Patent Grant
8733094
This invention relates to systems and methods for storing and recovering electrical energy using compressed gas, and more particularly to systems and methods for improving such systems and methods by rapid isothermal expansion and compression of the gas.
As the world's demand for electric energy increases, the existing power grid is being taxed beyond its ability to serve this demand continuously. In certain parts of the United States, inability to meet peak demand has led to inadvertent brownouts and blackouts due to system overload and deliberate “rolling blackouts” of non-essential customers to shunt the excess demand. For the most part, peak demand occurs during the daytime hours (and during certain seasons, such as summer) when business and industry employ large quantities of power for running equipment, heating, air conditioning, lighting, etc. During the nighttime hours, thus, demand for electricity is often reduced significantly, and the existing power grid in most areas can usually handle this load without problem.
To address the lack of power at peak demand, users are asked to conserve where possible. Power companies often employ rapidly deployable gas turbines to supplement production to meet demand. However, these units burn expensive fuel sources, such as natural gas, and have high generation costs when compared with coal-fired systems, and other large-scale generators. Accordingly, supplemental sources have economic drawbacks and, in any case, can provide only a partial solution in a growing region and economy. The most obvious solution involves construction of new power plants, which is expensive and has environmental side effects. In addition, because most power plants operate most efficiently when generating a relatively continuous output, the difference between peak and off-peak demand often leads to wasteful practices during off-peak periods, such as over-lighting of outdoor areas, as power is sold at a lower rate off peak. Thus, it is desirable to address the fluctuation in power demand in a manner that does not require construction of new plants and can be implemented either at a power-generating facility to provide excess capacity during periods of peak demand, or on a smaller scale on-site at the facility of an electric customer (allowing that customer to provide additional power to itself during peak demand, when the grid is over-taxed).
Another scenario in which the ability to balance the delivery of generated power is highly desirable is in a self-contained generation system with an intermittent generation cycle. One example is a solar panel array located remotely from a power connection. The array may generate well for a few hours during the day, but is nonfunctional during the remaining hours of low light or darkness.
In each case, the balancing of power production or provision of further capacity rapidly and on-demand can be satisfied by a local back-up generator. However, such generators are often costly, use expensive fuels, such as natural gas or diesel fuel, and are environmentally damaging due to their inherent noise and emissions. Thus, a technique that allows storage of energy when not needed (such as during off-peak hours), and can rapidly deliver the power back to the user is highly desirable.
A variety of techniques is available to store excess power for later delivery. One renewable technique involves the use of driven flywheels that are spun up by a motor drawing excess power. When the power is needed, the flywheels' inertia is tapped by the motor or another coupled generator to deliver power back to the grid and/or customer. The flywheel units are expensive to manufacture and install, however, and require a degree of costly maintenance on a regular basis.
Another approach to power storage is the use of batteries. Many large-scale batteries use a lead electrode and acid electrolyte, however, and these components are environmentally hazardous. Batteries must often be arrayed to store substantial power, and the individual batteries may have a relatively short life (3-7 years is typical). Thus, to maintain a battery storage system, a large number of heavy, hazardous battery units must be replaced on a regular basis and these old batteries must be recycled or otherwise properly disposed of.
Energy can also be stored in ultracapacitors. A capacitor is charged by line current so that it stores charge, which can be discharged rapidly when needed. Appropriate power-conditioning circuits are used to convert the power into the appropriate phase and frequency of AC. However, a large array of such capacitors is needed to store substantial electric power. Ultracapacitors, while more environmentally friendly and longer lived than batteries, are substantially more expensive, and still require periodic replacement due to the breakdown of internal dielectrics, etc.
Another approach to storage of energy for later distribution involves the use of a large reservoir of compressed air. By way of background, a so-called compressed-air energy storage (CAES) system is shown and described in the published thesis entitled “Investigation and Optimization of Hybrid Electricity Storage Systems Based Upon Air and Supercapacitors,” by Sylvain Lemofouet-Gatsi, Ecole Polytechnique Federale de Lausanne (20 Oct. 2006) (hereafter “Lemofouet-Gatsi”), Section 2.2.1, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. As stated by Lemofouet-Gatsi, “the principle of CAES derives from the splitting of the normal gas turbine cycle—where roughly 66% of the produced power is used to compress air-into two separated phases: The compression phase where lower-cost energy from off-peak base-load facilities is used to compress air into underground salt caverns and the generation phase where the pre-compressed air from the storage cavern is preheated through a heat recuperator, then mixed with oil or gas and burned to feed a multistage expander turbine to produce electricity during peak demand. This functional separation of the compression cycle from the combustion cycle allows a CAES plant to generate three times more energy with the same quantity of fuel compared to a simple cycle natural gas power plant.
Lemofouet-Gatsi continue, “CAES has the advantages that it doesn't involve huge, costly installations and can be used to store energy for a long time (more than one year). It also has a fast start-up time (9 to 12 minutes), which makes it suitable for grid operation, and the emissions of greenhouse gases are lower than that of a normal gas power plant, due to the reduced fuel consumption. The main drawback of CAES is probably the geological structure reliance, which substantially limits the usability of this storage method. In addition, CAES power plants are not emission-free, as the pre-compressed air is heated up with a fossil fuel burner before expansion. Moreover, [CAES plants] are limited with respect to their effectiveness because of the loss of the compression heat through the inter-coolers, which must be compensated during expansion by fuel burning. The fact that conventional CAES still rely on fossil fuel consumption makes it difficult to evaluate its energy round-trip efficiency and to compare it to conventional fuel-free storage technologies.”
A number of variations on the above-described compressed air energy storage approach have been proposed, some of which attempt to heat the expanded air with electricity, rather than fuel. Others employ heat exchange with thermal storage to extract and recover as much of the thermal energy as possible, therefore attempting to increase efficiencies. Still other approaches employ compressed gas-driven piston motors that act both as compressors and generator drives in opposing parts of the cycle. In general, the use of highly compressed gas as a working fluid for the motor poses a number of challenges due to the tendency for leakage around seals at higher pressures, as well as the thermal losses encountered in rapid expansion. While heat exchange solutions can deal with some of these problems, efficiencies are still compromised by the need to heat compressed gas prior to expansion from high pressure to atmospheric pressure.
It has been recognized that gas is a highly effective medium for storage of energy. Liquids are incompressible and flow efficiently across an impeller or other moving component to rotate a generator shaft. One energy storage technique that uses compressed gas to store energy, but which uses a liquid, for example, hydraulic fluid, rather than compressed gas to drive a generator is a so-called closed-air hydraulic-pneumatic system. Such a system employs one or more high-pressure tanks (accumulators) having a charge of compressed gas, which is separated by a movable wall or flexible bladder membrane from a charge of hydraulic fluid. The hydraulic fluid is coupled to a bi-directional impeller (or other hydraulic motor/pump), which is itself coupled to a combined electric motor/generator. The other side of the impeller is connected to a low-pressure reservoir of hydraulic fluid. During a storage phase, the electric motor and impeller force hydraulic fluid from the low-pressure hydraulic fluid reservoir into the high-pressure tank(s), against the pressure of the compressed air. As the incompressible liquid fills the tank, it forces the air into a smaller space, thereby compressing it to an even higher pressure. During a generation phase, the fluid circuit is run in reverse and the impeller is driven by fluid escaping from the high-pressure tank(s) under the pressure of the compressed gas.
This closed-air approach has an advantage in that the gas is never expanded to or compressed from atmospheric pressure, as it is sealed within the tank. An example of a closed-air system is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 5,579,640, the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Closed-air systems tend to have low energy densities. That is, the amount of compression possible is limited by the size of the tank space. In addition, since the gas does not completely decompress when the fluid is removed, there is still additional energy in the system that cannot be tapped. To make a closed air system desirable for large-scale energy storage, many large accumulator tanks would be needed, increasing the overall cost to implement the system and requiring more land to do so.
Another approach to hybrid hydraulic-pneumatic energy storage is the open-air system. In an exemplary open-air system, compressed air is stored in a large, separate high-pressure tank (or plurality of tanks) A pair of accumulators is provided, each having a fluid side separated from a gas side by a movable piston wall. The fluid sides of a pair (or more) of accumulators are coupled together through an impeller/generator/motor combination. The air side of each of the accumulators is coupled to the high pressure air tanks, and also to a valve-driven atmospheric vent. Under expansion of the air chamber side, fluid in one accumulator is driven through the impeller to generate power, and the spent fluid then flows into the second accumulator, whose air side is now vented to atmospheric, thereby allowing the fluid to collect in the second accumulator. During the storage phase, electrical energy can used to directly recharge the pressure tanks via a compressor, or the accumulators can be run in reverse to pressurize the pressure tanks. A version of this open-air concept is shown and described in U.S. Pat. No. 6,145,311 (the '311 patent), the disclosure of which is hereby incorporated herein by reference in its entirety. Disadvantages of this design of an open-air system can include gas leakage, complexity, expense and, depending on the intended deployment, potential impracticality.
Additionally, it is desirable for solutions that address the fluctuations in power demand to also address environmental concerns and include using renewable energy sources. As demand for renewable energy increases, the intermittent nature of some renewable energy sources (e.g., wind and solar) places an increasing burden on the electric grid. The use of energy storage is a key factor in addressing the intermittent nature of the electricity produced by renewable sources, and more generally in shifting the energy produced to the time of peak demand.
As discussed, storing energy in the form of compressed air has a long history. However, most of the discussed methods for converting potential energy in the form of compressed air to electrical energy utilize turbines to expand the gas, which is an inherently adiabatic process. As gas expands, it cools off if there is no input of heat (adiabatic gas expansion), as is the case with gas expansion in a turbine. The advantage of adiabatic gas expansion is that it can occur quickly, thus resulting in the release of a substantial quantity of energy in a short time frame.
However, if the gas expansion occurs slowly relative to the time with which it takes for heat to flow into the gas, then the gas remains at a relatively constant temperature as it expands (isothermal gas expansion). High pressure gas (e.g. 3000 psig air) stored at ambient temperature, which is expanded isothermally, recovers approximately two and a half times the energy of ambient temperature gas expanded adiabatically. Therefore, there is a significant energy advantage to expanding gas isothermally.
In the case of certain compressed gas energy storage systems according to prior implementations, gas is expanded from a high-pressure, high-capacity source, such as a large underground cavern, and directed through a multi-stage gas turbine. Because significant expansion occurs at each stage of the operation, the gas cools down at each stage. To increase efficiency, the gas is mixed with fuel and ignited, pre-heating it to a higher temperature, thereby increasing power and final gas temperature. However, the need to burn fossil fuel (or apply another energy source, such as electric heating) to compensate for adiabatic expansion substantially defeats the purpose of an otherwise clean and emission-free energy-storage and recovery process.
While it is technically possible to provide a direct heat-exchange subsystem to a hydraulic/pneumatic cylinder, an external jacket, for example, is not particularly effective given the thick walls of the cylinder. An internalized heat exchange subsystem could conceivably be mounted directly within the cylinder's pneumatic side; however, size limitations would reduce such a heat exchanger's effectiveness and the task of sealing a cylinder with an added subsystem installed therein would be significant, and make the use of a conventional, commercially available component difficult or impossible.
Thus, the prior art does not disclose systems and methods for rapidly compressing and expanding gas isothermally that can be used in power storage and recovery, as well as other applications, that allow for the use of conventional, lower cost components in an environmentally friendly manner.
In various embodiments, the invention provides an energy storage system, based upon an open-air hydraulic-pneumatic arrangement, using high-pressure gas in tanks that is expanded in small batches from a high pressure of several hundred atmospheres to atmospheric pressure. The systems may be sized and operated at a rate that allows for near isothermal expansion and compression of the gas. The systems may also be scalable through coupling of additional accumulator circuits and storage tanks as needed. Systems and methods in accordance with the invention may allow for efficient near-isothermal high compression and expansion to/from high pressure of several hundred atmospheres down to atmospheric pressure to provide a much higher energy density.
Embodiments of the invention overcome the disadvantages of the prior art by providing a system for storage and recovery of energy using an open-air hydraulic-pneumatic accumulator and intensifier arrangement implemented in at least one circuit that combines an accumulator and an intensifier in communication with a high-pressure gas storage reservoir on the gas-side of the circuit, and a combination fluid motor/pump coupled to a combination electric generator/motor on the fluid side of the circuit. In a representative embodiment, an expansion/energy recovery mode, the accumulator of a first circuit is first filled with high-pressure gas from the reservoir, and the reservoir is then cut off from the air chamber of the accumulator. This gas causes fluid in the accumulator to be driven through the motor/pump to generate electricity. Exhausted fluid is driven into either an opposing intensifier or an accumulator in an opposing second circuit, whose air chamber is vented to atmosphere. As the gas in the accumulator expands to mid-pressure, and fluid is drained, the mid-pressure gas in the accumulator is then connected to an intensifier with a larger-area air piston acting on a smaller area fluid piston. Fluid in the intensifier is then driven through the motor/pump at still-high fluid pressure, despite the mid-pressure gas in the intensifier air chamber. Fluid from the motor/pump is exhausted into either the opposing first accumulator or an intensifier of the second circuit, whose air chamber may be vented to atmosphere as the corresponding fluid chamber fills with exhausted fluid. In a compression/energy storage stage, the process is reversed and the fluid motor/pump is driven by the electric component to force fluid into the intensifier and the accumulator to compress gas and deliver it to the tank reservoir under high pressure.
The power output of these systems is governed by how fast the gas can expand isothermally. Therefore, the ability to expand/compress the gas isothermally at a faster rate will result in a greater power output of the system. By adding a heat transfer subsystems to these systems, the power density of said system can be increased substantially.
In one aspect, the invention relates to a system for substantially isothermal expansion and compression of a gas. The system includes a cylinder assembly including a staged pneumatic side and a hydraulic side, the sides being separated by a movable mechanical boundary mechanism that transfers energy therebetween, and a heat transfer subsystem in fluid communication with the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly. The movable mechanical boundary mechanism can be capable of, for example, slidable movement within the cylinder (e.g., a piston), expansion/contraction (e.g., a bladder), and/or mechanically coupling the hydraulic and pneumatic sides via a rectilinear translator.
In various embodiments, the cylinder assembly includes at least one of an accumulator or an intensifier. In one embodiment, the heat transfer subsystem further includes a circulation apparatus in fluid communication with the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly for circulating a fluid through the heat transfer subsystem and a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger includes a first side in fluid communication with the circulation apparatus and the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly and a second side in fluid communication with a liquid source having a substantially constant temperature. The circulation apparatus circulates the fluid from the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly, through the heat exchanger, and back to the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly. The circulation apparatus can be a positive displacement pump and the heat exchanger can be a shell and tube type or a plate type heat exchanger.
Additionally, the system can include at least one temperature sensor in communication with at least one of the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly or the fluid exiting the heat transfer subsystem and a control system for receiving telemetry from the at least one temperature sensor to control operation of the heat transfer subsystem based at least in part on the received telemetry. The temperature sensor can be implemented by a direct temperature measurement (e.g., thermocouple or thermistor) or through indirect measurement based on pressure, position, and/or flow sensors.
