pressure, flow rate and free from impurities. As shown by the embodiment of
As shown in the embodiments in
The reaction chamber 102, as shown in the embodiments in
As shown in the embodiments of
In some embodiments, the reaction chamber 102 also includes electrical heating element 10 installed around the outside wall of the reactor column 9 to provide an insulated rapid heating source to the reactor column. In some embodiments, the electrical heating element 10 has a double jacket shape. In some embodiments, the electrical heating element 10 has a maximum allowed temperature 200° C. after which an alarm starts buzzing. Nevertheless, the electrical heating element 10 can provide as much heat as electrical current can pass through. The limit of 200° C. was set in the design stage and can be adjusted as desired. In some embodiments, the electrical heating element 10 provides a maximum allowed temperature greater than 200° C.
In some embodiments, the reaction chamber 102 also includes thermocouple thermometers 11. As shown in the embodiments of
In some embodiments, the reaction column additionally includes differential pressure transmitter 13 to measure the pressure difference across the top and bottom of the reactor column 9. When solid particles are loaded inside the reactor column 9 they cause some resistance against the gas flow and so slightly reduce the pressure at the top. In some embodiments, the differential pressure transmitter 13 can read that small difference in (mm-H2O) unit. Such measurements can be employed to experimentally determine the minimum suspension velocity from the recorded change in pressure versus flow rate.
The reaction analyzer module 104, as shown in the embodiments of
As shown in the embodiment of
The reaction analyzer module 104 also includes a gas analyzer 21, as shown in
In some embodiments, a filter 19 is attached inline of the exit pipe exiting the cyclone separator 15 connecting to the gas analyzer 21. The filter 19 serves as an additional prevention apparatus to avoid any fine particle that may contaminate the gas stream before going for analyzing by the gas analyzer 21. In some embodiments, the filter has a size of 7 μm.
In some embodiments, another pressure valve 20 is installed between the cyclone separator 15 and the gas analyzer 21. A venting bypass is included on the gas pipe between the pressure valve 20 and the gas analyzer 21 to partially vent the outlet gas into the atmosphere. The pressure valve 20 is used to adjust the desired pressure inside the reactor and it controls the amount and flowrate of the leaving gas, which separate to two streams, one to be vented into the atmosphere, the other to the gas analyzer 21.
The control panel 103 includes power supply switches 22 to control the main power supply. In some embodiments, the power supply switches 22 includes two spin type switches one for the main power supply and the other for whole electrical components (boards) for safety purpose. A light of “Main Power on” 23 indicating that the main power is switched on and supplied through main switch can also be installed. Another light of “Unit Power Supply (UPS) on” 24 indicating that the power is supplied through UPS switch can also be installed. A light of alarm 25 is also included according to some embodiments. The light of alarm 25 will light up in case of any caution occurs during the operation. It's good to know that such cautions can be set by the operator based on conditions required for each experiment. For example: if the temperature of thermal heating element exceeds a set point (can vary based on each experiment conditions), the light of alarm 25 will light up and accompanied with alarm noise. In some embodiments, the control panel 103 also includes: a reset button 26 to reset all set values of all the controllers described in the subsequent paragraphs of the present disclosure into their default values and the current value of all the controller can also be adjusted and saved as new default values; a mute alarm button 27 to mute the alarm sounds accompanying the light of alarm 25; an emergency stop button 28, to terminate all heating and feeding of the reaction gas in an emergency case, an ammeter 29 to measure the value of electrical current flowing inside the electrical heating elements 10 of the reaction chamber 102, a fan 38 for cooling inside the panel, such fan is required to cool down the temperature of the inside the control panel as there are integrated electrical parts such as PLC's chips and boards; and/or air filter 39 to purify the air used for cooling by the fan 38 that comes from the ambient to inside the control panel while suctions.
The control panel 103 also includes a variety of controllers and indicators controlling and displaying reaction parameters for the carbonation reaction inside the reactor column 9 of the reaction chamber 102. In some embodiments, the control panel 103 includes a temperature controller and indicator 30 to adjust and measure the temperature of the electrical heating elements 10 of the reaction chamber 102. Several reactor column temperature indicators 31-33 are also included according to some embodiments. These temperature indicators 31-33 each respectively display the temperature reading of the thermocouple thermometers 11 at their respective position along the reactor column 9. For example, as shown in the embodiment of
In some embodiments, the control panel 103 also include several pressure indicators 34, 35. As shown in
In some embodiments, the control panel 103 includes a mass flow rate controller and monitor 36 to control the mass control valve 5 through electric signals to select a value of the flow rate of the gas stream from the gas feed source 101. The monitor 36 can also display such selected flow rate. In some embodiments, the flow rate has the unit of liter/min. In some embodiments, the controller 36 can select flow rates from a range of 0-50 liter/min with an accuracy of 0.1 liter/min. In some embodiments, the mass flow rate controller 36 is controlled by a computer having a SCADA system to automatically adjust the flow rate of the gas stream from the gas feed source 101.