In other embodiments, the heat transfer subsystem includes a fluid circulation apparatus and a heat transfer fluid reservoir. The fluid circulation apparatus can be arranged to pump a heat transfer fluid from the reservoir into the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly. In various embodiments, the heat transfer subsystem includes a spray mechanism disposed in the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly for introducing the heat transfer fluid. The spray mechanism can be a spray head and/or a spray rod.
In another aspect, the invention relates to a staged hydraulic-pneumatic energy conversion system that stores and recovers electrical energy using thermally conditioned compressed fluids, for example, a gas that undergoes a heat exchange. The system includes first and second coupled cylinder assemblies. The system includes at least one pneumatic side comprising a plurality of stages and at least one hydraulic side and a heat transfer subsystem in fluid communication with the at least one pneumatic side. The at least one pneumatic side and the at least one hydraulic side are separated by at least one movable mechanical boundary mechanism that transfers energy therebetween.
In one embodiment, the first cylinder assembly includes at least one pneumatic cylinder and the second cylinder assembly includes at least one hydraulic cylinder and the first and second cylinder assemblies are mechanically coupled via the at least one movable mechanical boundary mechanism. In another embodiment, the first cylinder assembly includes an accumulator that transfers the mechanical energy at a first pressure ratio and the second cylinder assembly includes an intensifier that transfers the mechanical energy at a second pressure ratio greater than the first pressure ratio. The first and second cylinder assemblies can be fluidly coupled.
In various embodiments, the heat transfer subsystem can include a circulation apparatus in fluid communication with the at least one pneumatic side for circulating a fluid through the heat transfer subsystem and a heat exchanger. The heat exchanger can include a first side in fluid communication with the circulation apparatus and the at least one pneumatic side and a second side in fluid communication with a liquid source having a substantially constant temperature. The circulation apparatus circulates the fluid from the at least one pneumatic side, through the heat exchanger, and back to the at least one pneumatic side. In addition, the system can include a control valve arrangement for connecting selectively between stages of the at least one pneumatic side of the system.
In another embodiment, the heat transfer subsystem includes a fluid circulation apparatus and a heat transfer fluid reservoir. The fluid circulation apparatus is arranged to pump a heat transfer fluid from the reservoir into the at least one pneumatic sides of the system. In one embodiment, each of the cylinder assemblies has a pneumatic side, and the system includes a control valve arrangement for connecting selectively the pneumatic side of the first cylinder and the pneumatic side of the second cylinder assembly to the fluid circulation apparatus. The system can also include a spray mechanism disposed in the at least one pneumatic side for introducing the heat transfer fluid.
In another aspect, the invention relates to a staged hydraulic-pneumatic energy conversion system that stores and recovers electrical energy using thermally conditioned compressed fluids. The system includes at least one cylinder assembly including a pneumatic side and a hydraulic side separated by a mechanical boundary mechanism that transfers energy therebetween, a source of compressed gas, and a heat transfer subsystem in fluid communication with at least one of the pneumatic side of the cylinder assembly or the source of compressed gas.
These and other objects, along with the advantages and features of the present invention herein disclosed, will become apparent through reference to the following description, the accompanying drawings, and the claims. Furthermore, it is to be understood that the features of the various embodiments described herein are not mutually exclusive and can exist in various combinations and permutations.
In the drawings, like reference characters generally refer to the same parts throughout the different views. In addition, the drawings are not necessarily to scale, emphasis instead generally being placed upon illustrating the principles of the invention. In the following description, various embodiments of the present invention are described with reference to the following drawings, in which:
In the following, various embodiments of the present invention are generally described with reference to a two-stage system, e.g., a single accumulator and a single intensifier, an arrangement with two accumulators and two intensifiers and simplified valve arrangements, or one or more pneumatic cylinders coupled with one or more hydraulic cylinders. It is, however, to be understood that the present invention can include any number of stages and combination of cylinders, accumulators, intensifiers, and valve arrangements. In addition, any dimensional values given are exemplary only, as the systems according to the invention are scalable and customizable to suit a particular application. Furthermore, the terms pneumatic, gas, and air are used interchangeably and the terms hydraulic and liquid are also used interchangeably. Fluid is used to refer to both gas and liquid.
The control system 120, which is described in greater detail with respect to
The system 100 further includes pneumatic valves 106a, 106b, 106c, . . . 106n that control the communication of the main air line 108 with an accumulator 116 and an intensifier 118. As previously stated, the system 100 can include any number and combination of accumulators 116 and intensifiers 118 to suit a particular application. The pneumatic valves 106 are also connected to a vent 110 for exhausting air/gas from the accumulator 116, the intensifier 118, and/or the main air line 108.
As shown in
As shown in
However, the intensifier piston assembly 142 is actually two pistons: an air piston 142a connected by a shaft, rod, or other coupling means 143 to a respective fluid piston 142b. The fluid piston 142b moves in conjunction with the air piston 142a, but acts directly upon the associated intensifier fluid chamber 146. Notably, the internal diameter (and/or volume) (DAI) of the air chamber for the intensifier 118 is greater than the diameter (DAA) of the air chamber for the accumulator 116. In particular, the surface of the intensifier piston 142a is greater than the surface area of the accumulator piston 136. The diameter of the intensifier fluid piston (DFI) is approximately the same as the diameter of the accumulator piston 136 (DFA). Thus in this manner, a lower air pressure acting upon the intensifier piston 142a generates a similar pressure on the associated fluid chamber 146 as a higher air pressure acting on the accumulator piston 136. As such, the ratio of the pressures of the intensifier air chamber 144 and the intensifier fluid chamber 146 is greater than the ratio of the pressures of the accumulator air chamber 140 and the accumulator fluid chamber 138. In one example, the ratio of the pressures in the accumulator could be 1:1, while the ratio of pressures in the intensifier could be 10:1. These ratios will vary depending on the number of accumulators and intensifiers used and the particular application. In this manner, and as described further below, the system 100 allows for at least two stages of air pressure to be employed to generate similar levels of fluid pressure. Again, a shaded volume in the fluid chamber 146 indicates the hydraulic fluid and the intensifier 118 can also include the optional shut-off valves 134 to isolate the intensifier 118 from the system 100.
As also shown in
Referring back to
The motor/pump 130 can be a piston-type assembly having a shaft 131 (or other mechanical coupling) that drives, and is driven by, a combination electrical motor and generator assembly 132. The motor/pump 130 could also be, for example, an impeller, vane, or gear type assembly. The motor/generator assembly 132 is interconnected with a power distribution system and can be monitored for status and output/input level by the control system 120.
One advantage of the system depicted in
As shown in
As shown in
As shown in
The beginning of the second stage of the compression phase is shown in
As shown in
As shown in
As shown in
As shown in
As shown in
As shown in
The main air line 308 from the tanks 302a, 302b is coupled to a pair of multi-stage (two stages in this example) accumulator/intensifier circuits (or hydraulic-pneumatic cylinder circuits) (dashed boxes 360, 362) via automatically controlled (via controller 350), two-position valves 307a, 307b, 307c and 306a, 306b and 306c. These valves are coupled to respective accumulators 316 and 317 and intensifiers 318 and 319 according to one embodiment of the system. Pneumatic valves 306a and 307a are also coupled to a respective atmospheric air vent 310b and 310a. In particular, valves 306c and 307c connect along a common air line 390, 391 between the main air line 308 and the accumulators 316 and 317, respectively. Pneumatic valves 306b and 307b connect between the respective accumulators 316 and 317, and intensifiers 318 and 319. Pneumatic valves 306a, 307a connect along the common lines 390, 391 between the intensifiers 318 and 319, and the atmospheric vents 310b and 310a.
The air from the tanks 302, thus, selectively communicates with the air chamber side of each accumulator and intensifier (referenced in the drawings as air chamber 340 for accumulator 316, air chamber 341 for accumulator 317, air chamber 344 for intensifier 318, and air chamber 345 for intensifier 319). An air temperature sensor 322 and a pressure sensor 324 communicate with each air chamber 341, 344, 345, 322, and deliver sensor telemetry to the controller 350.
The air chamber 340, 341 of each accumulator 316, 317 is enclosed by a movable piston 336, 337 having an appropriate sealing system using sealing rings and other components that are known to those of ordinary skill in the art. The piston 336, 337 moves along the accumulator housing in response to pressure differentials between the air chamber 340, 341 and an opposing fluid chamber 338, 339, respectively, on the opposite side of the accumulator housing. In this example, hydraulic fluid (or another liquid, such as water) is indicated by a shaded volume in the fluid chamber. Likewise, the air chambers 344, 345 of the respective intensifiers 318, 319 are enclosed by a moving piston assembly 342, 343. However, the intensifier air piston 342a, 343a is connected by a shaft, rod, or other coupling to a respective fluid piston, 342b, 343b. This fluid piston 342b, 343b moves in conjunction with the air piston 342a, 343a, but acts directly upon the associated intensifier fluid chamber 346, 347. Notably, the internal diameter (and/or volume) of the air chamber (DAI) for the intensifier 318, 319 is greater than the diameter of the air chamber (DAA) for the accumulator 316, 317 in the same circuit 360, 362. In particular, the surface area of the intensifier pistons 342a, 343a is greater than the surface area of the accumulator pistons 336, 337. The diameter of each intensifier fluid piston (DFI) is approximately the same as the diameter of each accumulator (DFA). Thus in this manner, a lower air pressure acting upon the intensifier piston generates a similar pressure on the associated fluid chamber as a higher air pressure acting on the accumulator piston. In this manner, and as described further below, the system allows for at least two stages of pressure to be employed to generate similar levels of fluid pressure.
In one example, assuming that the initial gas pressure in the accumulator is at 200 atmospheres (ATM) (3000 PSI—high-pressure), with a final mid-pressure of 20 ATM (300 PSI) upon full expansion, and that the initial gas pressure in the intensifier is then 20 ATM (with a final pressure of 1.5-2 ATM (25-30 PSI)), then the area of the gas piston in the intensifier would be approximately 10 times the area of the piston in the accumulator (or 3.16 times the radius). However, the precise values for initial high-pressure, mid-pressure and final low-pressure are highly variable, depending in part upon the operating specifications of the system components, scale of the system and output requirements. Thus, the relative sizing of the accumulators and the intensifiers is variable to suit a particular application.
Each fluid chamber 338, 339, 346, 347 is interconnected with an appropriate temperature sensor 322 and pressure sensor 324, each delivering telemetry to the controller 350. In addition, each fluid line interconnecting the fluid chambers can be fitted with a flow sensor 326, which directs data to the controller 350. The pistons 336, 337, 342 and 343 can include position sensors 348 that report their present position to the controller 350. The position of the piston can be used to determine relative pressure and flow of both gas and fluid. Each fluid connection from a fluid chamber 338, 339, 346, 347 is connected to a pair of parallel, automatically controlled valves. As shown, fluid chamber 338 (accumulator 316) is connected to valve pair 328c and 328d; fluid chamber 339 (accumulator 317) is connected to valve pair 329a and 329b; fluid chamber 346 (intensifier 318) is connected to valve pair 328a and 328b; and fluid chamber 347 (intensifier 319) is connected to valve pair 329c and 329d. One valve from each chamber 328b, 328d, 329a and 329c is connected to one connection side 372 of a hydraulic motor/pump 330. This motor/pump 330 can be piston-type (or other suitable type, including vane, impeller, and gear) assembly having a shaft 331 (or other mechanical coupling) that drives, and is driven by, a combination electrical motor/generator assembly 332. The motor/generator assembly 332 is interconnected with a power distribution system and can be monitored for status and output/input level by the controller 350. The other connection side 374 of the hydraulic motor/pump 330 is connected to the second valve in each valve pair 328a, 328c, 329b and 329d. By selectively toggling the valves in each pair, fluid is connected between either side 372, 374 of the hydraulic motor/pump 330. Alternatively, some or all of the valve pairs can be replaced with one or more three position, four way valves or other combinations of valves to suit a particular application.
The number of circuits 360, 362 can be increased as necessary. Additional circuits can be interconnected to the tanks 302 and each side 372, 374 of the hydraulic motor/pump 330 in the same manner as the components of the circuits 360, 362. Generally, the number of circuits should be even so that one circuit acts as a fluid driver while the other circuit acts as a reservoir for receiving the fluid from the driving circuit.
An optional accumulator 366 is connected to at least one side (e.g., inlet side 372) of the hydraulic motor/pump 330. The optional accumulator 366 can be, for example, a closed-air-type accumulator with a separate fluid side 368 and precharged air side 370. As will be described below, the accumulator 366 acts as a fluid capacitor to deal with transients in fluid flow through the motor/pump 330. In another embodiment, a second optional accumulator or other low-pressure reservoir 371 is placed in fluid communication with the outlet side 374 of the motor/pump 330 and can also include a fluid side 371 and a precharged air side 369. The foregoing optional accumulators can be used with any of the systems described herein.
Having described the general arrangement of one embodiment of an open-air hydraulic-pneumatic energy storage system 300 in
In
This is part of the significant parameter of heat transfer. For maximum efficiency, the expansion should remain substantially isothermal. That is heat from the environment replaces the heat lost by the expansion. In general, isothermal compression and expansion is critical to maintaining high round-trip system efficiency, especially if the compressed gas is stored for long periods. In various embodiments of the systems described herein, heat transfer can occur through the walls of the accumulators and/or intensifiers, or heat-transfer mechanisms can act upon the expanding or compressing gas to absorb or radiate heat from or to an environmental or other source. The rate of this heat transfer is governed by the thermal properties and characteristics of the accumulators/intensifiers, which can be used to determine a thermal time constant. If the compression of the gas in the accumulators/intensifiers occurs slowly relative to the thermal time constant, then heat generated by compression of the gas will transfer through the accumulator/intensifier walls to the surroundings, and the gas will remain at approximately constant temperature. Similarly, if expansion of the gas in the accumulators/intensifiers occurs slowly relative to the thermal time constant, then the heat absorbed by the expansion of the gas will transfer from the surroundings through the accumulator/intensifier walls and to the gas, and the gas will remain at approximately constant temperature. If the gas remains at a relatively constant temperature during both compression and expansion, then the amount of heat energy transferred from the gas to the surroundings during compression will equal the amount of heat energy recovered during expansion via heat transfer from the surroundings to the gas. This property is represented by the Q and the arrow in
It should be clear that the system 300, as described with respect to FIGS. 4 and 5A-5N, could be run in reverse to compress gas in the tanks 302 by powering the electric generator/motor 332 to drive the motor/pump 330 in pump mode. In this case, the above-described process occurs in reverse order, with driven fluid causing compression within both stages of the air system in turn. That is, air is first compressed to a mid-pressure after being drawn into the intensifier from the environment. This mid-pressure air is then directed to the air chamber of the accumulator, where fluid then forces it to be compressed to high pressure. The high-pressure air is then forced into the tanks 302. Both this compression/energy storage stage and the above-described expansion/energy recovery stages are discussed with reference to the general system state diagram shown in
Note that in the above-described systems 100, 300 (one or more stages), the compression and expansion cycle is predicated upon the presence of gas in the storage tanks 302 that is currently at a pressure above the mid-pressure level (e.g., above 20 ATM). For system 300, for example, when the prevailing pressure in the storage tanks 302 falls below the mid-pressure level (based, for example, upon levels sensed by tank sensors 312, 314), then the valves can be configured by the controller to employ only the intensifier for compression and expansion. That is, lower gas pressures are accommodated using the larger-area gas pistons on the intensifiers, while higher pressures employ the smaller-area gas pistons of the accumulators, 316, 317.