The operation conditions of the integrated system 100 involves a variety of parameters which, in some embodiments, includes but not limited to: (a) waste type, quantity and humidity, (b) reaction chamber temperature and pressure, (c) gas flow rate and distribution, and (d) time required to finalize the carbonation. It is important to note that these parameters are not intended to be limiting and some of these parameters can be removed, and additional parameters can be introduced based on the nature of the reaction conducted. Table 1 shows an example of conditions used in some experiment conducted to provide examples of the phenomenological method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 described in subsequent paragraphs of the present disclosure.
The embodiments of the integrated system 100 as disclosed in the present disclosure is used to perform a phenomenological method for conducting carbonation reaction under optimum reaction parameters. Utilization of the new integrated controlled system is the most promising way to reduce both the capital and operating costs for mineral carbonation processes.
The method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 includes a step of pre-treating any solid alkaline metal wastes to be used for the reaction. At the start of carbon capture and storage (CCS) planning, it is important to know what types of waste are generated, and what about the alkalinity, particle size, chemical structure, and the mineralogical composition. This information is crucial to the development of the key strategies and components of CCS plan. As disclosed in the present disclosure, the collected solid waste is pretreated before running the carbonation process by removing coarse solid particles from the fine particles during sieving analysis 1002, hydration through mixing with water 1004 and 1006, followed by drying 1008 and fractionation of the solid particles using a certain sieve sizes 1010 and reacting with CO2 1012, as described clearly in the previous author's U.S. Pat. No. 8,721,785 B2 the subject matter of which is incorporated herein in its entirety, and indicated in
Direct gas-solid carbonation reaction of the pretreated solid wastes is carried out in the integrated system 100. The concentration of captured CO2 by solid wastes is instantaneously measured using a gas analyzer 21. Readings are taken automatically via a computer having professional data acquisition program such as LabVIEW and/or a SCADA system. After the allotted reaction period, the reactor column 9 is opened, and the carbonated solid wastes are discharged for analyses.
The method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 also includes a step of determining a reaction rate for the carbonation reaction. In the following examples, experiments were run in reactor column 9 where solid particles moved with similar velocity of the entering gas causing particle suspension/fluidization. Fluidization condition is generally occurred when small solid particles are suspended in an upward flowing stream of liquid or gas; hence creating excellent mixing environment. The equation that relates the controlling parameters of that fluidization process is generally expressed by Ergun equation (Fogler 1981; Kunii and Levenspiel 2013) as shown below:
where: ΔP is the gas pressure difference across bottom and top of the reactor, L is the height of the loaded solid particle inside the reactor, μ is dynamic viscosity of the liquid/gas, V0 is velocity of liquid/gas, Dp is particle size of the solid, ε is void fraction, ρg is density of liquid/gas.
There are many other developed semi-empirical correlations, which relate physical properties of both solid and fluid (liquid/gas), used to specify the flow rate required to operate the fluidization process.
To deal with the mixing between CO2 gas and solid waste particles (fluidization process), it is necessary to measure the appropriate operational flow rate (minimum fluidization velocity) for solid particles using the designed transparent reactor column 9 (that has the same dimensions as the steel one) by plotting pressure drop change across the loaded solid waste particles versus the flow rate as shown in
The method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 also includes a step to determine a carbonation time for the carbonation reaction. Mineral carbonation time is the time taken for fixation of CO2 by alkali and alkaline-earth oxide. Using the gas analyzer 21, carbonation time can be directly determined, either manually or by the SCADA system. The gas analyzer 21 indicates the concentration of unreacted CO2 that passes through loaded solid waste particles inside the reactor column 9 while running the carbonation reaction. The carbonation time is calculated experimentally from the curve of CO2 consumed concentration versus time as shown in
As an example, based on the experimental data shown in
In some embodiments, the reaction parameters can be set manually through the control panel 103. In some embodiments however, the method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 include a step wherein a computer having a SCADA system automatically controls the mass control valve 5 to adjust the flow rate of the gas feed to be corresponding to the determined optimum reaction time as described in previous paragraphs of the present disclosure. Additionally, in some embodiments, the SCADA system can also control the pressure valve 20 to adjust the pressure of the outlet gas from the reactor column 9 to correspond to a desired pressured. In some embodiments, the desired pressure can also be determined automatically by the SCADA system as described in subsequent paragraphs of the present disclosure. Also, in some embodiments, the SCADA system can also control the electrical heating elements to correspond to a desired reaction temperature. In some embodiments, the desired pressure is also determined automatically by the SCADA system as described in subsequent paragraphs of the present disclosure.