Before discussing the state diagram, it should be noted that one advantage of the described systems according to this invention is that, unlike various prior art systems, this system can be implemented using generally commercially available components. In the example of a system having a power output of 10 to 500 kW, for example, high-pressure storage tanks can be implemented using standard steel or composite cylindrical pressure vessels (e.g. Compressed Natural Gas 5500-psi steel cylinders). The accumulators can be implemented using standard steel or composite pressure cylinders with moveable pistons (e.g., a four-inch-inner-diameter piston accumulator). Intensifiers (pressure boosters/multipliers) having characteristics similar to the exemplary accumulator can be implemented (e.g., a fourteen-inch booster diameter and four-inch bore diameter single-acting pressure booster available from Parker-Hannifin of Cleveland, Ohio). A fluid motor/pump can be a standard high-efficiency axial piston, radial piston, or gear-based hydraulic motor/pump, and the associated electrical generator is also available commercially from a variety of industrial suppliers. Valves, lines, and fittings are commercially available with the specified characteristics as well.
Having discussed the exemplary sequence of physical steps in various embodiments of the system, the following is a more general discussion of operating states for the system 300 in both the expansion/energy recovery mode and the compression/energy storage mode. Reference is now made to
In particular,
As shown further in the diagram of
The Two Stage Compression 632 shown in
The Single State Expansion 640, as shown in
Likewise, the Two Stage Expansion 642, as shown in
It should be clear that the above-described system for storing and recovering energy is highly efficient in that it allows for gradual expansion of gas over a period that helps to maintain isothermal characteristics. The system particularly deals with the large expansion and compression of gas between high-pressure to near atmospheric (and the concomitant thermal transfer) by providing this compression/expansion in two or more separate stages that allow for more gradual heat transfer through the system components. Thus little outside energy is required to run the system (heating gas, etc.), rendering the system more environmentally friendly, capable of being implemented with commercially available components, and scalable to meet a variety of energy storage/recovery needs. However, it is possible to further improve the efficiency of the systems described above by incorporating a heat transfer subsystem as described with respect to
As shown in the figures, the designations D, F, AI, and F2 refer to whether the accumulator or intensifier is driving (D) or filling (F), with the additional labels for the accumulators where AI refers to accumulator to intensifier—the accumulator air side attached to and driving the intensifier air side, and F2 refers to filling at twice the rate of the standard filling.
As shown in
Continuing to time instance 102, as shown in
At time instance 103, as shown in
Continuing to time instance 104, as shown in
At time instance 105, as shown in
Continuing to time instance 106, as shown in
The system 900 also includes two heat transfer subsystems 950 in fluid communication with the air chambers 940, 941, 944, 945 of the accumulators and intensifiers 916-919 and the high pressure storage tanks 902 that provide improved isothermal expansion and compression of the gas. A simplified schematic of one of the heat transfer subsystems 950 is shown in greater detail in
The basic operation of the system 950 is described with respect to
As shown in
The selection of the various components will depend on the particular application with respect to, for example, fluid flows, heat transfer requirements, and location. In addition, the pneumatic valves can be electrically, hydraulically, pneumatically, or manually operated. In addition, the heat transfer subsystem 950 can include at least one temperature sensor 922 that, in conjunction with the controller 960, controls the operation of the various valves 907, 956 and, thus the operation of the heat transfer subsystem 950.
In one exemplary embodiment, the heat transfer subsystem is used with a staged hydraulic-pneumatic energy conversion system as shown and described above, where the two heat exchangers are connected in series. The operation of the heat transfer subsystem is described with respect to the operation of a 1.5 gallon capacity piston accumulator having a 4-inch bore. In one example, the system is capable of producing 1-1.5 kW of power during a 10 second expansion of the gas from 2900 PSI to 350 PSI. Two tube-in-shell heat exchange units (available from Sentry Equipment Corp., Oconomowoc, Wis.), one with a heat exchange area of 0.11 m2 and the other with a heat exchange area of 0.22 m2, are in fluid communication with the air chamber of the accumulator. Except for the arrangement of the heat exchangers, the system is similar to that shown in
During operation of the systems 900, 950, high-pressure air is drawn from the accumulator 916 and circulated through the heat exchangers 954 by the circulation apparatus 952. Specifically, once the accumulator 916 is filled with hydraulic fluid and the piston is at the top of the cylinder, the gas circulation/heat exchanger sub-circuit and remaining volume on the air side of the accumulator is filled with 3,000 PSI air. The shut-off valves 907G-907J are used to select which, if any, heat exchanger to use. Once this is complete, the circulation apparatus 952 is turned on as is the heat exchanger counter-flow. Additional heat transfer subsystems are described hereinbelow with respect to
During gas expansion in the accumulator 916, the three-way valves 956 are actuated as shown in
The overall work output and thermal efficiency can be controlled by adjusting the hydraulic fluid flow rate and the heat exchanger area.
The basic operation and arrangement of the system 900 is substantially similar to systems 100 and 300; however, there are differences in the arrangement of the hydraulic valves, as described herein. Referring back to
The accumulator fluid chambers 938, 939 are interconnected to a hydraulic motor/pump arrangement 930 via a hydraulic valve 928a. The hydraulic motor/pump arrangement 930 includes a first port 931 and a second port 933. The arrangement 930 also includes several optional valves, including a normally open shut-off valve 925, a pressure relief valve 927, and three check valves 929 that can further control the operation of the motor/pump arrangement 930. For example, check valves 929a, 929b, direct fluid flow from the motor/pump's leak port to the port 931, 933 at a lower pressure. In addition, valves 925, 929c prevent the motor/pump from coming to a hard stop during an expansion cycle.
The hydraulic valve 928a is shown as a 3-position, 4-way directional valve that is electrically actuated and spring returned to a center closed position, where no flow through the valve 928a is possible in the unactuated state. The directional valve 928a controls the fluid flow from the accumulator fluid chambers 938, 939 to either the first port 931 or the second port 933 of the motor/pump arrangement 930. This arrangement allows fluid from either accumulator fluid chamber 938, 939 to drive the motor/pump 930 clockwise or counter-clockwise via a single valve.
The intensifier fluid chambers 946, 947 are also interconnected to the hydraulic motor/pump arrangement 930 via a hydraulic valve 928b. The hydraulic valve 928b is also a 3-position, 4-way directional valve that is electrically actuated and spring returned to a center closed position, where no flow through the valve 928b is possible in the unactuated state. The directional valve 928b controls the fluid flow from the intensifier fluid chambers 946, 947 to either the first port 931 or the second port 933 of the motor/pump arrangement 930. This arrangement allows fluid from either intensifier fluid chamber 946, 947 to drive the motor/pump 930 clockwise or counter-clockwise via a single valve.
The motor/pump 930 can be coupled to an electrical generator/motor and that drives, and is driven by the motor/pump 930. As discussed with respect to the previously described embodiments, the generator/motor assembly can be interconnected with a power distribution system and can be monitored for status and output/input level by the controller 960.
In addition, the fluid lines and fluid chambers can include pressure, temperature, or flow sensors and/or indicators 922, 924 that deliver sensor telemetry to the controller 960 and/or provide visual indication of an operational state. In addition, the pistons 936, 937, 942, 943 can include position sensors 948 that report their present position to the controller 960. The position of the piston can be used to determine relative pressure and flow of both gas and fluid.
With reference now to the heat transfer subsystem 1150, the cylinder 1101 has one or more gas circulation output ports 1110 that are connected via piping 1111 to the gas circulator 1152. Note, as used herein the term “pipe,” “piping” and the like shall refer to one or more conduits that are rated to carry gas or other fluids between two points. Thus, the singular term should be taken to include a plurality of parallel conduits where appropriate. The gas circulator 1152 can be a conventional or customized low-head pneumatic pump, fan, or any other device for circulating gas. The gas circulator 1152 should be sealed and rated for operation at the pressures contemplated within the gas chamber 1102. Thus, the gas circulator 1152 creates a predetermined flow (arrow 1130) of gas up the piping 1111 and therethrough. The gas circulator 1152 can be powered by electricity from a power source or by another drive mechanism, such as a fluid motor. The mass-flow speed and on/off functions of the circulator 1152 can be controlled by a controller 1160 acting on the power source for the circulator 1152. The controller 1160 can be a software and/or hardware-based system that carries out the heat-exchange procedures described herein. The output of the gas circulator 1152 is connected via a pipe 1114 to the gas input 1115 of a heat exchanger 1154.
The heat exchanger 1154 of the illustrative embodiment can be any acceptable design that allows energy to be efficiently transferred to and from a high-pressure gas flow contained within a pressure conduit to another mass flow (fluid). The rate of heat exchange is based, in part on the relative flow rates of the gas and fluid, the exchange surface area between the gas and fluid and the thermal conductivity of the interface therebetween. In particular, the gas flow is heated in the heat exchanger 1154 by the fluid counter-flow 1117 (arrows 1126), which enters the fluid input 1118 of heat exchanger 1154 at ambient temperature and exits the heat exchanger 1154 at the fluid exit 1119 equal or approximately equal in temperature to the gas in piping 1114. The gas flow at gas exit 1120 of heat exchanger 1154 is at ambient or approximately ambient temperature, and returns via piping 1121 through one or more gas circulation input ports 1122 to gas chamber 1102. By “ambient” it is meant the temperature of the surrounding environment, or another desired temperature at which efficient performance of the system can be achieved. The ambient-temperature gas reentering the cylinder's gas chamber 1102 at the circulation input ports 1122 mixes with the gas in the gas chamber 1102, thereby bringing the temperature of the fluid in the gas chamber 1102 closer to ambient temperature.
The controller 1160 manages the rate of heat exchange based, for example, on the prevailing temperature (T) of the gas contained within the gas chamber 1102 using a temperature sensor 1113B of conventional design that thermally communicates with the gas within the chamber 1102. The sensor 1113B can be placed at any location along the cylinder including a location that is at, or adjacent to, the heat exchanger gas input port 1110. The controller 1160 reads the value T from the cylinder sensor and compares it to an ambient temperature value (TA) derived from a sensor 1113C located somewhere within the system environment. When T is greater than TA, the heat transfer subsystem 1150 is directed to move gas (by powering the circulator 1152) therethrough at a rate that can be partly dependent upon the temperature differential (so that the exchange does not overshoot or undershoot the desired setting). Additional sensors can be located at various locations within the heat exchange subsystem to provide additional telemetry that can be used by a more complex control algorithm. For example, the output gas temperature (TO) from the heat exchanger can measured by a sensor 1113A that is placed upstream of the outlet port 1122.
The heat exchanger's fluid circuit can be filled with water, a coolant mixture, and/or any acceptable heat-transfer medium. In alternative embodiments, a gas, such as air or refrigerant, can be used as the heat-transfer medium. In general, the fluid is routed by conduits to a large reservoir of such fluid in a closed or open loop. One example of an open loop is a well or body of water from which ambient water is drawn and the exhaust water is delivered to a different location, for example, downstream in a river. In a closed loop embodiment, a cooling tower can cycle the water through the air for return to the heat exchanger. Likewise, water can pass through a submerged or buried coil of continuous piping where a counter heat-exchange occurs to return the fluid flow to ambient before it returns to the heat exchanger for another cycle.
It should also be clear that the isothermal operation of the invention works in two directions thermodynamically. While the gas is warmed to ambient by the fluid during expansion, the gas can also be cooled to ambient by the heat exchanger during compression, as significant internal heat can build up via compression. The heat exchanger components should be rated, thus, to handle the temperature range expected to be encountered for entering gas and exiting fluid. Moreover, since the heat exchanger is external of the hydraulic/pneumatic cylinder, it can be located anywhere that is convenient and can be sized as needed to deliver a high rate of heat exchange. In addition it can be attached to the cylinder with straightforward taps or ports that are readily installed on the base end of an existing, commercially available hydraulic/pneumatic cylinder.
Reference is now made to
As previously discussed, any of the embodiments described herein can be implemented as an accumulator or intensifier in the hydraulic and pneumatic circuits of the energy storage and recovery systems described above. For example, intensifier cylinder 1201 can be used as a stage along with the cylinder 1101 of
With reference now to the heat transfer subsystem 1250, the intensifier cylinder 1201 also has one or more gas circulation output ports 1210 that are connected via piping 1211 to a gas circulator 1252. Again, the gas circulator 1252 can be a conventional or customized low-head pneumatic pump, fan, or any other device for circulating gas. The gas circulator 1252 should be sealed and rated for operation at the pressures contemplated within the gas chamber 1202. Thus, the gas circulator 1252 creates a predetermined flow (arrow 1230) of gas up the piping 1211 and therethrough. The gas circulator 1252 can be powered by electricity from a power source or by another drive mechanism, such as a fluid motor. The mass-flow speed and on/off functions of the circulator 1252 can be controlled by a controller 1260 acting on the power source for the circulator 1252. The controller 1260 can be a software and/or hardware-based system that carries out the heat-exchange procedures described herein. The output of the gas circulator 1252 is connected via a pipe 1214 to the gas input 1215 of a heat exchanger 1254.
Again, the gas flow is heated in the heat exchanger 1254 by the fluid counter-flow 1217 (arrows 1226), which enters the fluid input 1218 of heat exchanger 1254 at ambient temperature and exits the heat exchanger 1254 at the fluid exit 1219 equal or approximately equal in temperature to the gas in piping 1214. The gas flow at gas exit 1220 of heat exchanger 1254 is at approximately ambient temperature, and returns via piping 1221 through one or more gas circulation input ports 1222 to gas chamber 1202. By “ambient” it is meant the temperature of the surrounding environment, or another desired temperature at which efficient performance of the system can be achieved. The ambient-temperature gas reentering the cylinder's gas chamber 1202 at the circulation input ports 1222 mixes with the gas in the gas chamber 1202, thereby bringing the temperature of the fluid in gas chamber 1202 closer to ambient temperature. Again, the heat transfer subsystem 1250 when used in conjunction with the intensifier of
Reference is now made to
In a similar manner, electric energy can be used to compress gas, thereby storing energy. Electric energy supplied to the electric motor/generator 1374 drives the shaft 1373 that, in turn, drives the hydraulic motor 1372 in reverse. This action forces fluid from fluid receptacle 1375 into piping 1371 and further into fluid chamber 1104 (1204) of the cylinder 1101. As fluid enters fluid chamber 1104 (1204), it performs work on the piston assembly 1103, which thereby performs work on the gas in the gas chamber 1102 (1202), i.e., compresses the gas. The heat transfer subsystem 1150 can be used to remove heat produced by the compression and maintain the temperature at ambient or near-ambient by proper reading by the controller 1160 (1260) of the sensors 1113 (1213), and throttling of the circulator 1152 (1252).