In some embodiments, the method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 includes a step to determine the total amount of CO2 captured/consumed. The curve of CO2 consumed concentration versus time as shown in
The physio-chemical properties of solid wastes also have an effect on carbonation time. As the alkaline solid wastes are provided from different industrial factories, the physical and chemical properties are varied. Table 2 shows three of selected wastes used as an example. All alkaline metal wastes can be used in the present disclosure and the information in Table 2 is not intended to be limiting. The cumulative grain size distributions of these solid waste particles were determined by sieving analysis, the cumulative grain size distribution was ranging from 1000 to 38 μm (Table 3). The chemical composition of freshly tested wastes was characterized using ICP-AES, as shown in Table 4.
Since fluidization occurs whenever a collection of particles is subjected to upward fluid flow at enough flow rate where the gravity and inter-particle forces are in counterbalance with the fluid drag force, as described in Horio, 2013, it was reported in the literatures that minimum fluidization velocity is linearly proportional with particle size. Table 5 indicates the flow rate with CKD solid particles is significantly lower than that accompanied with CLW and LF slag because it contains most of the particle size in the range of 75 to less than 38 μm. Table 5 also shows that the carbonation time and CO2 captured are directly proportional to the presence of the alkaline oxide contents in the solid waste. This is because alkaline metals are the preferable active centers for reaction with CO2 than other oxides. The carbonation time and CO2 captured in case of CLW confirm this explanation.
In some embodiments, the method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 includes a step determining a reaction pressure for the carbonation reaction. In some embodiments, carbonation of solid waste particles under different levels of pressure was established using the integrated system. In some embodiments, the required pressure level can be adjusted either manually by the gas regulator 2 or automatically by the SCADA system which controls the pressure 20. In some embodiment the SCADA system automatically record the pressure value reading of the pressure indicator 34. In some embodiments, the pressure of feed gas is larger than the required operated one by at least 1 bar.
In some embodiments, the method for conducting carbonation reaction of solid mineral waste particles using the integrated system 100 includes a step determining a reaction temperature for the carbonation reaction. For example, carbonation of solid waste particles for Ladle Furnace (LF) slag under different temperature levels: 25, 50, 100, and 150° C. is carried out and the result is shown in
After the allotted reaction period, the reactor was opened and the carbonated solid was removed for its weight determination and further physical analyses using the following instruments: (a) Inductively Coupled Plasma-Atomic Emission (ICP) Spectrometry (ICP-AES) simultaneous to determine the alkali metals and heavy metals, (b) Thermal gravimetric analysis (Perkin Elmer TGA7) to determine sample weight changes as a function of temperature at a heating rate of 20° C./min, (c) Philips x-ray diffractometer model PW/1840 to determine the mineral composition of treated samples, and (d) Scanning Electron Microscope (SEM) with Energy Dispersive X-ray (EDX) to inspect the topographies and chemical composition of the stabilized wastes.
Water extraction process was used to remove easily soluble salts from the tested solid wastes. Water and solid wastes, at liquid to solid ratio (L/S) of 10 l/kg, were mixed for 15 min and the solid residues were separated by filtration over a 0.45 μm membrane filter. The pH and total dissolved solids (TDS) of the filtrate were analyzed by ICP for selected elements. It is to be noted that for alkaline solid wastes, residues with a native pH value of greater than 10 typically contain portlandite (Ca(OH)2), which controls the solubility of calcium ions and the pH of solution. The differences in the physical and chemical properties of waste solutions before and after carbonation process are shown in Table 8, which indicates reduction in pH and TDS due to consumption of soluble metal oxides and formation of insoluble carbonates. During precipitation, the pH, conductivity and TDS values gradually decreased due to the growth of calcium carbonate.
The leached concentrations of the metals and heavy metals from carbonated solid waste materials is tested using the leaching test. Metal ion leaching before and after carbonation of solid waste is carried out in accordance with British Standard BS EN12457: 2002, which is designed to examine the short-term and the long-term leaching behavior for landfills. Tables 9a to 9c show the level of contaminants in the three tested wastes before and after carbonation. The results indicated the reduced toxicity of the solid wastes due to the stabilization form of the toxic metals in the carbonated form.
The total amount of captured (consumed) CO2 by solid waste materials are calculated by applying two different methods through using different analyzing devices; gas analyzer 21 and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). In the first method, CO2 captured is calculated by employing the gas analyzer 21 readings, which generate a plot of instantaneous consumed CO2 concentrations. Therefore, the integration (the area under the curve) along the time represents the numerical value of the total consumed amount as described in previous paragraphs of the present disclosure. It is to be noted that a conversion factor is used for each experiment to convert the CO2 concentration unit from [% v/v] into [g/min] by multiplying the readings by the constant flow rate [l/min] and the density of CO2.
In the second calculation method, data from thermogravimetric analysis (TGA) were used. Depending on thermal analysis TGA, three major weight fractions obtained are 25-105° C. for the moisture, 105-500° C. for organic elemental carbon and 500-1000° C. for inorganic carbon (carbonates). The weight fraction of the TGA curve (Δm500-1000° C.) based on dry weight (m105° C.) is represented as the calcium carbonate content, expressed in terms of CO2 (wt. %), as shown by Eq. [2]:
Given that the amount of CO2 stored in the waste in the form of carbonates has come from the carbonation process during the specific time. TGA analysis of samples after carbonation gives the total amount of carbonates present in the sample at both its original state (i.e., in fresh sample, before carbonation) and that resulted from chemical reactions with CO2 gas. So, the actual carbonated amount is the result of subtracting the percentage of that already existed from the total as shown in Table 10.
Table 11 displays a comparison between the calculated CO2 captured using gas analyzer 21 and thermogravimetric analysis (TGA). There is understandable difference between the two methods of calculations due to: (a) the sample size used for TGA analysis does not represent the total population of particles reacted with CO2 within the reactor; hence the calculated CO2 consumed (reacted) will be less than the actual amounts, and (b) the experimentally determined CO2 consumed using gas analyzer 21 does represent the actual reacting media within the reactor as function of time, and accounts for both chemo-sorption, for materials converted onto carbonate and then stored within the waste itself, and physical sorption, for CO2 absorbed onto the surfaces of non-reacting solid particles. Therefore, the apparent conclusion of such comparison is that the phenomenological method, i.e., the first method of calculation using gas analyzer, provides highly reliable indication of the amount of CO2 captured without the need to analyze the reacted materials using the thermo-mineralogical testing method (TGA) to calculate the captured CO2 during carbon sequestration and stabilization of solid alkaline waste processes.
Carbonation (sequestration) efficiency is calculated using Eq. [3], which expressed as:
where, the maximum CO2 sequestration capacity is calculated using Eq. [2] or the as the calculated total CO2 consumed by alkaline solid waste during the carbonation process determined experimentally by the gas analyzer, and the theoretical total carbon content based on basic metal oxides present in the fresh samples is calculated using Eq. [4].
% CO2=0.785(% CaO−0.56% CaCO3−0.7% SO3)+1.091% MgO+0.71% Na2O+0.468% K2O [4]
Then, the carbonation degree, ξCa (%), can be determined from the carbonate content measured based on: (a) TGA analysis or the phenomenological method using gas analyzer and experimentally monitored data, (b) the molar weights of Ca (Mw Ca), (c) the molar weights of CO2 (Mw CO2), and (d) the total theoretical Ca content of the fresh solid waste (Ca total), determined from ICP analysis, as expressed by Eq. [5]:
Using the above described method, the calculated carbonation effectiveness in terms of carbonation efficiency (%), carbonation degree (%), and maximum carbon sequestration (kg CO2/kg waste) are shown in Table 12a,b. Carbonation effectiveness using TGA Table 12a and that using GA Table 12b are calculated using: (a) both methods for determination of maximum CO2 sequestration capacity, (b) results obtained from (a) and Eq. [4] for the theoretical maximum CO2 sequestration capacity, to calculated sequestration efficiency expressed by Eq. [3], and (c) results obtained from (a) and data from ICP analysis discussed previously, and Eq. [5] to calculate carbonation degree. These calculations are detailed below:
The calculated maximum sequestrations (kg CO2/kg waste) using: (a) GA data are 0.753, 0.708 and 0.294 for CKD, CLW and LF slag, respectively, and (b) TGA data are 0.720, 0.685 and 0.266, respectively.
The calculated carbonation efficiency (%) using: (a) GA data are 91.8, 57.1 and 24.9 for CKD, CLW, and LF slag, respectively, and (b) TGA data are 88.2, 55.5 and 22.7, respectively.
The calculated degree of carbonation (%) using TGA data are 97.6, 72.8 and 22.9, respectively.
These results emphasize the effectiveness of the prescribed system for carbon sequestration and stabilization of active alkaline solid wastes, and the suitability of the phenomenological method to calculate carbonation efficiency and maximum carbon sequestration.