Reference is now made to
Conversely, as shown in
The heat transfer subsystems 950, 1150, 1250 in accordance with the invention contemplate the creation of at least an approximate or near-perfect isothermal expansion as indicated by the graph of
The power output of the system is equal to the work done by the expansion of the gas divided by the time it takes to expand the gas. To increase the power output, the expansion time needs to be decreased. As the expansion time decreases, the heat transfer to the gas will decrease, the expansion will be more adiabatic, and the actual work output will be less, i.e., closer to the adiabatic work output. In the inventions described herein, heat transfer to the gas is increased by increasing the surface area over which heat transfer can occur in a circuit external to, but in fluid communication with, the primary air chamber, as well as the rate at which that gas is passed over the heat exchange surface area. This arrangement increases the heat transfer to/from the gas and allows the work output to remain constant and approximately equal to the isothermal work output even as the expansion time decreases, resulting in a greater power output. Moreover, the systems and methods described herein enable the use of commercially available components that, because they are located externally, can be sized appropriately and positioned anywhere that is convenient within the footprint of the system.
It should be clear to those of ordinary skill that the design of the heat exchanger and flow rate of the pump can be based upon empirical calculations of the amount of heat absorbed or generated by each cylinder during a given expansion or compression cycle so that the appropriate exchange surface area and fluid flow is provided to satisfy the heat transfer demands. Likewise, an appropriately sized heat exchanger can be derived, at least in part, through experimental techniques, after measuring the needed heat transfer and providing the appropriate surface area and flow rate.
Also shown in
Also shown in
Similar to the cylinder 1101 shown in
As shown in
The heat transfer subsystem shown in
As the gas is expanded (or being compressed) in the cylinder 1801, the liquid is circulated by circulator 1852 through a liquid to liquid heat exchanger 1854, which may be a shell and tube type with the input 1822 and output 1824 from the shell running to an environmental heat exchanger or to a source of process heat, cold water, or other external heat exchange medium. Alternatively, a liquid to air heat exchanger could be used. The liquid is circulated by circulator 1852 through a heat exchanger 1854 and then sprayed back into the pneumatic side 1802 of the cylinder 1801 through the rod 1803, which has holes drilled along its length. Overall, this set-up allows for dead-space volume to be filled with an incompressible liquid and thus the heat exchanger volume can be large and it can be located anywhere. Likewise, as liquid to liquid heat exchangers tend to more efficient than air to liquid heat exchangers, heat transfer may be improved. By adding the spray rod 1803, the liquid can be sprayed throughout the entire gas volume increasing heat transfer over the set-up shown in
As shown in
Additionally, as opposed to the set-up shown in
Stored compressed gas in pressure vessels, not shown but indicated by 2220, is admitted via valve 2221 into the cylinder 2201 through air port 2205. As the compressed gas expands into the cylinder 2201, hydraulic fluid is forced out under pressure through fluid port 2207 to the remaining hydraulic system (such as a hydraulic motor as shown and described with respect to
As shown in
As previously discussed, the specific operating parameters of the spray will vary to suit a particular application. For a specific pressure range, spray orientation, and spray characteristics, heat transfer performance can be approximated through modeling. Considering an exemplary embodiment using an 8″ diameter, 10 gallon cylinder with 3000 psi air expanding to 300 psi, the water spray flow rates can be calculated for various drop sizes and spray characteristics that would be necessary to achieve sufficient heat transfer to maintain an isothermal expansion.
Generally,
Generally, a nozzle size of 0.2 to 2.0 mm is appropriate for high pressure air cylinders (3000 to 300 psi). Flow rates of 0.2 to 1.0 liters/min per nozzle are sufficient in this range to provide medium to complete spray breakup into droplets using mechanically or laser drilled cylindrical nozzle shapes. For example, a spray head with 250 nozzles of 0.9 mm hole diameter operating at 25 gpm is expected to provide over 50 kW of heat transfer to 3000 to 300 psi air expanding (or being compressed) in a 10 gallon cylinder. Pumping power for such a spray heat transfer implementation was determined to be less than 1% of the heat transfer power. Additional specific and exemplary details regarding the heat transfer subsystem utilizing the spray technology are discussed with respect to
Stored compressed gas in pressure vessels, not shown but indicated by 2320, is admitted via valve 2321 into the cylinder 2301 through air port 2305. As the compressed gas expands into the cylinder 2301, hydraulic fluid is forced out under pressure through fluid port 2307 to the remaining hydraulic system (such as a hydraulic motor as described with respect to
As previously discussed, the specific operating parameters of the spray will vary to suit a particular application. For a specific pressure range, spray orientation, and spray characteristics, heat transfer performance can be approximated through modeling. Again, considering an exemplary embodiment using an 8″ diameter, 10 gallon cylinder with 3000 psi air expanding to 300 psi, the water spray flow rates can be calculated for various drop sizes and spray characteristics that would be necessary to achieve sufficient heat transfer to maintain an isothermal expansion.
Generally,
As discussed above with respect to the spray head arrangement, a nozzle size of 0.2 to 2.0 mm is appropriate for high pressure air cylinders (3000 to 300 psi). Flow rates of 0.2 to 1.0 liters/min per nozzle are sufficient in this range to provide medium to complete spray breakup into droplets using mechanically or laser drilled cylindrical nozzle shapes. Additional specific and exemplary details regarding the heat transfer subsystem utilizing the spray technology are discussed with respect to
Generally, for the arrangements shown in
The basic design criteria for the spray heat transfer subsystem is to minimize operational energy used (i.e., parasitic loss), primarily related to liquid spray pumping power, while maximizing thermal transfer. While actual heat transfer performance is determined experimentally, theoretical analysis indicates the areas where maximum heat transfer for a given pumping power and flow rate of water will occur. As heat transfer between the liquid spray and surrounding air is dependent on surface area, the analysis discussed herein utilized the two spray regimes discussed above: 1) water droplet heat transfer and 2) water jet heat transfer.
In Regime 1, the spray breaks up into droplets, providing a larger total surface area. Regime 1 can be considered an upper-bound for surface area, and thus heat transfer, for a given set of other assumptions. In Regime 2, the spray remains in a coherent jet or stream, thus providing much less surface area for a given volume of water. Regime 2 can be considered a lower-bound for surface area and thus heat transfer for a given set of other assumptions.
For Regime 1, where the spray breaks into droplets for a given set of conditions, it can be shown that drop sizes of less than 2 mm can provide sufficient heat transfer performance for an acceptably low flow rate (e.g., <10 GPM ° C./kW), as shown in
As drop size continues to become smaller, eventually the terminal velocity of the drop becomes small enough that the drops fall too slowly to cover the entire cylinder volume (e.g. <100 microns). Thus, for the given set of conditions illustrated here, drop sizes between about 0.1 and 2.0 mm can be considered as preferred for maximizing heat transfer while minimizing pumping power, which increases with increasing flow rate. A similar analysis can be performed for Regime 2, where liquid spray remains in a coherent jet. Higher flow rates and/or narrower diameter jets are needed to provide similar heat transfer performance.
Also illustrated is an optional piston rod 2570 that can be attached to the moveable piston 2504, allowing for position measurement via a displacement transducer 2574 and piston damping via an external cushion 2575, as necessary. The piston rod 2570 moves into and out of the hydraulic side 2503 through a machined hole with a rod seal 2572. The spray head 2560 in this illustration is inset within the end cap 2563 and attached to a heat exchange liquid (e.g., water) port 2571 via, for example, blind retaining fasteners 2573. Other mechanical fastening means are contemplated and within the scope of the invention.
A hollow piston rod 2608 is attached to the moveable piston 2604 and slides over the spray rod 2660 that is fixed to and oriented coaxially with the cylinder 2601. The spray rod 2660 extends through a machined hole 2669 in the piston 2604. The piston 2604 is configured to move freely along the length of the spray rod 2660. As the moveable piston 2604 moves towards end cap 2665, the hollow piston rod 2608 extends out of the cylinder 2601 exposing more of the spray rod 2660, such that the entire pneumatic side 2602 is exposed to heat exchange spray (see, for example,
It should be noted that the heat transfer subsystems discussed above with respect to
The spray heat exchange can occur both as pre-heating prior to expansion or pre-cooling prior to compression in the system when valve 2806 is opened. The heat exchanger 2854 can be any sort of standard heat exchanger design; illustrated here as a tube-in-shell type heat exchanger with high-pressure water inlet and outlet ports 2821a and 2821b and low pressure shell water ports 2822a and 2822b. As liquid to liquid heat exchangers tend to be more efficient than air to liquid heat exchangers, heat exchanger size can be reduced and/or heat transfer may be improved by use of the liquid to liquid heat exchanger. Heat exchange within the pressure vessels 2802 is expedited by active spraying of the liquid (e.g., water) into the pressure vessels 2802.
As shown in
Alternative systems and methods for energy storage and recovery are described with respect to
The systems and methods described with respect to
The basic operation of a compressed-gas energy storage system for use with the cylinder assemblies described with respect to
Generally, the expansion of the gas occurs in multiple stages, using the low- and high-pressure pneumatic cylinders. For example, in the case of two pneumatic cylinders as shown in
The chambers of the hydraulic cylinder being driven by the pneumatic cylinders may be similarly adjusted by valves or other mechanisms to produce pressurized hydraulic fluid during the return stroke. Moreover, check valves or other mechanisms may be arranged so that regardless of which chamber of the hydraulic cylinder is producing pressurized fluid, a hydraulic motor/pump is driven in the same rotation by that fluid. The rotating hydraulic motor/pump and electrical motor/generator in such a system do not reverse their direction of rotation when piston motion reverses, so that with the addition of a short-term-energy-storage device, such as a flywheel, the resulting system can be made to generate electricity continuously (i.e., without interruption during piston reversal).
As shown in
Pressurized gas from the reservoir 2909 drives the piston 2904 of the double-acting high-pressure cylinder 2901. Intermediate-pressure gas from the lower-pressure side 2903 of the high-pressure cylinder 2901 is conveyed through a valve 2912 to the higher-pressure chamber 2915 of the lower-pressure cylinder 2914. Gas is conveyed from the lower-pressure chamber 2916 of the lower-pressure cylinder 2914 through a valve 2917 to a vent 2918. The function of this arrangement is to reduce the range of pressures over which the cylinders jointly operate.
The piston shafts 2920, 2919 of the two cylinders 2901, 2914 act jointly to move the mechanical boundary mechanism 2921 in the direction indicated by the arrow 2922. The mechanical boundary mechanism is also connected to the piston shaft 2923 of the hydraulic cylinder 2924. The piston 2925 of the hydraulic cylinder 2924, impelled by the mechanical boundary mechanism 2921, compresses hydraulic fluid in the chamber 2926. This pressurized hydraulic fluid is conveyed through piping 2927 to an arrangement of check valves 2928 that allow the fluid to flow in one direction (shown by the arrows) through a hydraulic motor/pump, either fixed-displacement or variable-displacement, whose shaft drives an electric motor/generator. For convenience, the combination of hydraulic pump/motor and electric motor/generator is shown as a single hydraulic power unit 2929. Hydraulic fluid at lower pressure is conducted from the output of the hydraulic motor/pump 2929 to the lower-pressure chamber 2930 of the hydraulic cylinder 2924 through a hydraulic circulation port 2931.
Reference is now made to
As shown in
As previously discussed, the efficiency of the various energy storage and recovery systems described herein can be increased by using a heat transfer subsystem. Accordingly, the system 2900 shown in
The system 3000 shown in
In the current state of operation shown, valves 3014a and 3014b permit fluid to flow to hydraulic power unit 3029. Pressurized fluid from both cylinders 3024a, 3024b is conducted via piping 3015 to an arrangement of check valves 3028 and a hydraulic pump/motor connected to a motor/generator, thereby producing electricity. Hydraulic fluid at a lower pressure is conducted from the output of the hydraulic motor/pump to the lower-pressure chambers 3016a, 3016b of the hydraulic cylinders 3024a, 3024b. The fluid in the high-pressure chambers 3026a, 3026b of the two hydraulic cylinders 3024a, 3024b is at a single pressure, and the fluid in the low-pressure chambers 3016a, 3016b is also at a single pressure. In effect, the two cylinders 3024a, 3024b act as a single cylinder whose piston area is the sum of the piston areas of the two cylinders and whose operating pressure, for a given driving force from the pneumatic piston 3001, is proportionately lower than that of either hydraulic cylinder acting alone.
Reference is now made to
Reference is now made to
As in
Reference is now made to
Additional valving could be added to cylinder 3024b such that it could be disabled to provide another effective hydraulic piston area (considering that 3024a and 3024b are not the same diameter cylinders) to somewhat further reduce the hydraulic fluid range for a given pneumatic pressure range. Likewise, additional hydraulic cylinders and valve arrangements could be added to substantially further reduce the hydraulic fluid range for a given pneumatic pressure range.
The operation of the exemplary system 3000 described above, where two or more hydraulic cylinders are driven by a single pneumatic cylinder, is as follows. Assuming that a quantity of high-pressure gas has been introduced into one chamber of that cylinder, as the gas begins to expand, moving the piston, force is communicated by the piston shaft and the mechanical boundary mechanism to the piston shafts of the two hydraulic cylinders. At any point during the expansion phase, the hydraulic pressure will be equal to the force divided by the acting hydraulic piston area. At the beginning of a stroke, when the gas in the pneumatic cylinder has only begun to expand, it is producing a maximum force; this force (ignoring frictional losses) acts on the combined total piston area of the hydraulic cylinders, producing a certain hydraulic output pressure, HPmax.
As the gas in the pneumatic cylinder continues to expand, it exerts a decreasing force. Consequently, the pressure developed in the compression chamber of the active cylinders decreases. At a certain point in the process, the valves and other mechanisms attached to one of the hydraulic cylinders is adjusted so that fluid can flow freely between its two chambers and thus offer no resistance to the motion of the piston (again ignoring frictional losses). The effective piston area driven by the force developed by the pneumatic cylinder thus decreases from the piston area of both hydraulic cylinders to the piston area of one of the hydraulic cylinders. With this decrease of area comes an increase in output hydraulic pressure for a given force. If this switching point is chosen carefully, the hydraulic output pressure immediately after the switch returns to HPmax. For an example where two identical hydraulic cylinders are used, the switching pressure would be at the half pressure point.
As the gas in the pneumatic cylinder continues to expand, the pressure developed by the hydraulic cylinder decreases. As the pneumatic cylinder reaches the end of its stroke, the force developed is at a minimum and so is the hydraulic output pressure, HPmin. For an appropriately chosen ratio of hydraulic cylinder piston areas, the hydraulic pressure range HR=HPmax/HPmin achieved using two hydraulic cylinders will be the square root of the range HR achieved with a single pneumatic cylinder. The proof of this assertion is as follows.