In some embodiments, a centralized supervisory system 1800 is a general-purpose computing device including a hardware processor 1802 and a non-transitory, computer-readable storage medium 1804. Storage medium 1804, amongst other things, is encoded with, i.e., stores, computer program code 1806, i.e., a set of executable instructions. Execution of instructions 1806 by hardware processor 1802 represents (at least in part) a centralized supervisory system tool which implements a portion, or all of the methods described herein in accordance with one or more embodiments (hereinafter, the noted processes and/or methods).
Processor 1802 is electrically coupled to computer-readable storage medium 1804 via a bus 1808. Processor 1802 is also electrically coupled to an I/O interface 1810 by bus 1808. A network interface 1812 is also electrically connected to processor 1802 via bus 1808. Network interface 1812 is connected to a network 1814, so that processor 1802 and computer-readable storage medium 1804 are capable of connecting to external elements via network 1814. Processor 1802 is configured to execute computer program code 1806 encoded in computer-readable storage medium 1804 in order to cause system 1800 to be usable for performing a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods. In one or more embodiments, processor 1802 is a central processing unit (CPU), a multi-processor, a distributed processing system, an application specific integrated circuit (ASIC), and/or a suitable processing unit.
In one or more embodiments, computer-readable storage medium 1804 is an electronic, magnetic, optical, electromagnetic, infrared, and/or a semiconductor system (or apparatus or device). For example, computer-readable storage medium 1804 includes a semiconductor or solid-state memory, a magnetic tape, a removable computer diskette, a random-access memory (RAM), a read-only memory (ROM), a rigid magnetic disk, and/or an optical disk. In one or more embodiments using optical disks, computer-readable storage medium 1804 includes a compact disk-read only memory (CD-ROM), a compact disk-read/write (CD-R/W), and/or a digital video disc (DVD).
In one or more embodiments, storage medium 1804 stores computer program code 1806 configured to cause system 1800 to be usable for performing a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods. In one or more embodiments, storage medium 1804 also stores information which facilitates performing a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods. In one or more embodiments, storage medium 1804 stores a library 1817 including one or more parameters and/or values.
A centralized supervisory system 1800 includes I/O interface 1810. I/O interface 1810 is coupled to external circuitry. In one or more embodiments, I/O interface 1810 includes a keyboard, keypad, mouse, trackball, trackpad, touchscreen, and/or cursor direction keys for communicating information and commands to processor 1802.
A centralized supervisory system 1800 also includes network interface 1812 coupled to processor 1802. Network interface 1812 allows system 1800 to communicate with network 1814, to which one or more other computer systems are connected. Network interface 1812 includes wireless network interfaces such as BLUETOOTH, WIFI, WIMAX, GPRS, or WCDMA; or wired network interfaces such as ETHERNET, USB, or IEEE-1364. In one or more embodiments, a portion or all of noted processes and/or methods, is implemented in two or more systems 1800.
System 1800 is configured to receive information through I/O interface 1810. The information received through I/O interface 1810 includes one or more of instructions, data, design rules, libraries of standard cells, and/or other parameters for processing by processor 1802. The information is transferred to processor 1802 via bus 1808. A centralized supervisory system 1800 is configured to receive information related to a UI through I/O interface 1810. The information is stored in computer-readable medium 1804 as user interface (UI) 1842.
In some embodiments, a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods is implemented as a standalone software application for execution by a processor. In some embodiments, a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods is implemented as a software application that is a part of an additional software application. In some embodiments, a portion or all of the noted processes and/or methods is implemented as a plug-in to a software application.
In some embodiments, the processes are realized as functions of a program stored in a non-transitory computer readable recording medium. Examples of a non-transitory computer readable recording medium include, but are not limited to, external/removable and/or internal/built-in storage or memory unit, e.g., one or more of an optical disk, such as a DVD, a magnetic disk, such as a hard disk, a semiconductor memory, such as a ROM, a RAM, a memory card, and the like.
The foregoing outlines features of several embodiments so that those skilled in the art may better understand the aspects of the present disclosure. Those skilled in the art should appreciate that they may readily use the present disclosure as a basis for designing or modifying other processes and structures for carrying out the same purposes and/or achieving the same advantages of the embodiments introduced herein. Those skilled in the art should also realize that such equivalent constructions do not depart from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure, and that they may make various changes, substitutions, and alterations herein without departing from the spirit and scope of the present disclosure.
The present application is related to U.S. Pat. No. 8,721,785, granted on May 13, 2014, the entirety of which is hereby incorporated by reference herein.