Let a given output hydraulic pressure range HR1 from high pressure HPmax to low pressure HPmin, namely HR1=HPmax/HPmin, be subdivided into two pressure ranges of equal magnitude HR2. The first range is from HPmax down to some intermediate pressure HPI and the second is from HPI down to HPmin. Thus, HR2=HPmax/HPI=HPI/HPmin. From this identity of ratios, HPI=(HPmax/HPmin)1/2. Substituting for HPI in HR2=HPmax/HPI, we obtain HR2=HPmax/(HPmax/HPmin)1/2=(HPmaxHPmin)1/2=HR11/2.
Since HPmax is determined (for a given maximum force developed by the pneumatic cylinder) by the combined piston areas of the two hydraulic cylinders (HA1+HA2), whereas HPI is determined jointly by the choice of when (i.e., at what force level, as force declines) to deactivate the second cylinder and by the area of the single acting cylinder HA1, it is possible to choose the switching force point and HA1 so as to produce the desired intermediate output pressure. It can be similarly shown that with appropriate cylinder sizing and choice of switching points, the addition of a third cylinder/stage will reduce the operating pressure range as the cube root, and so forth. In general, N appropriately sized cylinders can reduce an original operating pressure range HR1 to HR11/N.
In addition, for a system using multiple pneumatic cylinders (i.e., dividing the air expansion into multiple stages), the hydraulic pressure range can be further reduced. For M appropriately sized pneumatic cylinders (i.e., pneumatic air stages) for a given expansion, the original pneumatic operating pressure range PRI of a single stroke can be reduced to PR11/M. Since for a given hydraulic cylinder arrangement the output hydraulic pressure range is directly proportional to the pneumatic operating pressure range for each stroke, simultaneously combining M pneumatic cylinders with N hydraulic cylinders can realize a pressure range reduction to the 1/(N×M) power.
Furthermore, the system 3000 shown in
The system 3100 shown in
In the state of operation shown, the entire smaller bore cylinder 3124b acts as the shaft 3123 of the larger piston 3125a of the larger bore hydraulic cylinder 3124a. The piston 3125a and smaller bore cylinder 3124b (i.e., the shaft of the larger bore hydraulic cylinder 3124a) are moved by the mechanical boundary mechanism 3121 in the direction indicated by the arrow 3122. Compressed hydraulic fluid from the higher-pressure chamber 3126a of the larger bore cylinder 3124a passes through a valve 3120 to an arrangement of check valves 3128 and the hydraulic power unit 3129, thereby producing electricity. Hydraulic fluid at a lower pressure is conducted from the output of the hydraulic motor/pump through valve 3118 to the lower-pressure chamber 3116a of the hydraulic cylinder 3124a. In this state of operation, the piston 3125b of the smaller bore cylinder 3124b remains stationary with respect thereto, and no fluid flows into or out of either of its chambers 3116b, 3126b.
Reference is now made to
Reference is now made to
Additionally, in yet another state of operation of the system 3100, the piston 3125a and the smaller bore hydraulic cylinder 3124b (i.e., the shaft of the larger bore hydraulic cylinder 3124a) have moved as far as they can in the direction indicated in
It should also be clear that the principle of adding cylinders operating at progressively lower pressures in series (pneumatic and/or hydraulic) and in parallel or telescopic fashion (mechanically) could be carried out to two or more cylinders on the pneumatic side, the hydraulic side, or both.
Furthermore, the system 3100 shown in
Having described certain embodiments of the invention, it will be apparent to those of ordinary skill in the art that other embodiments incorporating the concepts disclosed herein may be used without departing from the spirit and scope of the invention. The described embodiments are to be considered in all respects as only illustrative and not restrictive.
This application is a continuation of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/639,703, filed Dec. 16, 2009, which (i) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/421,057, filed Apr. 9, 2009, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/148,691, filed Jan. 30, 2009, and U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/043,630, filed Apr. 9, 2008; (ii) is a continuation-in-part of U.S. patent application Ser. No. 12/481,235, filed Jun. 9, 2009, which claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application No. 61/059,964, filed Jun. 9, 2008; and (iii) claims the benefit of and priority to U.S. Provisional Patent Application Nos. 61/166,448, filed on Apr. 3, 2009; 61/184,166, filed on Jun. 4, 2009; 61/223,564, filed on Jul. 7, 2009; 61/227,222, filed on Jul. 21, 2009; and 61/251,965, filed on Oct. 15, 2009. The entire disclosure of each of these applications is hereby incorporated herein by reference.
This invention was made with government support under IIP-0810590 and IIP-0923633 awarded by the NSF. The government has certain rights in the invention.
| Number | Name | Date | Kind |
|---|---|---|---|
| 114297 | Ivens et al. | May 1871 | A |
| 224081 | Eckart | Feb 1880 | A |
| 233432 | Pitchford | Oct 1880 | A |
| 1353216 | Carlson | Sep 1920 | A |
| 1635524 | Aikman | Jul 1927 | A |
| 2141703 | Bays | Dec 1938 | A |
| 2280100 | SinQleton | Apr 1942 | A |
| 2280845 | Parker | Apr 1942 | A |
| 2404660 | Rouleau | Jul 1946 | A |
| 2420098 | Rouleau | May 1947 | A |
| 2486081 | Weenen | Oct 1949 | A |
| 2539862 | Rushinq | Jan 1951 | A |
| 2628564 | Jacobs | Feb 1953 | A |
| 2632995 | Noe | Mar 1953 | A |
| 2712728 | Lewis et al. | Jul 1955 | A |
| 2813398 | Wilcox | Nov 1957 | A |
| 2829501 | Walls | Apr 1958 | A |
| 2880759 | Wisman | Apr 1959 | A |
| 3041842 | Heinecke | Jul 1962 | A |
| 3100965 | Blackburn | Aug 1963 | A |
| 3236512 | Caslav et al. | Feb 1966 | A |
| 3269121 | Ludwig | Aug 1966 | A |
| 3538340 | LanQ | Nov 1970 | A |
| 3608311 | Roesel, Jr. | Sep 1971 | A |
| 3648458 | McAlister | Mar 1972 | A |
| 3650636 | Eskeli | Mar 1972 | A |
| 3672160 | Kim | Jun 1972 | A |
| 3677008 | Koutz | Jul 1972 | A |
| 3704079 | Berlyn | Nov 1972 | A |
| 3757517 | RiQollot | Sep 1973 | A |
| 3793848 | Eskeli | Feb 1974 | A |
| 3801793 | Goebel | Apr 1974 | A |
| 3803847 | McAlister | Apr 1974 | A |
| 3839863 | Frazier | Oct 1974 | A |
| 3847182 | Greer | Nov 1974 | A |
| 3895493 | Riqollot | Jul 1975 | A |
| 3903696 | Carman | Sep 1975 | A |
| 3935469 | Haydock | Jan 1976 | A |
| 3939356 | Loane | Feb 1976 | A |
| 3942323 | Maillet | Mar 1976 | A |
| 3945207 | Hyatt | Mar 1976 | A |
| 3948049 | Ohms et al. | Apr 1976 | A |
| 3952516 | Lapp | Apr 1976 | A |
| 3952723 | Browning | Apr 1976 | A |
| 3958899 | Coleman, Jr. et al. | May 1976 | A |
| 3986354 | Erb | Oct 1976 | A |
| 3988592 | Porter | Oct 1976 | A |
| 3988897 | Strub | Nov 1976 | A |
| 3990246 | Wilmers | Nov 1976 | A |
| 3991574 | Frazier | Nov 1976 | A |
| 3996741 | HerberQ | Dec 1976 | A |
| 3998049 | McKinley et al. | Dec 1976 | A |
| 3999388 | Nystrom | Dec 1976 | A |
| 4008006 | Bea | Feb 1977 | A |
| 4027993 | Wolff | Jun 1977 | A |
| 4030303 | Kraus et al. | Jun 1977 | A |
| 4031702 | Burnett et al. | Jun 1977 | A |
| 4031704 | Moore et al. | Jun 1977 | A |
| 4041708 | Wolff | Aug 1977 | A |
| 4050246 | Bourquardez | Sep 1977 | A |
| 4055950 | Grossman | Nov 1977 | A |
| 4058979 | Germain | Nov 1977 | A |
| 4075844 | Schiferli | Feb 1978 | A |
| 4089744 | Cahn | May 1978 | A |
| 4094356 | Ash et al. | Jun 1978 | A |
| 4095118 | Ratbun | Jun 1978 | A |
| 4100745 | Gyarmathy et al. | Jul 1978 | A |
| 4104955 | Murphy | Aug 1978 | A |
| 4108077 | Laing | Aug 1978 | A |
| 4109465 | Plen | Aug 1978 | A |
| 4110987 | Cahn et al. | Sep 1978 | A |
| 4112311 | Theyse | Sep 1978 | A |
| 4117342 | Melley, Jr. | Sep 1978 | A |
| 4117696 | Fawcett et al. | Oct 1978 | A |
| 4118637 | Tackett | Oct 1978 | A |
| 4124182 | Loeb | Nov 1978 | A |
| 4126000 | Funk | Nov 1978 | A |
| 4136432 | Melley, Jr. | Jan 1979 | A |
| 4142368 | Mantegani | Mar 1979 | A |
| 4147204 | Pfenninger | Apr 1979 | A |
| 4149092 | Cros | Apr 1979 | A |
| 4150547 | Hobson | Apr 1979 | A |
| 4154292 | Herrick | May 1979 | A |
| 4167372 | Tackett | Sep 1979 | A |
| 4170878 | Jahniq | Oct 1979 | A |
| 4173431 | Smith | Nov 1979 | A |
| 4189925 | Long | Feb 1980 | A |
| 4194889 | Wanner | Mar 1980 | A |
| 4195481 | Gregory | Apr 1980 | A |
| 4197700 | Jahniq | Apr 1980 | A |
| 4197715 | Fawcett et al. | Apr 1980 | A |
| 4201514 | Huetter | May 1980 | A |
| 4204126 | Diggs | May 1980 | A |
| 4206608 | Bell | Jun 1980 | A |
| 4209982 | Pitts | Jul 1980 | A |
| 4220006 | Kindt | Sep 1980 | A |
| 4229143 | Pucher | Oct 1980 | A |
| 4229661 | Mead et al. | Oct 1980 | A |
| 4232253 | Mortelmans | Nov 1980 | A |
| 4237692 | Ahrens et al. | Dec 1980 | A |
| 4242878 | Brinkerhoff | Jan 1981 | A |
| 4246978 | Schulz et al. | Jan 1981 | A |
| 4262735 | Courrege | Apr 1981 | A |
| 4273514 | Shore et al. | Jun 1981 | A |
| 4274010 | Lawson-tancred | Jun 1981 | A |
| 4275310 | Summers et al. | Jun 1981 | A |
| 4281256 | Ahrens | Jul 1981 | A |
| 4293323 | Cohen | Oct 1981 | A |
| 4299198 | Woodhull | Nov 1981 | A |
| 4302684 | Gogins | Nov 1981 | A |
| 4304103 | Hamrick | Dec 1981 | A |
| 4311011 | Lewis | Jan 1982 | A |
| 4316096 | Syverson | Feb 1982 | A |
| 4317439 | Emmerlinq | Mar 1982 | A |
| 4335867 | Bihlmaier | Jun 1982 | A |
| 4340822 | Gregg | Jul 1982 | A |
| 4341072 | Clyne | Jul 1982 | A |
| 4348863 | Taylor et al. | Sep 1982 | A |
| 4353214 | Gardner | Oct 1982 | A |
| 4354420 | Bianchetta | Oct 1982 | A |
| 4355956 | Ringrose et al. | Oct 1982 | A |
| 4358250 | Payne | Nov 1982 | A |
| 4367786 | Hafner et al. | Jan 1983 | A |
| 4368692 | Kita | Jan 1983 | A |
| 4368775 | Ward | Jan 1983 | A |
| 4370559 | Langley, Jr. | Jan 1983 | A |
| 4372114 | Burnham | Feb 1983 | A |
| 4375387 | deFilippi et al. | Mar 1983 | A |
| 4380419 | Morton | Apr 1983 | A |
| 4392062 | Bervig | Jul 1983 | A |
| 4393752 | Meier | Jul 1983 | A |
| 4411136 | Funk | Oct 1983 | A |
| 4416114 | Martini | Nov 1983 | A |
| 4421661 | Claar et al. | Dec 1983 | A |
| 4428711 | Archer | Jan 1984 | A |
| 4435131 | Ruben | Mar 1984 | A |
| 4444011 | Kolin | Apr 1984 | A |
| 4446698 | Benson | May 1984 | A |
| 4447738 | Allison | May 1984 | A |
| 4449372 | Rilett | May 1984 | A |
| 4452046 | Valentin | Jun 1984 | A |
| 4452047 | Hunt et al. | Jun 1984 | A |
| 4454429 | Buonome | Jun 1984 | A |
| 4454720 | Leibowitz | Jun 1984 | A |
| 4455834 | Earle | Jun 1984 | A |
| 4462213 | Lewis | Jul 1984 | A |
| 4474002 | Perry | Oct 1984 | A |
| 4476851 | Brugger et al. | Oct 1984 | A |
| 4478553 | Leibowitz et al. | Oct 1984 | A |
| 4489554 | Otters | Dec 1984 | A |
| 4491739 | Watson | Jan 1985 | A |
| 4492539 | Specht | Jan 1985 | A |
| 4493189 | Slater | Jan 1985 | A |
| 4496847 | Parkings | Jan 1985 | A |
| 4498848 | Petrovsky | Feb 1985 | A |
| 4502284 | Chrisoqhilos | Mar 1985 | A |
| 4503673 | Schachle | Mar 1985 | A |
| 4515516 | Perrine et al. | May 1985 | A |
| 4520840 | Michel | Jun 1985 | A |
| 4525631 | Allison | Jun 1985 | A |
| 4530208 | Sato | Jul 1985 | A |
| 4547209 | Netzer | Oct 1985 | A |
| 4574592 | Eskeli | Mar 1986 | A |
| 4585039 | Hamilton | Apr 1986 | A |
| 4589475 | Jones | May 1986 | A |
| 4593202 | Dickinson | Jun 1986 | A |
| 4619225 | Lowther | Oct 1986 | A |
| 4624623 | Wagner | Nov 1986 | A |
| 4648801 | Wilson | Mar 1987 | A |
| 4651525 | Cestero | Mar 1987 | A |
| 4653986 | Ashton | Mar 1987 | A |
| 4671742 | Gyimesi | Jun 1987 | A |
| 4676068 | Funk | Jun 1987 | A |
| 4679396 | Heggie | Jul 1987 | A |
| 4691524 | Holscher | Sep 1987 | A |
| 4693080 | Van Hooff | Sep 1987 | A |
| 4706456 | Backe | Nov 1987 | A |
| 4707988 | Palmers | Nov 1987 | A |
| 4710100 | Laing et al. | Dec 1987 | A |
| 4735552 | Watson | Apr 1988 | A |
| 4739620 | Pierce | Apr 1988 | A |
| 4745745 | Hagin | May 1988 | A |
| 4760697 | Heggie | Aug 1988 | A |
| 4761118 | Zanarini et al. | Aug 1988 | A |
| 4765142 | Nakhamkin | Aug 1988 | A |
| 4765143 | Crawford et al. | Aug 1988 | A |
| 4767938 | Bervig | Aug 1988 | A |
| 4792700 | Ammons | Dec 1988 | A |
| 4849648 | Longardner | Jul 1989 | A |
| 4870816 | Nakhamkin | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4872307 | Nakhamkin | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4873828 | Lainq et al. | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4873831 | Dehne | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4876992 | Sobotowski | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4877530 | Moses | Oct 1989 | A |
| 4885912 | Nakhamkin | Dec 1989 | A |
| 4886534 | Castan | Dec 1989 | A |
| 4907495 | Sugahara | Mar 1990 | A |
| 4936109 | Longardner | Jun 1990 | A |
| 4942736 | Bronicki | Jul 1990 | A |
| 4947977 | Raymond | Aug 1990 | A |
| 4955195 | Jones et al. | Sep 1990 | A |
| 4984432 | Corey | Jan 1991 | A |
| 5056601 | Grimmer | Oct 1991 | A |
| 5058385 | Everett, Jr. | Oct 1991 | A |
| 5062498 | Tobias | Nov 1991 | A |
| 5107681 | Wolfbauer, III | Apr 1992 | A |
| 5133190 | Abdelmalek | Jul 1992 | A |
| 5138838 | Crosser | Aug 1992 | A |
| 5140170 | Henderson | Aug 1992 | A |
| 5152260 | Erickson et al. | Oct 1992 | A |
| 5161449 | Everett, Jr. | Nov 1992 | A |
| 5169295 | Stoqner et al. | Dec 1992 | A |
| 5182086 | Henderson et al. | Jan 1993 | A |
| 5203168 | Oshina | Apr 1993 | A |
| 5209063 | Shirai et al. | May 1993 | A |
| 5213470 | Lundquist | May 1993 | A |
| 5239833 | Fineblum | Aug 1993 | A |
| 5259345 | Richeson | Nov 1993 | A |
| 5271225 | Adamides | Dec 1993 | A |
| 5279206 | Krantz | Jan 1994 | A |
| 5296799 | Davis | Mar 1994 | A |
| 5309713 | Vassallo | May 1994 | A |
| 5321946 | Abdelmalek | Jun 1994 | A |
| 5327987 | Abdelmalek | Jul 1994 | A |
| 5339633 | Fujii et al. | Aug 1994 | A |
| 5341644 | Nelson | Aug 1994 | A |
| 5344627 | Fujii et al. | Sep 1994 | A |
| 5364611 | Iijima et al. | Nov 1994 | A |
| 5365980 | Deberardinis | Nov 1994 | A |
| 5375417 | Barth | Dec 1994 | A |
| 5379589 | Cohn et al. | Jan 1995 | A |
| 5384489 | Bellac | Jan 1995 | A |
| 5387089 | Stogner et al. | Feb 1995 | A |
| 5394693 | Plyter | Mar 1995 | A |
| 5427194 | Miller | Jun 1995 | A |
| 5436508 | Sorensen | Jul 1995 | A |
| 5448889 | Bronicki | Sep 1995 | A |
| 5454408 | Dibella et al. | Oct 1995 | A |
| 5454426 | Moseley | Oct 1995 | A |
| 5467722 | Meratla | Nov 1995 | A |
| 5477677 | Krnavek | Dec 1995 | A |
| 5491969 | Cohn et al. | Feb 1996 | A |
| 5491977 | Cho | Feb 1996 | A |
| 5524821 | Vie et al. | Jun 1996 | A |
| 5537822 | Shnaid et al. | Jul 1996 | A |
| 5544698 | Paulman | Aug 1996 | A |
| 5557934 | Beach | Sep 1996 | A |
| 5561978 | Buschur | Oct 1996 | A |
| 5562010 | McGuire | Oct 1996 | A |
| 5579640 | Gray, Jr. et al. | Dec 1996 | A |
| 5584664 | Elliott et al. | Dec 1996 | A |
| 5592028 | Pritchard | Jan 1997 | A |
| 5595587 | Steed | Jan 1997 | A |
| 5598736 | Erskine | Feb 1997 | A |
| 5599172 | Mccabe | Feb 1997 | A |
| 5600953 | Oshita et al. | Feb 1997 | A |
| 5616007 | Cohen | Apr 1997 | A |
| 5634340 | Grennan | Jun 1997 | A |
| 5641273 | Moseley | Jun 1997 | A |
| 5674053 | Paul et al. | Oct 1997 | A |
| 5685154 | Bronicki et al. | Nov 1997 | A |
| 5685155 | Brown | Nov 1997 | A |
| 5768893 | Hoshino et al. | Jun 1998 | A |
| 5769610 | Paul et al. | Jun 1998 | A |
| 5771693 | Coney | Jun 1998 | A |
| 5775107 | Sparkman | Jul 1998 | A |
| 5778675 | Nakhamkin | Jul 1998 | A |
| 5794442 | Lisniansky | Aug 1998 | A |
| 5797980 | Fillet | Aug 1998 | A |
| 5819533 | Moonen | Oct 1998 | A |
| 5819635 | Moonen | Oct 1998 | A |
| 5831757 | DiFrancesco | Nov 1998 | A |
| 5832728 | Buck | Nov 1998 | A |
| 5832906 | Douville et al. | Nov 1998 | A |
| 5839270 | Jirnov et al. | Nov 1998 | A |
| 5845479 | Nakhamkin | Dec 1998 | A |
| 5873250 | Lewis | Feb 1999 | A |
| 5901809 | Berkun | May 1999 | A |
| 5924283 | Burke, Jr. | Jul 1999 | A |
| 5934063 | Nakhamkin | Aug 1999 | A |
| 5934076 | Coney | Aug 1999 | A |
| 5937652 | Abdelmalek | Aug 1999 | A |
| 5971027 | Beachley et al. | Oct 1999 | A |
| 6012279 | Hines | Jan 2000 | A |
| 6023105 | Youssef | Feb 2000 | A |
| 6026349 | Heneman | Feb 2000 | A |
| 6029445 | Lech | Feb 2000 | A |
| 6073445 | Johnson | Jun 2000 | A |
| 6073448 | Lozada | Jun 2000 | A |
| 6085520 | Kohno | Jul 2000 | A |
| 6090186 | Spencer | Jul 2000 | A |
| 6119802 | Puett, Jr. | Sep 2000 | A |
| 6132181 | Mccabe | Oct 2000 | A |
| 6145311 | Cyphelly | Nov 2000 | A |
| 6148602 | Demetri | Nov 2000 | A |
| 6153943 | Mistr, Jr. | Nov 2000 | A |
| 6158499 | Rhodes | Dec 2000 | A |
| 6170443 | Hofbauer | Jan 2001 | B1 |
| 6178735 | Frutschi | Jan 2001 | B1 |
| 6179446 | Sarmadi | Jan 2001 | B1 |
| 6188182 | Nickols et al. | Feb 2001 | B1 |
| 6202707 | Woodall et al. | Mar 2001 | B1 |
| 6206660 | Coney et al. | Mar 2001 | B1 |
| 6210131 | Whitehead | Apr 2001 | B1 |
| 6216462 | Gray, Jr. | Apr 2001 | B1 |
| 6225706 | Keller | May 2001 | B1 |
| 6276123 | Chen et al. | Aug 2001 | B1 |
| 6327858 | Negre et al. | Dec 2001 | B1 |
| 6327994 | Labrador | Dec 2001 | B1 |
| 6349543 | Lisniansky | Feb 2002 | B1 |
| RE37603 | Coney | Mar 2002 | E |
| 6352576 | Spencer et al. | Mar 2002 | B1 |
| 6360535 | Fisher | Mar 2002 | B1 |
| 6367570 | Long, III | Apr 2002 | B1 |
| 6372023 | Kiyono et al. | Apr 2002 | B1 |
| 6389814 | Viteri et al. | May 2002 | B2 |
| 6397578 | Tsukamoto | Jun 2002 | B2 |
| 6401458 | Jacobson | Jun 2002 | B2 |
| 6407465 | Peltz et al. | Jun 2002 | B1 |
| 6419462 | Horie et al. | Jul 2002 | B1 |
| 6422016 | Alkhamis | Jul 2002 | B2 |
| 6453659 | Van Liere et al. | Sep 2002 | B1 |
| 6478289 | Trewin | Nov 2002 | B1 |
| 6484498 | Bonar, II | Nov 2002 | B1 |
| 6512966 | Lof | Jan 2003 | B2 |
| 6513326 | Maceda et al. | Feb 2003 | B1 |
| 6516615 | Stockhausen et al. | Feb 2003 | B1 |
| 6516616 | Carver | Feb 2003 | B2 |
| 6554088 | Severinsky et al. | Apr 2003 | B2 |
| 6598392 | Majeres | Jul 2003 | B2 |
| 6598402 | Kataoka et al. | Jul 2003 | B2 |
| 6606860 | McFarland | Aug 2003 | B2 |
| 6612348 | Wiley | Sep 2003 | B1 |
| 6619930 | Jansen et al. | Sep 2003 | B2 |
| 6626212 | Morioka et al. | Sep 2003 | B2 |
| 6629413 | Wendt et al. | Oct 2003 | B1 |
| 6637185 | hatamiva et al. | Oct 2003 | B2 |
| 6652241 | Alder | Nov 2003 | B1 |
| 6652243 | Krasnov | Nov 2003 | B2 |
| 6666024 | Moskal | Dec 2003 | B1 |
| 6670402 | Lee et al. | Dec 2003 | B1 |
| 6672056 | Roth et al. | Jan 2004 | B2 |
| 6675765 | Endoh | Jan 2004 | B2 |
| 6688108 | Van Liere | Feb 2004 | B1 |
| 6698472 | Camacho et al. | Mar 2004 | B2 |
| 6711984 | Tagge et al. | Mar 2004 | B2 |
| 6712166 | Rush et al. | Mar 2004 | B2 |
| 6715514 | Parker, III | Apr 2004 | B2 |
| 6718761 | Merswolke et al. | Apr 2004 | B2 |
| 6739131 | Kershaw | May 2004 | B1 |
| 6739419 | Jain et al. | May 2004 | B2 |
| 6745569 | Gerdes | Jun 2004 | B2 |
| 6745801 | Cohen et al. | Jun 2004 | B1 |
| 6748737 | Lafferty | Jun 2004 | B2 |
| 6762926 | Shiue et al. | Jul 2004 | B1 |
| 6786245 | Eichelberger | Sep 2004 | B1 |
| 6789387 | Brinkman | Sep 2004 | B2 |
| 6789576 | Umetsu et al. | Sep 2004 | B2 |
| 6797039 | Spencer | Sep 2004 | B2 |
| 6815840 | Aldendeshe | Nov 2004 | B1 |
| 6817185 | Coney et al. | Nov 2004 | B2 |
| 6834737 | Bloxham | Dec 2004 | B2 |
| 6840309 | Wilson et al. | Jan 2005 | B2 |
| 6848259 | Kelller-sornig | Feb 2005 | B2 |
| 6857450 | Rupp | Feb 2005 | B2 |
| 6874453 | Coney et al. | Apr 2005 | B2 |
| 6883775 | Coney et al. | Apr 2005 | B2 |
| 6886326 | Holtzapple et al. | May 2005 | B2 |
| 6892802 | Kelly et al. | May 2005 | B2 |
| 6900556 | Provanzana | May 2005 | B2 |
| 6922991 | Polcuch | Aug 2005 | B2 |
| 6925821 | Sienel | Aug 2005 | B2 |
| 6927503 | Enish et al. | Aug 2005 | B2 |
| 6931848 | Maceda et al. | Aug 2005 | B2 |
| 6935096 | Haiun | Aug 2005 | B2 |
| 6938415 | Last | Sep 2005 | B2 |
| 6938654 | Gershtein et al. | Sep 2005 | B2 |
| 6946017 | Leppin et al. | Sep 2005 | B2 |
| 6948328 | Kidwell | Sep 2005 | B2 |
| 6952058 | Mccoin | Oct 2005 | B2 |
| 6959546 | Corcoran | Nov 2005 | B2 |
| 6963802 | Enis | Nov 2005 | B2 |
| 6964165 | Uhl et al. | Nov 2005 | B2 |
| 6964176 | Kidwell | Nov 2005 | B2 |
| 6974307 | Antoune et al. | Dec 2005 | B2 |
| 7000389 | Lewellin | Feb 2006 | B2 |
| 7007474 | Ochs et al. | Mar 2006 | B1 |
| 7017690 | Burke | Mar 2006 | B2 |
| 7028934 | Burynski, Jr. | Apr 2006 | B2 |
| 7040083 | Horii et al. | May 2006 | B2 |
| 7040108 | Flammang | May 2006 | B1 |
| 7040859 | Kane | May 2006 | B2 |
| 7043920 | Viteri et al. | May 2006 | B2 |
| 7047744 | Robertson et al. | May 2006 | B1 |
| 7055325 | Wolken | Jun 2006 | B2 |
| 7067937 | Enish et al. | Jun 2006 | B2 |
| 7075189 | Heronemus | Jul 2006 | B2 |
| RE39249 | Link, Jr. | Aug 2006 | E |
| 7084520 | Zambrano | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 7086231 | Pinkerton | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 7093450 | Jimenez Haertel et al. | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 7093626 | Li et al. | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 7098552 | Mccoin | Aug 2006 | B2 |
| 7107766 | Zacche′ et al. | Sep 2006 | B2 |
| 7107767 | Frazer et al. | Sep 2006 | B2 |
| 7116006 | Mccoin | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7124576 | Cherney et al. | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7124586 | Neqre et al. | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7127887 | Nakamura et al. | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7127895 | Pinkerton et al. | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7128777 | Spencer | Oct 2006 | B2 |
| 7134279 | White | Nov 2006 | B2 |
| 7155912 | Enis et al. | Jan 2007 | B2 |
| 7168928 | West | Jan 2007 | B1 |
| 7168929 | Sieqel et al. | Jan 2007 | B2 |
| 7169489 | Redmond | Jan 2007 | B2 |
| 7177751 | Froloff | Feb 2007 | B2 |
| 7178337 | Pflanz | Feb 2007 | B2 |
| 7191603 | Taube | Mar 2007 | B2 |
| 7197871 | Yoshino | Apr 2007 | B2 |
| 7201095 | Hughey | Apr 2007 | B2 |
| 7218009 | Hendrickson et al. | May 2007 | B2 |
| 7219779 | Bauer et al. | May 2007 | B2 |
| 7225762 | Mahlanen | Jun 2007 | B2 |
| 7228690 | Barker | Jun 2007 | B2 |
| 7230348 | Poole | Jun 2007 | B2 |
| 7231998 | Schechter | Jun 2007 | B1 |
| 7240812 | Kamikozuru | Jul 2007 | B2 |
| 7249617 | Musselman et al. | Jul 2007 | B2 |
| 7254944 | Goetzinger et al. | Aug 2007 | B1 |
| 7273122 | Rose | Sep 2007 | B2 |
| 7281371 | Heidenreich | Oct 2007 | B1 |
| 7308361 | Enis et al. | Dec 2007 | B2 |
| 7317261 | Rolt | Jan 2008 | B2 |
| 7322377 | Baltes | Jan 2008 | B2 |
| 7325401 | Kesseli et al. | Feb 2008 | B1 |
| 7328575 | Hedman | Feb 2008 | B2 |
| 7329099 | Hartman | Feb 2008 | B2 |
| 7347049 | Rajendran et al. | Mar 2008 | B2 |
| 7353786 | Scuderi et al. | Apr 2008 | B2 |
| 7353845 | Underwood et al. | Apr 2008 | B2 |
| 7354252 | Baatrup et al. | Apr 2008 | B2 |
| 7364410 | Link, Jr. | Apr 2008 | B2 |
| 7392871 | Severinsky et al. | Jul 2008 | B2 |
| 7406828 | Nakhamkin | Aug 2008 | B1 |
| 7407501 | Zvuloni | Aug 2008 | B2 |
| 7415835 | Cowans et al. | Aug 2008 | B2 |
| 7415995 | Plummer et al. | Aug 2008 | B2 |
| 7417331 | De La Torre et al. | Aug 2008 | B2 |
| 7418820 | Harvey et al. | Sep 2008 | B2 |
| 7436086 | Mcclintic | Oct 2008 | B2 |
| 7441399 | Utamura | Oct 2008 | B2 |
| 7448213 | Mitani | Nov 2008 | B2 |
| 7453164 | Borden et al. | Nov 2008 | B2 |
| 7469527 | Neqre et al. | Dec 2008 | B2 |
| 7471010 | Fingersh | Dec 2008 | B1 |
| 7481337 | Luharuka et al. | Jan 2009 | B2 |
| 7488159 | Bhatt et al. | Feb 2009 | B2 |
| 7527483 | Glauber | May 2009 | B1 |
| 7579700 | Meller | Aug 2009 | B1 |
| 7603970 | Scuderi et al. | Oct 2009 | B2 |
| 7607503 | Schechter | Oct 2009 | B1 |
| 7693402 | Hudson et al. | Apr 2010 | B2 |
| 7694514 | Smith et al. | Apr 2010 | B2 |
| 7802426 | Bollinger | Sep 2010 | B2 |
| 7827787 | Cherney et al. | Nov 2010 | B2 |
| 7832207 | McBride et al. | Nov 2010 | B2 |
| 7843076 | Gogoana et al. | Nov 2010 | B2 |
| 7874155 | McBride et al. | Jan 2011 | B2 |
| 7900444 | McBride et al. | Mar 2011 | B1 |
| 7958731 | McBride et al. | Jun 2011 | B2 |
| 7963110 | McBride et al. | Jun 2011 | B2 |
| 8037678 | McBride et al. | Oct 2011 | B2 |
| 8046990 | Bollinger et al. | Nov 2011 | B2 |
| 8104274 | McBride et al. | Jan 2012 | B2 |
| 8109085 | McBride et al. | Feb 2012 | B2 |
| 8117842 | McBride et al. | Feb 2012 | B2 |
| 8122718 | McBride et al. | Feb 2012 | B2 |
| 8171728 | Bollinger et al. | May 2012 | B2 |
| 8191362 | McBride et al. | Jun 2012 | B2 |
| 8225606 | McBride et al. | Jul 2012 | B2 |
| 8234862 | McBride et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8234863 | McBride et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8234868 | Bollinger et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8240140 | McBride et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8240146 | Bollinger | Aug 2012 | B1 |
| 8245508 | Bollinger et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8250863 | Bollinger et al. | Aug 2012 | B2 |
| 8272212 | Blieske | Sep 2012 | B2 |
| 8359856 | McBride et al. | Jan 2013 | B2 |
| 20010045093 | Jacobson | Nov 2001 | A1 |
| 20030131599 | Gerdes | Jul 2003 | A1 |
| 20030145589 | Tillyer | Aug 2003 | A1 |
| 20030177767 | Keller-sornig et al. | Sep 2003 | A1 |
| 20030180155 | Coney et al. | Sep 2003 | A1 |
| 20040050042 | Frazer | Mar 2004 | A1 |
| 20040050049 | Wendt et al. | Mar 2004 | A1 |
| 20040146406 | Last | Jul 2004 | A1 |
| 20040146408 | Anderson | Jul 2004 | A1 |
| 20040148934 | Pinkerton et al. | Aug 2004 | A1 |
| 20040211182 | Gould | Oct 2004 | A1 |
| 20040244580 | Coney et al. | Dec 2004 | A1 |
| 20040261415 | Negre et al. | Dec 2004 | A1 |
| 20050016165 | Enis et al. | Jan 2005 | A1 |
| 20050028529 | Bartlett et al. | Feb 2005 | A1 |
| 20050047930 | Schmid | Mar 2005 | A1 |
| 20050072154 | Frutschi | Apr 2005 | A1 |
| 20050115234 | Asano et al. | Jun 2005 | A1 |
| 20050155347 | Lewellin | Jul 2005 | A1 |
| 20050166592 | Larson et al. | Aug 2005 | A1 |
| 20050274334 | Warren | Dec 2005 | A1 |
| 20050275225 | Bertolotti | Dec 2005 | A1 |
| 20050279086 | Hoos | Dec 2005 | A1 |
| 20050279292 | Hudson et al. | Dec 2005 | A1 |
| 20050279296 | Coney et al. | Dec 2005 | A1 |
| 20060055175 | Grinblat | Mar 2006 | A1 |
| 20060059912 | Romanelli et al. | Mar 2006 | A1 |
| 20060059936 | Radke et al. | Mar 2006 | A1 |
| 20060059937 | Perkins et al. | Mar 2006 | A1 |
| 20060075749 | Cherney et al. | Apr 2006 | A1 |
| 20060090467 | Crow | May 2006 | A1 |
| 20060090477 | Rolff | May 2006 | A1 |
| 20060107664 | Hudson et al. | May 2006 | A1 |
| 20060162543 | Abe et al. | Jul 2006 | A1 |
| 20060162910 | Kelly et al. | Jul 2006 | A1 |
| 20060175337 | Defosset | Aug 2006 | A1 |
| 20060201148 | Zabtcioqlu | Sep 2006 | A1 |
| 20060218924 | Mitani | Oct 2006 | A1 |
| 20060248886 | Ma | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060248892 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060254281 | Badeer et al. | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060260311 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060260312 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060262465 | Wiederhold | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060266034 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060266035 | Ingersoll et al. | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060266036 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060266037 | Ingersoll | Nov 2006 | A1 |
| 20060280993 | Keefer et al. | Dec 2006 | A1 |
| 20060283967 | Cho et al. | Dec 2006 | A1 |
| 20070006586 | Hoffman et al. | Jan 2007 | A1 |
| 20070022754 | Perkins et al. | Feb 2007 | A1 |
| 20070022755 | Pinkerton et al. | Feb 2007 | A1 |
| 20070062194 | Ingersoll | Mar 2007 | A1 |
| 20070074533 | Hugenroth et al. | Apr 2007 | A1 |
| 20070095069 | Joshi et al. | May 2007 | A1 |
| 20070113803 | Froloff et al. | May 2007 | A1 |
| 20070116572 | Barbu et al. | May 2007 | A1 |
| 20070137595 | Greenwell | Jun 2007 | A1 |
| 20070151528 | Hedman | Jul 2007 | A1 |
| 20070158946 | Annen et al. | Jul 2007 | A1 |
| 20070181199 | Weber | Aug 2007 | A1 |
| 20070182160 | Enis et al. | Aug 2007 | A1 |
| 20070205298 | Harrison et al. | Sep 2007 | A1 |
| 20070234749 | Enis et al. | Oct 2007 | A1 |
| 20070243066 | Baron | Oct 2007 | A1 |
| 20070245735 | Ashikian | Oct 2007 | A1 |
| 20070258834 | Froloff et al. | Nov 2007 | A1 |
| 20080000436 | Goldman | Jan 2008 | A1 |
| 20080016868 | Ochs et al. | Jan 2008 | A1 |
| 20080047272 | Schoell | Feb 2008 | A1 |
| 20080050234 | Ingersoll et al. | Feb 2008 | A1 |
| 20080072870 | Chomyszak et al. | Mar 2008 | A1 |
| 20080087165 | Wright et al. | Apr 2008 | A1 |
| 20080104939 | Hoffmann et al. | May 2008 | A1 |
| 20080112807 | Uphues et al. | May 2008 | A1 |
| 20080127632 | Finkenrath et al. | Jun 2008 | A1 |
| 20080138265 | Lackner et al. | Jun 2008 | A1 |
| 20080155975 | Brinkman | Jul 2008 | A1 |
| 20080155976 | Smith et al. | Jul 2008 | A1 |
| 20080157528 | Wang et al. | Jul 2008 | A1 |
| 20080157537 | Richard | Jul 2008 | A1 |
| 20080164449 | Gray et al. | Jul 2008 | A1 |
| 20080185194 | Leone | Aug 2008 | A1 |
| 20080202120 | Karyambas | Aug 2008 | A1 |
| 20080211230 | Gurin | Sep 2008 | A1 |
| 20080228323 | Laumer et al. | Sep 2008 | A1 |
| 20080233029 | Fan et al. | Sep 2008 | A1 |
| 20080238105 | Ortiz et al. | Oct 2008 | A1 |
| 20080238187 | Garnett et al. | Oct 2008 | A1 |
| 20080250788 | Nuel et al. | Oct 2008 | A1 |
| 20080251302 | Lynn et al. | Oct 2008 | A1 |
| 20080272597 | Althaus | Nov 2008 | A1 |
| 20080272598 | Nakhamkin | Nov 2008 | A1 |
| 20080272605 | Borden et al. | Nov 2008 | A1 |
| 20080308168 | O'Brien, II et al. | Dec 2008 | A1 |
| 20080308270 | Wilson | Dec 2008 | A1 |
| 20080315589 | Malmrup | Dec 2008 | A1 |
| 20090000290 | Brinkman | Jan 2009 | A1 |
| 20090007558 | Hall | Jan 2009 | A1 |
| 20090010772 | Siemroth | Jan 2009 | A1 |
| 20090021012 | Stull et al. | Jan 2009 | A1 |
| 20090056331 | Zhao et al. | Mar 2009 | A1 |
| 20090071153 | Boyapati et al. | Mar 2009 | A1 |
| 20090107784 | Gabriel et al. | Apr 2009 | A1 |
| 20090145130 | Kaufman | Jun 2009 | A1 |
| 20090158740 | Littau et al. | Jun 2009 | A1 |
| 20090178409 | Shinnar | Jul 2009 | A1 |
| 20090200805 | Kim et al. | Aug 2009 | A1 |
| 20090220364 | Rigal et al. | Sep 2009 | A1 |
| 20090229902 | Stansbury, III | Sep 2009 | A1 |
| 20090249826 | Hugelman | Oct 2009 | A1 |
| 20090282822 | McBride et al. | Nov 2009 | A1 |
| 20090282840 | Chen et al. | Nov 2009 | A1 |
| 20090294096 | Mills et al. | Dec 2009 | A1 |
| 20090301089 | Bollinger | Dec 2009 | A1 |
| 20090317267 | Gill et al. | Dec 2009 | A1 |
| 20090322090 | Wolf | Dec 2009 | A1 |
| 20100018196 | Li et al. | Jan 2010 | A1 |
| 20100077765 | Japikse | Apr 2010 | A1 |
| 20100089063 | McBride et al. | Apr 2010 | A1 |
| 20100133903 | Rufer | Jun 2010 | A1 |
| 20100139277 | McBride et al. | Jun 2010 | A1 |
| 20100193270 | Deshaies et al. | Aug 2010 | A1 |
| 20100199652 | Lemofouet et al. | Aug 2010 | A1 |
| 20100205960 | McBride et al. | Aug 2010 | A1 |
| 20100229544 | Bollinger et al. | Sep 2010 | A1 |
| 20100257862 | Howes et al. | Oct 2010 | A1 |
| 20100307156 | Bollinger | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326062 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326064 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326066 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326068 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326069 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100326075 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100329891 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100329903 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20100329909 | Fong et al. | Dec 2010 | A1 |
| 20110023488 | Fong et al. | Feb 2011 | A1 |
| 20110023977 | Fong et al. | Feb 2011 | A1 |
| 20110030359 | Fong et al. | Feb 2011 | A1 |
| 20110030552 | Fong et al. | Feb 2011 | A1 |
| 20110056193 | McBride et al. | Mar 2011 | A1 |
| 20110056368 | McBride et al. | Mar 2011 | A1 |
| 20110061741 | Ingersoll et al. | Mar 2011 | A1 |
| 20110061836 | Ingersoll et al. | Mar 2011 | A1 |
| 20110062166 | Ingersoll et al. | Mar 2011 | A1 |
| 20110106321 | Cherian et al. | May 2011 | A1 |
| 20110107755 | McBride et al. | May 2011 | A1 |
| 20110115223 | Stahlkopf et al. | May 2011 | A1 |
| 20110131966 | McBride et al. | Jun 2011 | A1 |
| 20110138797 | Bollinger et al. | Jun 2011 | A1 |
| 20110167813 | McBride et al. | Jul 2011 | A1 |
| 20110204064 | Crane et al. | Aug 2011 | A1 |
| 20110219760 | McBride et al. | Sep 2011 | A1 |
| 20110219763 | McBride et al. | Sep 2011 | A1 |
| 20110232281 | McBride et al. | Sep 2011 | A1 |
| 20110233934 | Crane et al. | Sep 2011 | A1 |
| 20110252777 | Bollinger et al. | Oct 2011 | A1 |
| 20110258996 | Ingersoll et al. | Oct 2011 | A1 |
| 20110258999 | Ingersoll et al. | Oct 2011 | A1 |
| 20110259001 | McBride et al. | Oct 2011 | A1 |
| 20110259442 | McBride et al. | Oct 2011 | A1 |
| 20110266810 | McBride et al. | Nov 2011 | A1 |
| 20110283690 | McBride et al. | Nov 2011 | A1 |
| 20110296822 | Bollinger et al. | Dec 2011 | A1 |
| 20110296823 | McBride et al. | Dec 2011 | A1 |
| 20110314800 | Fong et al. | Dec 2011 | A1 |
| 20110314804 | Fong et al. | Dec 2011 | A1 |
| 20110314810 | McBride et al. | Dec 2011 | A1 |
| 20120000557 | McBride et al. | Jan 2012 | A1 |
| 20120006013 | McBride et al. | Jan 2012 | A1 |
| 20120017580 | Fong et al. | Jan 2012 | A1 |
| 20120019009 | Fong et al. | Jan 2012 | A1 |
| 20120023919 | Fong et al. | Feb 2012 | A1 |
| 20120036851 | McBride et al. | Feb 2012 | A1 |
| 20120042772 | Fong et al. | Feb 2012 | A1 |
| 20120047884 | McBride et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120055147 | Fong et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120057996 | Fong et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120057998 | Ingersoll et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120067036 | Fong et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120073432 | Ingersoll et al. | Mar 2012 | A1 |
| 20120085086 | Bollinger et al. | Apr 2012 | A1 |
| 20120090314 | Fong et al. | Apr 2012 | A1 |
| 20120096845 | Ingersoll et al. | Apr 2012 | A1 |
| 20120102935 | Ingersoll et al. | May 2012 | A1 |
| 20120102954 | Ingersoll et al. | May 2012 | A1 |
| 20120118137 | Fong et al. | May 2012 | A1 |
| 20120119513 | McBride et al. | May 2012 | A1 |
| 20120119514 | Crane et al. | May 2012 | A1 |
| 20120137668 | McBride et al. | Jun 2012 | A1 |
| 20120174569 | Ingersoll et al. | Jul 2012 | A1 |
| 20120197683 | Marcus | Aug 2012 | A1 |
| 20120210705 | McBride et al. | Aug 2012 | A1 |
| 20120222424 | Ingersoll et al. | Sep 2012 | A1 |
| 20120255292 | Fong et al. | Oct 2012 | A1 |
| 20120260645 | Fong et al. | Oct 2012 | A1 |
| 20120269651 | Fong et al. | Oct 2012 | A1 |
| 20120279209 | McBride et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120285154 | Bollinger et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120286522 | Stahlkopf et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120291989 | Fong et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120297772 | McBride et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120297776 | Bollinger et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20120299310 | McBride et al. | Nov 2012 | A1 |
| 20130001958 | Crane et al. | Jan 2013 | A1 |
| 20130009408 | Crane et al. | Jan 2013 | A1 |
| 20130032743 | Fong et al. | Feb 2013 | A1 |
| 20130047597 | Fong et al. | Feb 2013 | A1 |
| 20130074485 | McBride et al. | Mar 2013 | A1 |
| 20130074488 | McBride et al. | Mar 2013 | A1 |
| 20130074940 | McBride et al. | Mar 2013 | A1 |
| 20130074941 | McBride et al. | Mar 2013 | A1 |
| 20130074949 | McBride et al. | Mar 2013 | A1 |
| Number | Date | Country |
|---|---|---|
| 898225 | Mar 1984 | BE |
| 1008885 | Aug 1996 | BE |
| 1061262 | May 1992 | CN |
| 1171490 | Jan 1998 | CN |
| 1276308 | Dec 2000 | CN |
| 1277323 | Dec 2000 | CN |
| 1412443 | Apr 2003 | CN |
| 1743665 | Mar 2006 | CN |
| 2821162 | Sep 2006 | CN |
| 2828319 | Oct 2006 | CN |
| 2828368 | Oct 2006 | CN |
| 1884822 | Dec 2006 | CN |
| 1888328 | Jan 2007 | CN |
| 1967091 | May 2007 | CN |
| 101033731 | Sep 2007 | CN |
| 101042115 | Sep 2007 | CN |
| 101070822 | Nov 2007 | CN |
| 101149002 | Mar 2008 | CN |
| 101162073 | Apr 2008 | CN |
| 201103518 | Aug 2008 | CN |
| 201106527 | Aug 2008 | CN |
| 101289963 | Oct 2008 | CN |
| 201125855 | Oct 2008 | CN |
| 101377190 | Apr 2009 | CN |
| 101408213 | Apr 2009 | CN |
| 101435451 | May 2009 | CN |
| 25 38 870 | Jun 1977 | DE |
| 19530253 | Nov 1996 | DE |
| 19903907 | Aug 2000 | DE |
| 19911534 | Sep 2000 | DE |
| 10042020 | May 2001 | DE |
| 20118183 | Mar 2003 | DE |
| 20120330 | Apr 2003 | DE |
| 10147940 | May 2003 | DE |
| 10205733 | Aug 2003 | DE |
| 10212480 | Oct 2003 | DE |
| 20312293 | Dec 2003 | DE |
| 10220499 | Apr 2004 | DE |
| 10334637 | Feb 2005 | DE |
| 10 2005 047622 | Apr 2007 | DE |
| 0204748 | Mar 1981 | EP |
| 0091801 | Oct 1983 | EP |
| 0097002 | Dec 1983 | EP |
| 0196690 | Oct 1986 | EP |
| 0212692 | Mar 1987 | EP |
| 0364106 | Apr 1990 | EP |
| 0507395 | Oct 1992 | EP |
| 0821162 | Jan 1998 | EP |
| 0 857 877 | Aug 1998 | EP |
| 1 388 442 | Feb 2004 | EP |
| 1405662 | Apr 2004 | EP |
| 1657452 | Nov 2004 | EP |
| 1726350 | Nov 2006 | EP |
| 1741899 | Jan 2007 | EP |
| 1 780 058 | May 2007 | EP |
| 1988294 | Nov 2008 | EP |
| 2014896 | Jan 2009 | EP |
| 2078857 | Jul 2009 | EP |
| 2449805 | Sep 1980 | FR |
| 2816993 | May 2002 | FR |
| 2829805 | Mar 2003 | FR |
| 722524 | Nov 1951 | GB |
| 772703 | Apr 1957 | GB |
| 1449076 | Sep 1976 | GB |
| 1479940 | Jul 1977 | GB |
| 2106992 | Apr 1983 | GB |
| 2223810 | Apr 1990 | GB |
| 2 300 673 | Nov 1996 | GB |
| 2373546 | Sep 2002 | GB |
| 2403356 | Dec 2004 | GB |
| 57010778 | Jan 1982 | JP |
| 57070970 | May 1982 | JP |
| 57120058 | Jul 1982 | JP |
| 58183880 | Oct 1982 | JP |
| 58150079 | Sep 1983 | JP |
| 58192976 | Nov 1983 | JP |
| 60206985 | Oct 1985 | JP |
| 62101900 | May 1987 | JP |
| 63227973 | Sep 1988 | JP |
| 2075674 | Mar 1990 | JP |
| 2247469 | Oct 1990 | JP |
| 3009090 | Jan 1991 | JP |
| 3281984 | Dec 1991 | JP |
| 4121424 | Apr 1992 | JP |
| 6185450 | Jul 1994 | JP |
| 8145488 | Jun 1996 | JP |
| 9166079 | Jun 1997 | JP |
| 10313547 | Nov 1998 | JP |
| 2000-346093 | Jun 1999 | JP |
| 11351125 | Dec 1999 | JP |
| 2000166128 | Jun 2000 | JP |
| 2000346093 | Dec 2000 | JP |
| 2002127902 | May 2002 | JP |
| 2003083230 | Mar 2003 | JP |
| 2005023918 | Jan 2005 | JP |
| 2005036769 | Feb 2005 | JP |
| 2005068963 | Mar 2005 | JP |
| 2006220252 | Aug 2006 | JP |
| 2007001872 | Jan 2007 | JP |
| 2007145251 | Jun 2007 | JP |
| 2007211730 | Aug 2007 | JP |
| 2008038658 | Feb 2008 | JP |
| 840000180 | Feb 1984 | KR |
| 2004004637 | Jan 2004 | KR |
| 2101562 | Jan 1998 | RU |
| 2169857 | Jun 2001 | RU |
| 2213255 | Sep 2003 | RU |
| 800438 | Jan 1981 | SU |
| 69030 | Aug 2004 | UA |
| WO-8200319 | Feb 1982 | WO |
| WO-8802818 | Apr 1988 | WO |
| WO-9222741 | Dec 1992 | WO |
| WO-9306367 | Apr 1993 | WO |
| WO-9311363 | Jun 1993 | WO |
| WO-9324754 | Dec 1993 | WO |
| WO 9412785 | Jun 1994 | WO |
| WO-9525381 | Sep 1995 | WO |
| WO-9601942 | Jan 1996 | WO |
| WO-9622456 | Jul 1996 | WO |
| WO-9634213 | Oct 1996 | WO |
| WO-9701029 | Jan 1997 | WO |
| WO-9717546 | May 1997 | WO |
| WO-9802818 | Jan 1998 | WO |
| WO-9817492 | Apr 1998 | WO |
| WO-9941498 | Aug 1999 | WO |
| WO-0001945 | Jan 2000 | WO |
| WO-0037800 | Jun 2000 | WO |
| WO-0065212 | Nov 2000 | WO |
| WO-0068578 | Nov 2000 | WO |
| WO-0175308 | Oct 2001 | WO |
| WO 0175290 | Oct 2001 | WO |
| WO-0225083 | Mar 2002 | WO |
| WO-0246621 | Jun 2002 | WO |
| WO-02103200 | Dec 2002 | WO |
| WO-03021107 | Mar 2003 | WO |
| WO-03021702 | Mar 2003 | WO |
| WO-03078812 | Sep 2003 | WO |
| WO-03081011 | Oct 2003 | WO |
| WO-2004037391 | May 2004 | WO |
| WO-2004059155 | Jul 2004 | WO |
| WO-2004072452 | Aug 2004 | WO |
| WO-2004074679 | Sep 2004 | WO |
| WO-2004109172 | Dec 2004 | WO |
| WO-2005044424 | May 2005 | WO |
| WO-2005062969 | Jul 2005 | WO |
| WO-2005067373 | Jul 2005 | WO |
| WO-2005079461 | Sep 2005 | WO |
| WO-2005088131 | Sep 2005 | WO |
| WO-2005095155 | Oct 2005 | WO |
| WO-2006029633 | Mar 2006 | WO |
| WO-2006058085 | Jun 2006 | WO |
| WO-2006124006 | Nov 2006 | WO |
| WO-2007002094 | Jan 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007003954 | Jan 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007012143 | Feb 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007035997 | Apr 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007051034 | May 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007066117 | Jun 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007086792 | Aug 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007089872 | Aug 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007096656 | Aug 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007111839 | Oct 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007136765 | Nov 2007 | WO |
| WO-2007140914 | Dec 2007 | WO |
| WO-2008003950 | Jan 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008014769 | Feb 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008023901 | Feb 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008027259 | Mar 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008028881 | Mar 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008039725 | Apr 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008045468 | Apr 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008045468 | Apr 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008051427 | May 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008074075 | Jun 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008084507 | Jul 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008091373 | Jul 2008 | WO |
| WO 2008102292 | Aug 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008106967 | Sep 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008108870 | Sep 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008109006 | Sep 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008110018 | Sep 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008115479 | Sep 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008121378 | Oct 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008139267 | Nov 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008152432 | Dec 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008153591 | Dec 2008 | WO |
| WO-2008157327 | Dec 2008 | WO |
| WO-2009034548 | Mar 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009038973 | Mar 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009034421 | Mar 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009045110 | Apr 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009044139 | Apr 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009114205 | Sep 2009 | WO |
| WO-2009126784 | Oct 2009 | WO |
| WO-2010006319 | Jan 2010 | WO |
| WO-2010009053 | Jan 2010 | WO |
| WO-2010040890 | Apr 2010 | WO |
| WO-2010105155 | Sep 2010 | WO |
| WO-2010135658 | Nov 2010 | WO |
| WO-2011008321 | Jan 2011 | WO |
| WO-2011008325 | Jan 2011 | WO |
| WO-2011008500 | Jan 2011 | WO |
| WO-2011079267 | Jun 2011 | WO |
| WO-2011079271 | Jun 2011 | WO |
| Entry |
|---|
| “Hydraulic Transformer Supplies Continuous High Pressure,” Machine Design, Penton Media, vol. 64, No. 17, (Aug. 1992), 1 page. |
| Lemofouet, “Investigation and Optimisation of Hybrid Electricity Storage Systems Based on Compressed Air and Supercapacitors,” (Oct. 20, 2006), 250 pages. |
| Cyphelly et al., “Usage of Compressed Air Storage Systems,” BFE-Program “Electricity,” Final Report, May 2004, 14 pages. |
| Lemofouet et al., “A Hybrid Energy Storage System Based on Compressed Air and Supercapacitors with Maximum Efficiency Point Tracking (MEPT),” IEEE Transactions on Industrial Electron, vol. 53, No. 4, (Aug. 2006) pp. 1105-1115. |
| International Search Report and Written Opinion issued Sep. 15, 2009 for International Application No. PCT/US2009/040027, 8 pages. |
| International Search Report and Written Opinion issued Aug. 30, 2010 for International Application No. PCT/US2010/029795, 9 pages. |
| International Search Report and Written Opinion issued Dec. 3, 2009 for International Application No. PCT/US2009/046725, 9 pages. |
| International Search Report and Written Opinion issued Jan. 4, 2011 for International Application No. PCT/US2010/055279, 13 pages. |
| International Search Report and Written Opinion mailed May 25, 2011 for International Application No. PCT/US2010/027138, 12 pages. |
| Rufer et al., “Energetic Performance of a Hybrid Energy Storage System Based on Compressed Air and Super Capacitors,” Power Electronics, Electrical Drives, Automation and Motion, (May 1, 2006), pp. 469-474. |
| Lemofouet et al. “Hybrid Energy Storage Systems based on Compressed Air and Supercapacitors with Maximum Efficiency Point Tracking,” Industrial Electronics Laboratory (LEI), (2005), pp. 1-10. |
| Lemofouet et al. “Hybrid Energy Storage Systems based on Compressed Air and Supercapacitors with Maximum Efficiency Point Tracking,” The International Power Electronics Conference, (2005), pp. 461-468. |
| International Preliminary Report on Patentability mailed Oct. 13, 2011 for International Application No. PCT/US2010/029795 (9 pages). |
| Stephenson et al., “Computer Modelling of Isothermal Compression in the Reciprocating Compressor of a Complete Isoengine,” 9th International Conference on Liquid Atomization and Spray Systems (Jul. 13-17, 2003). |
| Coney et al., “Development of a Reciprocating Compressor Using Water Injection to Achieve Quasi-Isothermal Compression,” Purdue University International Compressor Engineering Conference (2002). |
| Linnemann et al., “The Isoengine—A Novel High Efficiency Engine with Optional Compressed Air Energy Storage (CAES),” International Joint Power Generation Conference (Jun. 16-19, 2003). |
| Linnemann et al., “The Isoengine: Realisation of a High-Efficiency Power Cycle Based on Isothermal Compression,” Int. J. Energy Tech. and Policy, vol. 3, Nos. 1-2, pp. 66-84 (2005). |
| Winterburn et al., “Mechanisms of Ultrasound Foam Interactions,” Asia-Pac. J. Chem. Eng., vol. 4, pp. 184-190 (2009). |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 20120299310 A1 | Nov 2012 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| 61148691 | Jan 2009 | US | |
| 61043630 | Apr 2008 | US | |
| 61059964 | Jun 2008 | US | |
| 61166448 | Apr 2009 | US | |
| 61184166 | Jun 2009 | US | |
| 61223564 | Jul 2009 | US | |
| 61227222 | Jul 2009 | US | |
| 61251965 | Oct 2009 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 12639703 | Dec 2009 | US |
| Child | 13532474 | US |
| Number | Date | Country | |
|---|---|---|---|
| Parent | 12421057 | Apr 2009 | US |
| Child | 12639703 | US | |
| Parent | 12481235 | Jun 2009 | US |
| Child | 12639703 | US |
